Hydropower - Knowledge (XXG)

2054: 2789:, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign. These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI. 1633: 2006:

enough to power a remote sensor." Villazon suggested a better application would be to collect the water from fallen rain and use it to drive a turbine, with an estimated energy generation of 3 kWh of energy per year for a 185 m roof. A microturbine-based system created by three students from the Technological University of Mexico has been used to generate electricity. The Pluvia system "uses the stream of rainwater runoff from houses' rooftop rain gutters to spin a microturbine in a cylindrical housing. Electricity generated by that turbine is used to charge 12-volt batteries."

1924: 2023: 1940: 1978: 1676: 1664: 45: 829: 6753: 1963: 7901: 6612: 636: 2843: 650: 1484: 6636: 1572: 2829: 2039: 2857: 6648: 2460:, head engineer of Lowell's Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design. His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed the confident design of high-efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's specific flow conditions. The 2505:. Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers, which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones. Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered. They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional 6624: 2002:

the energy in the impact of raindrops. This is in its very early stages with new and emerging technologies being tested, prototyped and created. Such power has been called rain power. One method in which this has been attempted is by using hybrid solar panels called "all-weather solar panels" that can generate electricity from both the sun and the rain.

2362:(1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices. Many of these devices were water-powered, including clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools, where three of them are animal-powered and one can be powered by animal or water. Moreover, they included an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered 1243: 3960:. Terry S. Reynolds, however, argues that the "term used in Indian texts is ambiguous and does not clearly indicate a water-powered device." Thorkild Schiøler argued that it is "more likely that these passages refer to some type of tread- or hand-operated water-lifting device, instead of a water-powered water-lifting wheel." 2618:, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations. In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a 2193:(machine with wheel-pots attached), however whether this is water or hand powered is disputed by scholars India received Roman water mills and baths in the early 4th century AD when a certain according to Greek sources. Dams, spillways, reservoirs, channels, and water balance would develop in India during the 2563:. Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913. After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to 1884:

harming downstream habitats. On the other hand, the limitation of the run-of-river project is the decreased efficiency of electricity generation because the process depends on the speed of the seasonal river flow. This means that the rainy season increases electricity generation compared to the dry season.

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Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa. In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s. While interest faded as national

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60041. Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturer's efficiency guarantee. Detailed calculation of the efficiency of a hydropower turbine accounts for the head lost due to flow friction in the power canal or penstock, rise in tailwater level due to flow, the location of the station

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Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s. The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar

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Rain has been referred to as "one of the last unexploited energy sources in nature. When it rains, billions of litres of water can fall, which have enormous electric potential if used in the right way." Research is being done into the different methods of generating power from rain, such as by using

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Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern 'coal barons', although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower. Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower. However, conflict accompanied the dam building

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pressure reducer at the high-level intake. This allows it to fall down a shaft into a subterranean, high-roofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates from the water and becomes trapped. The height of the falling water column maintains compression of the air in the top of the chamber, while

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According to zoologist and science and technology educator, Luis Villazon, "A 2008 French study estimated that you could use piezoelectric devices, which generate power when they move, to extract 12 milliwatts from a raindrop. Over a year, this would amount to less than 0.001kWh per square metre –

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Hydroelectricity is the biggest hydropower application. Hydroelectricity generates about 15% of global electricity and provides at least 50% of the total electricity supply for more than 35 countries. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1400 GW, the highest

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such as preventing some animals traveling upstream, cooling and de-oxygenating of water released downstream, and loss of nutrients due to settling of particulates. River sediment builds river deltas and dams prevent them from restoring what is lost from erosion. Furthermore, studies found that the

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combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam. Between 1977 and 1990 the dam's turbines generated one third of Egypt's electricity. The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially

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Both designs have limitations. For example, dam construction can result in discomfort to nearby residents. The dam and reservoirs occupy a relatively large amount of space that may be opposed by nearby communities. Moreover, reservoirs can potentially have major environmental consequences such as

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The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people. Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to

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mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to

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In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams. Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new

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grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification.

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Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century. While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more

1577: 1574: 856:. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head. 1573: 2542:

began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation. The project succeeded in large part due to

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Operators of hydroelectric stations compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency. Procedures and definitions for calculation of efficiency are given in test codes such as

1479:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}} 1829:

an outlet, submerged below the water level in the chamber allows water to flow back to the surface at a lower level than the intake. A separate outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air. A facility on this principle was built on the

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took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project. After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring

976: 2742:, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries. Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa, and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like 1499:

and effect of varying gravity, the air temperature and barometric pressure, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the relative altitudes of the forebay and tailbay. For precise calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of

1873:. The water in the reservoir is available on demand to be used to generate electricity by passing through channels that connect the dam to the reservoir. The water spins a turbine, which is connected to the generator that produces electricity. 2642:, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation. As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance. 2633:

building more than 150 new dams across the American West, organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns. Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in

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Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of 'wasted potential' rather than to power a population that needed the electricity. When the

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and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.

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hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites. In the 1990s, only 18% of the world's electricity came from hydropower.

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independent energy producers. Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.

1977: 1519:, sometimes spanning decades, to assess the reliable annual energy supply. Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power by smoothing seasonal changes in water flow. However, reservoirs have a significant 2703:, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s. While progress stalled due to the 2425:. Although water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small 1514:

of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy. The flow in a stream can vary widely from season to season. The development of a hydropower site requires analysis of

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revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy. The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it. Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during

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dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation. However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south.

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To illustrate, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic metres per second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of 145 metres (476 feet), is 97 megawatts:

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especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force. After the British occupation of

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and it provides a relatively consistent source of power. Nonetheless, it has economic, sociological, and environmental downsides and requires a sufficiently energetic source of water, such as a

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high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.

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inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe. American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the

1880:. The run-of river power plant needs continuous water flow and therefore has less ability to provide power on demand. The kinetic energy of flowing water is the main source of energy. 1022: 3062: 2138:. However, some historians suggested that they were powered by waterwheels. This is since it was theorized that water scoops would not have had the motive force to operate their 867: 4193:

al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (1976). "Taqī-al-Dīn and Arabic Mechanical Engineering. With the Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines. An Arabic Manuscript of the Sixteenth Century".

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Taking the density of water to be 1000 kilograms per cubic metre (62.5 pounds per cubic foot) and the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 metres per second per second.

2629:, refocused from simply building domestic dams to promoting hydropower abroad. While domestic dam building continued well into the 1970s, with the Reclamation Bureau and 6717: 1164: 1091: 5408: 4151: 2682:

in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam, which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods. Egyptian engineer

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The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity:

2891: 1190: 2100:, located in modern-day France, had 16 water wheels processing up to 28 tons of grain per day. Roman waterwheels were also used for sawing marble such as the 1601:

equivalent to almost a billion tonnes of CO2 greenhouse gas a year. This occurs when organic matters accumulate at the bottom of the reservoir because of the

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Parrinello, G. (2018). "Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970".

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of the late 3rd century AD. Such sawmills had a waterwheel that drove two crank-and-connecting rods to power two saws. It also appears in two 6th century

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Maaß, Anna-Lisa; Schüttrumpf, Holger (2019). "Elevated floodplains and net channel incision as a result of the construction and removal of water mills".

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would drive development as well. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main power source for new inventions such as

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directly without moving parts. In these designs, a falling column of water is deliberately mixed with air bubbles generated through turbulence or a

3979:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. A.D. 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then". 5725: 4256: 3616: 2529:

production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.

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as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Islamic irriguation techniques including

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Sinclair, B. (2006). "The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism (review)".

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have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the

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Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to

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Landry, M. (2015). "Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps".

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One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a

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Charlier, R. H. (1 December 2007). "Forty candles for the Rance River TPP tides provide renewable and sustainable power generation".

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in the 4th century BC. Moreover, evidence indicates the use of hydropower using irrigation machines to ancient civilizations such as

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site placed on the banks of the Columbia. The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.

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can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the

7378: 6472: 4210:"Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe" 3702: 2735: 674: 111: 44: 6831: 6722: 3676: 2916: 2712: 1903: 739: 367: 6652: 4289:"The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (translated and annotated by Donald R Hill)" 3251: 7940: 6482: 3226: 2651: 1892: 4112:"Remains of the 19th Century: Deep storage of contaminated hydraulic mining sediment along the Lower Yuba River, California" 2212:, a historic method of mining that uses flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins. The method was first used at the 1632: 2758:

In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of

6895: 2085:. Studies suggest that the water wheel was the initial form of water power and it was driven by either humans or animals. 196: 2570:

The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the

7447: 7282: 6012: 5678:(International Electrotechnical Commission – Technical Committee 4) IEC TC 4 portal with access to scope, documents and 2881: 2517:. However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations. 2403: 2260: 1962: 1640:

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created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program. States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the

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had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence.

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The other type is called a run-of-river plant. In this case, a barrage is built to control the flow of water, absent a

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increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher. Where mills have been removed,

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This article is about the general concept of hydropower. For the use of hydropower for electricity generation, see

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Overall, hydraulic head is a way to represent the energy of stored a fluid - in this case water - per unit weight.

2311:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic Empire had these industrial mills in operation, from 2065:. Other evidence indicates that the waterwheel independently emerged in China around the same period. Evidence of 7319: 6477: 6335: 5997: 5942: 5922: 5917: 2871: 2548: 2009:

The term rain power has also been applied to hydropower systems which include the process of capturing the rain.

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Gebreluel, G. (3 April 2014). "Ethiopia's Grand Renaissance Dam: Ending Africa's Oldest Geopolitical Rivalry?".

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government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the

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A hydropower scheme which harnesses the power of the water which pours down from the Brecon Beacons mountains,

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Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

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Gottschalk, K. (3 May 2016). "Hydro-politics and hydro-power: the century-long saga of the Inga project".

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developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority's multipurpose dam.

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Hydroelectric power plants vary in terms of the way they harvest energy. One type involves a dam and a

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Kaygusuz, Kamil (2016). "Hydropower as clean and renewable energy source for electricity production".

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D’Souza, R. (7 July 2008). "Framing India's Hydraulic Crisis: The Politics of the Modern Large Dam".

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dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation.

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Adovor Tsikudo, K. (2 January 2021). "Ghana's Bui Hydropower Dam and Linkage Creation Challenges".

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Water Power, Industrial Manufacturing, and Environmental Transformation in 19th-Century New England

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This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to

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passages. The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and

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spanned a large region, mainly in Asia and Africa, along with other surrounding areas. During the

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Singh, Pushpendra Kumar; Dey, Pankaj; Jain, Sharad Kumar; Mujumdar, Pradeep P. (5 October 2020).

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built and operated the first private electrical power station which was located in his house in

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Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries, and Waterworks after the Roman Empire

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developed the first hydropower turbine. This device was implemented in the commercial plant of

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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Gocking, R. (June 2021). "Ghana's Bui Dam and the Contestation over Hydro Power in Africa".

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complexes. A wide range of water-powered industrial mills were used in the region including

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Ecology and power in the age of empire: Europe and the transformation of the tropical world

3317:"Hydroelectricity is a hidden source of methane emissions. These people want to solve that" 2127:

converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.

1106: 1037: 7817: 7783: 7669: 7649: 7559: 7208: 7174: 7108: 6905: 6890: 6770: 6752: 6616: 6597: 6511: 6278: 6193: 6049: 6039: 6024: 5982: 5887: 5837: 5788: 5686: 4257:"Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering" 2461: 2344: 1834: 1700: 845: 805: 231: 186: 116: 4973:

Shokr, A. (2009). "Hydropolitics, Economy, and the Aswan High Dam in Mid-Century Egypt".

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since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them.

5694:, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group. Retrieved 1 January 2005 4725: 4434: 4409: 4127: 4078: 3397: 3039: 3000: 1568:

construction of dams and reservoirs can result in habitat loss for some aquatic species.

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can have catastrophic effects, including loss of life, property and pollution of land.

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hydropower portal with links to numerous organizations related to hydropower worldwide

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generated from oceans, rivers, and human-made canal systems to generating electricity.

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in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the

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is still in use. In the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry,

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from underwater rotting vegetation. Furthermore, although at lower levels than other

1059: 754: 698: 613: 579: 486: 469: 350: 340: 191: 5515: 5136:

Something new under the sun: an environmental history of the twentieth-century world

3459: 828: 7624: 7582: 7358: 7309: 7245: 7101: 7005: 6790: 6396: 6340: 6290: 6273: 6094: 5867: 5800: 5371:"Small hydropower in Southern Africa – an overview of five countries in the region" 4948: 4873: 2862: 2667: 2663: 2639: 2544: 2469: 2453: 2430: 2343:

would be introduced to India, and would be combined with local methods, during the

2324: 2316: 2202: 2198: 2142:

bellows. Many texts describe the Hun waterwheel; some of the earliest ones are the

2089: 1760: 1756: 1744: 1197: 552: 437: 106: 71: 5644:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, 5304: 5258: 4588: 4019: 3405: 2718:

Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa. The

5215: 4631: 4031: 3757: 3756:

Munoz-Hernandez, German Ardul; Mansoor, Sa'ad Petrous; Jones, Dewi Ieuan (2013).

3428: 2373:

Benoît Fourneyron, the French engineer who developed the first hydropower turbine

7720: 7664: 7486: 7464: 7459: 7326: 7203: 7169: 7157: 7045: 6968: 6805: 6732: 6727: 6401: 6367: 6241: 6231: 6174: 6157: 6142: 6089: 5987: 3095: 2842: 2802: 2782: 2770: 2723: 2556: 2526: 2422: 2320: 2284: 2264: 2229: 2220:

from 75 AD onwards. This method was further developed in Spain in mines such as

2131: 2066: 2038: 1968: 1914: 1888: 1752: 1711:. Such processes are needed in the production of many material goods, including 1692: 1613: 1550: 1507: 1132: 801: 746: 649: 557: 432: 382: 345: 328: 313: 131: 4733: 2390:

in 1895 and it is still operating. In the early 20th century, English engineer

2366:(a crane-like irrigation tool), and a reciprocating device with hinged valves. 1589:

Large and deep dam and reservoir plants cover large areas of land which causes

7827: 7644: 7602: 7544: 7513: 7152: 7084: 7022: 6958: 6737: 6435: 6295: 6203: 5897: 5172: 4087: 3473: 2926: 2824: 2810: 2743: 2675: 2659: 2655: 2587: 2579: 2312: 2300: 2296: 2280: 2263:(8th–13th centuries), hydropower was widely used and developed. Early uses of 2171: 1794: 1767: 1748: 1740: 1680: 1564: 1516: 1229:

h") is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet (SI unit: metres)

785: 766: 567: 392: 387: 355: 318: 86: 5586: 5499: 5449: 5394: 5312: 5266: 5223: 5180: 5112: 5044: 4986: 4815: 4741: 4639: 4596: 4096: 3816:

Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology

7710: 7592: 7400: 7395: 7373: 7262: 7255: 7074: 7069: 6976: 6953: 6445: 6372: 6246: 6226: 6198: 6137: 5578: 5159:

Swain, A. (1997). "Ethiopia, the Sudan, and Egypt: The Nile River Dispute".

3105: 2856: 2828: 2786: 2719: 2671: 2614:

and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural

2514: 2510: 2502: 2434: 2359: 2308: 2292: 2276: 2144: 2093: 2082: 2070: 1877: 1870: 1776: 1772: 1732: 1691:

or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower. It is a structure that uses a

1688: 1656: 1617: 1560: 789: 777: 422: 402: 171: 81: 5507: 5491: 4807: 4225: 4474:

The conquest of nature: water, landscape, and the making of modern Germany

3063:"World Bank turns to hydropower to square development with climate change" 7837: 7405: 7331: 7272: 7267: 7215: 7125: 7096: 7089: 7079: 7010: 6984: 6980: 6972: 6181: 6162: 6147: 5847: 4837: 4136: 4111: 3976: 3833: 2794: 2700: 2583: 2494: 2472:, which used hydropower from the high head streams characteristic of the 2395: 2335:

in watermills and water-raising machines. They also pioneered the use of

2185:

Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term

2163: 1531:

and rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the maximum flood.

1524: 1098: 813: 809: 562: 447: 442: 96: 91: 61: 5347: 5036: 4666: 4233: 4209: 3159: 2410:, which described vertical-axis and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. 1891:, to large plants that supply power to a whole country. As of 2019, the 836:

in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by

7705: 7501: 7496: 7442: 7348: 7277: 7120: 6921: 6315: 5857: 5700:, US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005 5120: 4170:

In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

4110:

Nakamura, Tyler, K.; Singer, Michael Bliss; Gabet, Emmanuel J. (2018).

2806: 2564: 2449: 2363: 2340: 2288: 2272: 2268: 2209: 2179: 2112: 2108: 1736: 1724: 1704: 1598: 1128: 797: 793: 738:, and is also applied as one half of an energy storage system known as 584: 542: 278: 261: 4968: 4966: 7554: 7519: 7343: 7299: 7147: 6945: 5862: 5783: 5734: 2763: 2759: 2595: 2506: 2175: 2167: 2134:(202 BC – 220 AD), were initially thought to be powered by 2116: 1815: 1716: 1708: 1620:

banks become unstable. Another potential disadvantage is cultural or

817: 273: 6816: 5640:

Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),

5104: 1771:

classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location:

5679: 2959:(WCD) for international standards on the development of large dams. 2448:

Technological advances moved the open water wheel into an enclosed

1887:

The size of hydroelectric plants can vary from small plants called

7587: 7427: 7353: 7140: 3957: 3788:

Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel

2778: 2774: 2739: 2695: 2679: 2368: 2217: 2078: 2052: 2037: 2021: 1991:. The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity. 1988: 1790: 1728: 1720: 1712: 1674: 1662: 1631: 1582: 1570: 1527:

is often included to route flood flows around the dam. A computer

827: 758: 711: 508: 4195:

Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo

1898:

Hydroelectricity can also be used to store energy in the form of

7532: 7388: 7383: 7363: 7237: 7188: 7032: 6236: 6169: 6152: 5820: 3377: 3375: 3373: 2604: 2485:

electrify first, and the United States' hydroelectric plants in

2336: 2332: 2233: 1491: 1029: 762: 606: 6820: 6668: 5707: 3669:"Scientists design new solar cells to capture energy from rain" 3486:

Towler, Brian Francis (2014). "Chapter 10 - Hydroelectricity".

3252:"Why the World's Rivers Are Losing Sediment and Why It Matters" 3227:"As World's Deltas Sink, Rising Seas Are Far from Only Culprit" 2559:, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the 7491: 7135: 6712: 5091:

Dougherty, J. E. (1959). "The Aswan Decision in Perspective".

3617:"Rain or shine: new solar cell captures energy from raindrops" 3490:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press. pp. 215–235. 2813:

in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.

2599: 2237: 2061:

Evidence suggests that the fundamentals of hydropower date to

1909:

Other forms of electricity generation with hydropower include

1556: 730:

of a water source to produce power. Hydropower is a method of

6664: 4552:, Patagonia Films, Felt Soul Media, Stoecker Ecological, 2014 4026:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 325–349, 3540:. Gabriola Island, British Columbia: New Society Publishers. 701: 5664: 3511:

Førsund, Finn R. (2014). "Pumped-storage hydroelectricity".

2166:

about 20 AD. It was also during this time that the engineer

2130:

Water-powered trip hammers and bellows in China, during the

1862:

of water that is present due to the site's elevation or the

4063:"Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India" 3909:

Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology

3847:

Greene, Kevin (1990). "Perspectives on Roman technology".

3643:"Rain may soon be an effective source of renewable energy" 2586:. The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the 2208:

Another example of the early use of hydropower is seen in

5703: 4520: 4518: 3562:"Storage Hydropower - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1895:

are conventional hydroelectric power stations with dams.

1837:, in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines. 3591:"'If you can make energy from wind, why not from rain?'" 3101:

A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times

2057:

Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth century

844:

A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available

4499:

Silenced rivers: the ecology and politics of large dams

3751: 3749: 1549:

Some disadvantages of hydropower have been identified.

4761:. State University of New York Press. pp. 203–9. 4414:

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science

3703:"Is it possible to harness the power of falling rain?" 4018:

Jain, Sharad; Sharma, Aisha; Mujumdar, P. P. (2022),

3515:. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer. pp. 183–206. 2567:

which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.

2356:

The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices

1246: 1208: 1178: 1143: 1109: 1070: 1040: 994: 870: 2809:

even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the

1028:

flow rate out) is the useful power output (SI unit:

7836: 7694: 7575: 7435: 7426: 7236: 7031: 6944: 6914: 6863: 6854: 6760: 6702: 6580: 6456: 6304: 6217: 6123: 5963: 5764: 3932:. Taipei: Cambridge University Press. p. 370. 3448:

Journal of Engineering Research and Applied Science

2625:Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the 1779:are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship. 734:production. Hydropower is now used principally for 5669: 4575:Frey, F. (7 August 2020). "A Fluid Iron Curtain". 4020:"Evolution of Water Management Practices in India" 1820:A plentiful head of water can be made to generate 1478: 1217: 1184: 1158: 1115: 1085: 1046: 1016: 970: 6718:List of conventional hydroelectric power stations 3385:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 3024:"Hydropower potential and development activities" 2441:, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the 1902:between two reservoirs at different heights with 788:and the operation of mechanical devices, such as 4358:The Origins of Modern English Society, 1780-1880 3781: 3779: 3158:DeHaan, James; Hulse, David (10 February 2023). 2785:, a Southern Europe hydropower race. In Italy's 5138:. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 169–170. 3973: 3920: 3918: 3696: 3694: 2189:(turning wheel), which commentaries explain as 1616:site are displaced during construction or when 1597:sources, it was found that hydropower produces 1545:Renewable energy debate § Hydroelectricity 5486:(3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 652–688. 4942: 4940: 4802:(2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 444–445. 4348: 4346: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 6832: 6680: 5719: 5473: 5471: 3886:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3790:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3584: 3582: 3356:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Newnes. p. 116. 2892:Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol 1858:generation starts with converting either the 675: 8: 5407:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 ( 4150:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3295:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press. 5070:. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–38. 3759:Modelling and Controlling Hydropower Plants 3474:https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022 3429:"Five thousand horsepower from air bubbles" 3090: 3088: 2978: 2976: 2598:did not justify damming the Columbia until 745:Hydropower is an attractive alternative to 7698: 7432: 6860: 6839: 6825: 6817: 6687: 6673: 6665: 5726: 5712: 5704: 5623: 5611: 5599: 5552: 5540: 5462: 5342:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 5286: 5284: 5167:(4). Cambridge University Press: 675–694. 5031:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 4859: 4661:(2). Cambridge University Press: 339–362. 4536: 4360:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul PLC. 4261:History of Science and Technology in Islam 2983:Egré, Dominique; Milewski, Joseph (2002). 2170:(c. AD 31) applied the power of 769:view hydropower as a low-carbon means for 718:or to power machines. This is achieved by 682: 668: 43: 27: 5670:International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) 5439: 4433: 4321:. US Department of Energy. Archived from 4135: 4086: 2456:. In 1848, the British-American engineer 2049:; hydropower was used here to mill flour. 1852:among all renewable energy technologies. 1563:can have major negative impacts on river 1471: 1453: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1431: 1422: 1410: 1392: 1374: 1369: 1363: 1358: 1338: 1333: 1327: 1322: 1300: 1295: 1289: 1284: 1260: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1207: 1177: 1145: 1144: 1142: 1108: 1072: 1071: 1069: 1039: 1008: 997: 996: 993: 942: 941: 903: 902: 884: 873: 872: 869: 824:Calculating the amount of available power 765:. International institutions such as the 4714:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3969: 3729:"Rainwater used to generate electricity" 3472:IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris 3180:. Pearson Education India. p. 418. 2402:, England. In 1753, the French engineer 2092:, water-powered mills were described by 1893:five largest power stations in the world 1866:of moving water into electrical energy. 1731:products. These watermills may comprise 710:, is the use of falling or fast-running 5528: 4919: 4699: 4687: 4562: 4524: 2972: 2939: 2497:, contributing to projects such as the 1919: 1017:{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}} 35: 6346:Integrated gasification combined cycle 5400: 4781: 4143: 2985:"The diversity of hydropower projects" 2123:and connecting rod mechanism of these 1699:to drive a mechanical process such as 177:List of low-energy building techniques 16:Power generation via movement of water 6390:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 6065:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy 5422:Rodríguez, I. B. (30 December 2011). 5161:The Journal of Modern African Studies 4931: 2382:In the 19th century, French engineer 1541:Hydroelectricity § Disadvantages 1058:") is the efficiency of the turbine ( 776:Since ancient times, hydropower from 7: 6623: 5665:International Hydropower Association 5642:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology 5375:Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 4408:Lewis, B J; Cimbala; Wouden (2014). 3994:South Asia: An Environmental History 3615:Carrington, Damian (13 March 2018). 2897:International Hydropower Association 2877:Gravitation water vortex power plant 2551:. On the other side of the country, 6647: 6532:World energy supply and consumption 5247:Canadian Journal of African Studies 4172:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4067:Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 2711:Ethiopia began construction on the 2267:emerged along with large hydraulic 1983:The upper reservoir and dam of the 5441:10.3989/hispania.2011.v71.i239.360 5387:10.17159/2413-3051/2013/v24i3a3138 3861:10.1111/j.1468-0092.1990.tb00223.x 3538:Microhydro: Clean Power from Water 2358:, the Muslim mechanical engineer, 2224:. Hushing was also widely used in 1209: 1170:(SI unit: cubic metres per second) 962: 920: 14: 6743:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 4899:. Hill and Wang. pp. 48–58. 3956:suggested that the machine was a 2773:dammed the Alpine rivers and the 1503:of constants must be considered. 1131:of water (SI unit: kilograms per 7900: 7899: 6751: 6646: 6634: 6622: 6611: 6610: 3952:Reynolds, p. 14 "On this basis, 3427:Maynard, Frank (November 1910). 2855: 2841: 2827: 2736:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1985:Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme 1976: 1961: 1938: 1922: 1655:This section is an excerpt from 1506:Some hydropower systems such as 749:as it does not directly produce 648: 635: 634: 112:Energy efficiency implementation 6723:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity 5369:Klunne, Q. J. (1 August 2013). 4758:Niagara: A History of the Falls 4577:Scandinavian Journal of History 4287:Jones, Reginald Victor (1974). 3727:Coxworth, Ben (26 March 2014). 3641:Fingas, Jon (9 February 2020). 3589:Nazarli, Amina (16 June 2018). 3061:Howard Schneider (8 May 2013). 2917:Ocean thermal energy conversion 2713:Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam 740:pumped-storage hydroelectricity 368:Ocean thermal energy conversion 3882:Magnusson, Roberta J. (2002). 3667:Nichols, Megan (21 May 2018). 2468:developed the high-efficiency 1793:and sedimentation of adjacent 1789:. Also in the backwater area, 1775:use the movement of the tide; 1459: 1419: 1380: 1355: 1343: 1318: 1306: 1281: 736:hydroelectric power generation 1: 5305:10.1080/08039410.2020.1858953 5293:Forum for Development Studies 5259:10.1080/00083968.2016.1222297 4589:10.1080/03468755.2019.1629336 4501:. Zed Books. pp. 18–19. 4435:10.1088/1755-1315/22/1/012020 3849:Oxford Journal of Archaeology 3406:10.1080/04353676.2019.1574209 3354:Power Generation Technologies 3048:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00084-8 3009:10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00083-6 2327:. Muslim engineers also used 2232:and later periods to extract 2096:by the first century BC. The 1956:without a sizeable reservoir. 1535:Disadvantages and limitations 848:. Power is a function of the 197:Passive solar building design 6865:Pollution / quality 5676:IEC TC 4: Hydraulic turbines 5216:10.1080/0163660X.2014.926207 4934:, p. 71-72, 85, 89-111. 4632:10.14452/MR-060-03-2008-07_7 4032:10.1007/978-3-030-87067-6_18 3991:Christopher V. Hill (2008). 3911:. Leiden: Brill. p. 55. 3178:Basic Electrical Engineering 2882:Energy conversion efficiency 2470:Pelton wheel impulse turbine 2261:Arab Agricultural Revolution 2240:ores. It later evolved into 1683:watermill, UK (14th century) 1529:model of the hydraulic basin 5093:Political Science Quarterly 4476:. Norton. pp. 217–18. 4305:10.1088/0031-9112/25/10/040 4208:Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). 3786:Reynolds, Terry S. (1983). 3762:. London: Springer London. 2732:Southern African Power Pool 2707:and following 17-year-long 2540:Niagara Falls Power Company 2413:The growing demand for the 1194:acceleration due to gravity 706:-, "water"), also known as 655:Renewable energy portal 373:Renewable energy transition 7962: 5003:The End of the Big Dam Era 4734:10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.015 3997:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 33–. 2636:Dinosaur National Monument 2627:Tennessee Valley Authority 2354:Furthermore, in his book, 2158:of 15 BC, as well as 2148:dictionary of 40 BC, 2063:ancient Greek civilization 1844: 1813: 1654: 1538: 1159:{\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} 1086:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}} 702: 18: 7895: 7701: 7436:Types / location 6749: 6606: 6336:Fossil fuel power station 5998:Electric potential energy 5943:Thermodynamic temperature 5923:Thermodynamic free energy 5918:Thermodynamic equilibrium 5741: 5389:(inactive 19 June 2024). 5299:(1). Routledge: 153–174. 5253:(2). Routledge: 279–294. 5173:10.1017/S0022278X97002577 4583:(4). Routledge: 506–526. 4088:10.5194/hess-24-4691-2020 3818:. Springer. p. 373. 2872:Deep water source cooling 2574:and its tributaries. The 2549:alternating current motor 2437:, such as those built at 2404:Bernard Forest de Bélidor 217:Sustainable refurbishment 7946:Sustainable technologies 7931:Power station technology 6407:Concentrated solar power 5204:The Washington Quarterly 4975:The Arab Studies Journal 3202:"How Dams Damage Rivers" 2957:World Commission on Dams 2462:Francis reaction turbine 2408:Architecture Hydraulique 2026:A water piston from the 1954:run-of-the-river station 1671:, Belgium (12th century) 1624:may block construction. 1605:of water which triggers 1591:greenhouse gas emissions 1218:{\displaystyle \Delta h} 202:Sustainable architecture 157:Glass in green buildings 147:Environmental technology 77:Compact fluorescent lamp 5948:Volume (thermodynamics) 5928:Thermodynamic potential 5831:Mass–energy equivalence 5698:Microhydropower Systems 5210:(2). Routledge: 25–37. 4426:2014E&ES...22a2020L 4319:"History of Hydropower" 3022:Bartle, Alison (2002). 2849:Renewable energy portal 2777:, creating, along with 2631:Army Corps of Engineers 1911:tidal stream generators 1612:People who live near a 724:gravitational potential 523:Human-powered transport 227:Tropical green building 162:Green building and wood 6786:Gorlov helical turbine 5903:Quantum thermodynamics 5893:Laws of thermodynamics 5774:Conservation of energy 5492:10.1353/tech.2018.0062 5480:Technology and Culture 5336:African Studies Review 5025:African Studies Review 4808:10.1353/tech.2006.0153 4796:Technology and Culture 4655:African Studies Review 4472:Blackbourn, D (2006). 4389:. National Park System 4226:10.1353/tech.2005.0026 4214:Technology and Culture 3981: 2374: 2182:in forging cast iron. 2058: 2050: 2035: 1950:Bridgeport, Washington 1833:at Ragged Shutes near 1684: 1672: 1641: 1586: 1480: 1219: 1200:per second per second) 1186: 1160: 1117: 1087: 1048: 1018: 972: 841: 755:atmospheric pollutants 619:Personal rapid transit 361:Tidal stream generator 222:Thermal energy storage 142:Environmental planning 7941:Hydraulic engineering 6020:Interatomic potential 5811:Energy transformation 5685:27 April 2015 at the 5579:10.1093/envhis/emv053 5567:Environmental History 4339:. Water Encyclopedia. 4337:"Hydroelectric Power" 3566:www.sciencedirect.com 3536:Davis, Scott (2003). 3352:Breeze, Paul (2019). 3289:Breeze, Paul (2018). 2576:Bureau of Reclamation 2415:Industrial Revolution 2372: 2248:in the 19th century. 2244:when used during the 2214:Dolaucothi Gold Mines 2152:'s text known as the 2056: 2041: 2025: 1678: 1666: 1635: 1580: 1481: 1220: 1187: 1161: 1118: 1116:{\displaystyle \rho } 1088: 1049: 1047:{\displaystyle \eta } 1019: 973: 831: 463:Sustainable transport 408:Floating wind turbine 237:Zero heating building 152:Fossil fuel phase-out 7811:remnant natural area 7448:storage and recovery 7114:habitat conservation 6932:Deforestation (REDD) 6468:Efficient energy use 6441:Airborne wind energy 6419:Solar thermal energy 6326:Electricity delivery 5938:Thermodynamic system 5883:Irreversible process 5134:McNeill, JR (2000). 4354:Perkin, Harold James 4267:on 18 February 2008. 4255:al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. 4137:10.1525/elementa.333 3907:Lucas, Adam (2006). 3513:Hydropower Economics 3488:The Future of Energy 3476:, License: CC BY 4.0 3108:. pp. 163–164. 2907:Marine current power 2902:Low-head hydro power 2406:published his book, 2246:California Gold Rush 2191:arahatta-ghati-yanta 1971:in Northwest Vietnam 1521:environmental impact 1244: 1206: 1176: 1168:volumetric flow rate 1141: 1107: 1068: 1038: 992: 868: 854:volumetric flow rate 771:economic development 597:Personal transporter 492:Wind-powered vehicle 336:Marine current power 242:Zero-energy building 102:Efficient energy use 7765:Earth Overshoot Day 7339:Marine conservation 7320:non-timber products 6490:Energy conservation 6412:Photovoltaic system 6385:Nuclear power plant 6070:Quantum fluctuation 5933:Thermodynamic state 5908:Thermal equilibrium 5348:10.1017/asr.2020.41 5037:10.1017/asr.2020.41 4897:The Organic Machine 4726:2007RSERv..11.2032C 4667:10.1017/asr.2020.41 4497:McCully, P (2001). 4325:on 26 January 2010. 4128:2018EleSA...6...70N 4079:2020HESS...24.4691S 3398:2019GeAnA.101..157M 3136:. 27 September 2021 3067:The Washington Post 3040:2002EnPol..30.1231B 3001:2002EnPol..30.1225E 2709:Ethiopian Civil War 2705:coup d'état of 1974 2650:Foreign powers and 2610:After the war, the 2594:. Power demand in 2561:Hetch Hetchy Valley 2513:, leading to local 2466:Lester Allan Pelton 2439:Saint Anthony Falls 2043:Saint Anthony Falls 1607:anaerobic digestion 780:has been used as a 716:produce electricity 284:Carbon-neutral fuel 212:Sustainable habitat 67:Building insulation 55:Energy conservation 31:Part of a series on 7750:Ecosystem services 6873:Ambient standards 6801:Cross-flow turbine 6527:Sustainable energy 6505:Energy development 6495:Energy consumption 6331:Energy engineering 5626:, p. 222-236. 5555:, p. 212-213. 5543:, p. 198-207. 5531:, p. 174-175. 4755:Berton, P (2009). 4166:Hoyland, Robert G. 3812:Oleson, John Peter 2691:Gamal Abdel Nasser 2375: 2257:Islamic Golden Age 2119:respectively. The 2102:Hierapolis sawmill 2059: 2051: 2036: 1913:using energy from 1701:milling (grinding) 1685: 1673: 1642: 1587: 1501:significant digits 1476: 1215: 1182: 1156: 1113: 1083: 1044: 1014: 968: 842: 838:installed capacity 732:sustainable energy 299:Geothermal heating 127:Energy saving lamp 37:Sustainable energy 7936:Energy conversion 7913: 7912: 7891: 7890: 7690: 7689: 7369:genetic resources 7305:genetic resources 6940: 6939: 6848:Natural resources 6814: 6813: 6662: 6661: 6429:Solar power tower 6075:Quantum potential 5913:Thermal reservoir 5816:Energy transition 5692:Micro-hydro power 5145:978-0-393-32183-8 5077:978-0-19-182990-1 5066:Ross, C. (2017). 4906:978-0-8090-3559-5 4895:White, R (1995). 4768:978-1-4384-2930-4 4539:, p. 222–24. 4508:978-1-85649-901-9 4483:978-0-393-06212-0 4073:(10): 4691–4707. 4041:978-3-030-87066-9 4004:978-1-85109-925-2 3769:978-1-4471-2291-3 3707:BBC Science Focus 3522:978-1-4899-7519-5 3433:Popular Mechanics 3302:978-0-12-812906-7 3187:978-93-325-7679-7 3034:(14): 1231–1239. 2995:(14): 1225–1230. 2547:invention of the 2443:Mississippi River 2419:Richard Arkwright 2392:William Armstrong 2384:Benoît Fourneyron 2075:ancient Near East 1791:inundation events 1669:Braine-le-Château 1578: 1474: 1470: 1451: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1418: 1395: 1391: 1372: 1361: 1354: 1341: 1325: 1317: 1298: 1287: 1280: 1263: 1257: 1185:{\displaystyle g} 1153: 1080: 1011: 1005: 961: 955: 950: 937: 919: 911: 901: 887: 881: 692: 691: 289:Geothermal energy 7953: 7903: 7902: 7854: 7801:Natural heritage 7760:overexploitation 7699: 7433: 7379:herbal medicines 7359:FAO Plant Treaty 6899: 6876: 6861: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6818: 6762:Hydroelectricity 6755: 6704:Hydroelectricity 6689: 6682: 6675: 6666: 6650: 6649: 6638: 6626: 6625: 6614: 6613: 6588:Carbon footprint 6522:Renewable energy 6363:Hydroelectricity 6353:Geothermal power 5796:Energy condition 5728: 5721: 5714: 5705: 5654: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5573:(3). : 422–448. 5562: 5556: 5550: 5544: 5538: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5475: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5443: 5434:(239): 789–818. 5419: 5413: 5412: 5406: 5398: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5288: 5279: 5278: 5242: 5236: 5235: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5088: 5082: 5081: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5020: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5010: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4970: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4944: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4869: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4720:(9): 2032–2057. 4709: 4703: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4513: 4512: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4405: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4387:River Of History 4381:Anfinson, John. 4378: 4372: 4371: 4350: 4341: 4340: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4293:Physics Bulletin 4284: 4278: 4275: 4269: 4268: 4263:. Archived from 4252: 4246: 4245: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4149: 4141: 4139: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4090: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4024:Riverine Systems 4015: 4009: 4008: 3988: 3982: 3967: 3961: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3922: 3913: 3912: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3814:(30 June 1984). 3808: 3802: 3801: 3783: 3774: 3773: 3753: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3701:Villazon, Luis. 3698: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3675:. Archived from 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3638: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3586: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3483: 3477: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3379: 3368: 3367: 3349: 3332: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3286: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3248: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3173: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3143: 3141: 3134:Energy Education 3130:"Hydraulic head" 3126: 3120: 3119: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3069:. Archived from 3058: 3052: 3051: 3019: 3013: 3012: 2980: 2960: 2953: 2947: 2944: 2865: 2860: 2859: 2851: 2846: 2845: 2837: 2832: 2831: 2612:Grand Coulee Dam 2592:Grand Coulee Dam 2499:Three Gorges Dam 2458:James B. Francis 2331:while employing 2242:hydraulic mining 2125:Roman watermills 1980: 1965: 1946:Chief Joseph Dam 1942: 1926: 1900:potential energy 1860:potential energy 1856:Hydroelectricity 1847:Hydroelectricity 1679:Interior of the 1645:Mechanical power 1595:renewable energy 1579: 1485: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1441: 1440: 1435: 1432: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1362: 1359: 1352: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1326: 1323: 1315: 1305: 1304: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1288: 1285: 1278: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1250: 1224: 1222: 1221: 1216: 1191: 1189: 1188: 1183: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1155: 1154: 1146: 1122: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1081: 1073: 1053: 1051: 1050: 1045: 1023: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1006: 998: 977: 975: 974: 969: 959: 953: 952: 951: 943: 935: 917: 913: 912: 904: 899: 889: 888: 885: 883: 882: 874: 834:Three Gorges Dam 782:renewable energy 705: 704: 684: 677: 670: 657: 653: 652: 643: 638: 637: 475:Electric vehicle 324:Run-of-the-river 309:Hydroelectricity 294:Geothermal power 255:Renewable energy 207:Sustainable city 182:Low-energy house 122:Energy recycling 47: 28: 21:hydroelectricity 7961: 7960: 7956: 7955: 7954: 7952: 7951: 7950: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7887: 7852: 7832: 7818:Systems ecology 7784:Natural capital 7686: 7571: 7560:reclaimed water 7422: 7384:UPOV Convention 7232: 7027: 6936: 6910: 6906:Ozone depletion 6897: 6874: 6850: 6845: 6815: 6810: 6771:Francis turbine 6756: 6747: 6698: 6693: 6663: 6658: 6602: 6598:Waste-to-energy 6576: 6512:Energy security 6458: 6452: 6308: 6300: 6279:Natural uranium 6213: 6194:Mechanical wave 6125:Energy carriers 6119: 5959: 5888:Isolated system 5766: 5760: 5737: 5732: 5687:Wayback Machine 5661: 5652: 5639: 5636: 5631: 5630: 5624:Blackbourn 2006 5622: 5618: 5612:Blackbourn 2006 5610: 5606: 5600:Blackbourn 2006 5598: 5594: 5564: 5563: 5559: 5553:Blackbourn 2006 5551: 5547: 5541:Blackbourn 2006 5539: 5535: 5527: 5523: 5477: 5476: 5469: 5463:Blackbourn 2006 5461: 5457: 5421: 5420: 5416: 5399: 5368: 5367: 5363: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5290: 5289: 5282: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5158: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5133: 5132: 5128: 5105:10.2307/2145939 5090: 5089: 5085: 5078: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5022: 5021: 5017: 5008: 5006: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4972: 4971: 4964: 4955: 4953: 4950:The Big Dam Era 4946: 4945: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4914: 4907: 4894: 4893: 4889: 4880: 4878: 4875:The Big Dam Era 4871: 4870: 4866: 4860:Blackbourn 2006 4858: 4854: 4845: 4843: 4836: 4835: 4831: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4754: 4753: 4749: 4711: 4710: 4706: 4698: 4694: 4686: 4682: 4652: 4651: 4647: 4617: 4616: 4612: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4561: 4557: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4537:Blackbourn 2006 4535: 4531: 4523: 4516: 4509: 4496: 4495: 4491: 4484: 4471: 4470: 4466: 4457: 4455: 4448: 4447: 4443: 4420:(1). IOP: 5–7. 4407: 4406: 4402: 4392: 4390: 4380: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4352: 4351: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4254: 4253: 4249: 4207: 4206: 4202: 4192: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4142: 4109: 4108: 4104: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4005: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3972:, p. 400: 3968: 3964: 3951: 3947: 3940: 3926:Needham, Joseph 3924: 3923: 3916: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3826: 3810: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3785: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3755: 3754: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3711: 3709: 3700: 3699: 3692: 3682: 3680: 3679:on 9 April 2022 3666: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3640: 3639: 3635: 3625: 3623: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3599: 3597: 3595:The Irish Times 3588: 3587: 3580: 3570: 3568: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3535: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3510: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3485: 3484: 3480: 3471: 3467: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3381: 3380: 3371: 3364: 3351: 3350: 3335: 3325: 3323: 3315: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3288: 3287: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3250: 3249: 3245: 3235: 3233: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3210: 3208: 3206:American Rivers 3200: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3162: 3157: 3156: 3152: 3139: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3094: 3093: 3086: 3076: 3074: 3073:on 22 July 2013 3060: 3059: 3055: 3021: 3020: 3016: 2982: 2981: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2963: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2861: 2854: 2847: 2840: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2756: 2720:Inga powerplant 2684:Adriano Daninos 2648: 2555:engineers, the 2535: 2482: 2380: 2345:Delhi Sultanate 2034:(fl. 1290–1333) 2020: 2018:Ancient history 2015: 1999: 1992: 1981: 1972: 1966: 1957: 1943: 1934: 1927: 1849: 1843: 1835:Cobalt, Ontario 1818: 1812: 1807: 1806: 1785:, particularly 1660: 1652: 1647: 1630: 1622:religious sites 1571: 1547: 1539:Main articles: 1537: 1447: 1430: 1406: 1368: 1321: 1294: 1247: 1242: 1241: 1204: 1203: 1174: 1173: 1139: 1138: 1105: 1104: 1066: 1065: 1036: 1035: 995: 990: 989: 871: 866: 865: 826: 688: 647: 646: 633: 626: 625: 465: 455: 454: 257: 247: 246: 232:Waste-to-energy 187:Microgeneration 117:Energy recovery 57: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7959: 7957: 7949: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7918: 7917: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7907: 7896: 7893: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7886: 7885: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7853:(perpetuation) 7848: 7842: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7814: 7813: 7806:Nature reserve 7803: 7798: 7797: 7796: 7791: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7762: 7752: 7747: 7746: 7745: 7740: 7730: 7729: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7702: 7696: 7692: 7691: 7688: 7687: 7685: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7677: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7611: 7610: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7579: 7577: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7541: 7540: 7530: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7511: 7510: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7489: 7484: 7483: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7439: 7437: 7430: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7324: 7323: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7283:climate change 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7259: 7258: 7251:Bioprospecting 7248: 7242: 7240: 7234: 7233: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7223: 7213: 7212: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7155: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7133: 7128: 7118: 7117: 7116: 7106: 7105: 7104: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7053: 7037: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7013: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6950: 6948: 6942: 6941: 6938: 6937: 6935: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6918: 6916: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6908: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6896:Clean Air Act 6888: 6883: 6878: 6869: 6867: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6836: 6829: 6821: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6776:Kaplan turbine 6773: 6767: 6765: 6758: 6757: 6750: 6748: 6746: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6709: 6707: 6700: 6699: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6684: 6677: 6669: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6656: 6644: 6632: 6620: 6607: 6604: 6603: 6601: 6600: 6595: 6593:Jevons paradox 6590: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6517:Energy storage 6514: 6509: 6508: 6507: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6464: 6462: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6443: 6433: 6432: 6431: 6426: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6409: 6399: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6387: 6377: 6376: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6355: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6321:Electric power 6318: 6312: 6310: 6302: 6301: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6282: 6281: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6250: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6229: 6223: 6221: 6219:Primary energy 6215: 6214: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6190: 6189: 6179: 6178: 6177: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6160: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6129: 6127: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5979: 5978: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5853:Entropic force 5850: 5843:Thermodynamics 5840: 5835: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5781: 5776: 5770: 5768: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5731: 5730: 5723: 5716: 5708: 5702: 5701: 5695: 5689: 5673: 5667: 5660: 5659:External links 5657: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5635: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5616: 5614:, p. 327. 5604: 5602:, p. 219. 5592: 5557: 5545: 5533: 5521: 5467: 5465:, p. 217. 5455: 5414: 5361: 5326: 5280: 5237: 5194: 5151: 5144: 5126: 5099:(1). : 21–45. 5083: 5076: 5058: 5015: 4992: 4962: 4936: 4924: 4912: 4905: 4887: 4864: 4862:, p. 218. 4852: 4829: 4786: 4784:, p. 216. 4774: 4767: 4747: 4704: 4702:, p. 134. 4692: 4690:, p. 274. 4680: 4645: 4626:(3): 112–124. 4620:Monthly Review 4610: 4567: 4555: 4541: 4529: 4527:, p. 227. 4514: 4507: 4489: 4482: 4464: 4441: 4400: 4373: 4366: 4342: 4328: 4310: 4279: 4270: 4247: 4200: 4185: 4178: 4157: 4102: 4053: 4040: 4010: 4003: 3983: 3962: 3954:Joseph Needham 3945: 3938: 3914: 3899: 3893:978-0801866265 3892: 3874: 3855:(2): 209–219. 3839: 3824: 3803: 3796: 3775: 3768: 3745: 3719: 3690: 3659: 3633: 3607: 3578: 3553: 3546: 3528: 3521: 3503: 3496: 3478: 3465: 3454:(1): 359–369. 3438: 3419: 3392:(2): 157–176. 3369: 3363:978-0081026311 3362: 3333: 3308: 3301: 3268: 3243: 3218: 3193: 3186: 3176:Sahdev, S. K. 3168: 3150: 3121: 3114: 3084: 3053: 3014: 2971: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2961: 2948: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2879: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2866: 2852: 2838: 2822: 2819: 2755: 2752: 2647: 2644: 2616:Columbia Basin 2572:Columbia River 2545:Nikola Tesla's 2534: 2531: 2503:Aswan High Dam 2481: 2478: 2427:blast furnaces 2400:Northumberland 2379: 2376: 2341:Persian Wheels 2329:water turbines 2253:Islamic Empire 2019: 2016: 2014: 2011: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1982: 1975: 1973: 1967: 1960: 1958: 1944: 1937: 1935: 1928: 1921: 1904:pumped-storage 1864:kinetic energy 1845:Main article: 1842: 1839: 1831:Montreal River 1822:compressed air 1811: 1810:Compressed air 1808: 1801:increases and 1799:river incision 1753:trip hammering 1661: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1629: 1626: 1536: 1533: 1512:kinetic energy 1487: 1486: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1456: 1445: 1439: 1421: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1377: 1366: 1357: 1351: 1348: 1345: 1336: 1330: 1320: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1303: 1292: 1283: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1256: 1253: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1214: 1211: 1201: 1181: 1171: 1152: 1149: 1136: 1112: 1102: 1095:mass flow rate 1079: 1076: 1063: 1043: 1033: 1004: 1001: 981: 980: 979: 978: 967: 964: 958: 949: 946: 940: 934: 931: 928: 925: 922: 916: 910: 907: 898: 895: 892: 880: 877: 850:hydraulic head 825: 822: 751:carbon dioxide 728:kinetic energy 690: 689: 687: 686: 679: 672: 664: 661: 660: 659: 658: 644: 628: 627: 624: 623: 622: 621: 611: 610: 609: 602:Rail transport 599: 594: 593: 592: 587: 582: 577: 575:Roller skating 572: 571: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 548:Cycle rickshaw 545: 535: 530: 520: 519: 518: 513: 512: 511: 504:Human-electric 499:Hybrid vehicle 496: 495: 494: 489: 484: 483: 482: 466: 461: 460: 457: 456: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 390: 385: 380: 378:Renewable heat 375: 370: 365: 364: 363: 358: 353: 343: 338: 333: 332: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 270: 269: 258: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 167:Green building 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 137:Energy storage 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 58: 53: 52: 49: 48: 40: 39: 33: 32: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7958: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7923: 7921: 7906: 7898: 7897: 7894: 7884: 7883:Non-renewable 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7843: 7841: 7839: 7835: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7823:Urban ecology 7821: 7819: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7808: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7770: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7735: 7734: 7731: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7704: 7703: 7700: 7697: 7693: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7672: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7655:Privatization 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7609: 7606: 7605: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7574: 7568: 7565: 7561: 7558: 7557: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7550:Surface water 7548: 7546: 7543: 7539: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7522: 7521: 7517: 7516: 7515: 7512: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7425: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7235: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7217: 7214: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7191: 7190: 7187: 7183: 7180: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7163: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7123: 7122: 7119: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7110: 7107: 7103: 7100: 7099: 7098: 7095: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7072: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7052: 7051:peak farmland 7049: 7048: 7047: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7021: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7008: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6943: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6904: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6842: 6837: 6835: 6830: 6828: 6823: 6822: 6819: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6796:Turgo turbine 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6781:Tyson turbine 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6759: 6754: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6690: 6685: 6683: 6678: 6676: 6671: 6670: 6667: 6655: 6654: 6645: 6643: 6642: 6637: 6633: 6631: 6630: 6621: 6619: 6618: 6609: 6608: 6605: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6579: 6573: 6572:United States 6570: 6568: 6567:South America 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6501: 6500:Energy policy 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6461: 6455: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6437: 6434: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6424:Solar furnace 6422: 6421: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6381: 6380:Nuclear power 6378: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6338: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6306:Energy system 6303: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6259:Gravitational 6257: 6255: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6224: 6222: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6188: 6187:Hydrogen fuel 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6009: 6008:Gravitational 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5977: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5962: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5878:Heat transfer 5876: 5874: 5873:Heat capacity 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5826:Negative mass 5824: 5823: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5806:Energy system 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5724: 5722: 5717: 5715: 5710: 5709: 5706: 5699: 5696: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5677: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5653: 5651:90-04-11123-9 5647: 5643: 5638: 5637: 5633: 5625: 5620: 5617: 5613: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5596: 5593: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5525: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5456: 5451: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5418: 5415: 5410: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5365: 5362: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5330: 5327: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5241: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5198: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5152: 5147: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5087: 5084: 5079: 5073: 5069: 5062: 5059: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5016: 5005: 5004: 4996: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4981:(1). : 9–31. 4980: 4976: 4969: 4967: 4963: 4952: 4951: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4925: 4922:, p. 16. 4921: 4916: 4913: 4908: 4902: 4898: 4891: 4888: 4877: 4876: 4868: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4853: 4841: 4840: 4833: 4830: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4775: 4770: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4751: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4693: 4689: 4684: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4611: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4571: 4568: 4565:, p. 93. 4564: 4559: 4556: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4490: 4485: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4465: 4454: 4453: 4449:Montrie, C., 4445: 4442: 4436: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4401: 4388: 4384: 4377: 4374: 4369: 4367:9780710045676 4363: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4251: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4201: 4196: 4189: 4186: 4181: 4179:9780199916368 4175: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4153: 4147: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4116:Elem Sci Anth 4113: 4106: 4103: 4098: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4054: 4043: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3978: 3971: 3970:Wikander 2000 3966: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3941: 3939:0-521-05803-1 3935: 3931: 3927: 3921: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3903: 3900: 3895: 3889: 3885: 3878: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3843: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3825:90-277-1693-5 3821: 3817: 3813: 3807: 3804: 3799: 3797:0-8018-7248-0 3793: 3789: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3765: 3761: 3760: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3734: 3730: 3723: 3720: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3695: 3691: 3678: 3674: 3673:EuroScientist 3670: 3663: 3660: 3648: 3644: 3637: 3634: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3567: 3563: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3547:9780865714847 3543: 3539: 3532: 3529: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3504: 3499: 3497:9780128010655 3493: 3489: 3482: 3479: 3475: 3469: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3442: 3439: 3434: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3359: 3355: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3322: 3318: 3312: 3309: 3304: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3257: 3253: 3247: 3244: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3194: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3169: 3161: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3122: 3117: 3115:9781317761570 3111: 3107: 3103: 3102: 3097: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3028:Energy Policy 3025: 3018: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2989:Energy Policy 2986: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2958: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2933: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2922:Osmotic power 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2912:Marine energy 2910: 2908: 2905: 2903: 2900: 2898: 2895: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2887:Hydraulic ram 2885: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2864: 2858: 2853: 2850: 2844: 2839: 2836: 2835:Energy portal 2830: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2765: 2761: 2753: 2751: 2747: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2664:Akosombo Dams 2661: 2657: 2653: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2628: 2623: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2553:San Francisco 2550: 2546: 2541: 2533:United States 2532: 2530: 2528: 2522: 2518: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:Sierra Nevada 2488: 2487:Niagara Falls 2479: 2477: 2475: 2474:Sierra Nevada 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2388:Niagara Falls 2385: 2377: 2371: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2350: 2349:Mughal Empire 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2147: 2146: 2141: 2140:blast furnace 2137: 2133: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2111:excavated at 2110: 2107: 2106:Eastern Roman 2103: 2099: 2098:Barbegal mill 2095: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2055: 2048: 2047:United States 2044: 2040: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1990: 1986: 1979: 1974: 1970: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1952:, is a major 1951: 1947: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1881: 1879: 1874: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1848: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1817: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1757:rolling mills 1754: 1750: 1746: 1745:textile mills 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1697:water turbine 1694: 1690: 1682: 1677: 1670: 1667:Watermill of 1665: 1658: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1638:shishi-odoshi 1634: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1603:deoxygenation 1600: 1596: 1592: 1584: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1465: 1462: 1454: 1443: 1437: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1386: 1383: 1375: 1364: 1349: 1346: 1334: 1328: 1312: 1309: 1301: 1290: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1254: 1251: 1240: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1212: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1179: 1172: 1169: 1150: 1147: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1110: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1077: 1074: 1064: 1061: 1060:dimensionless 1057: 1041: 1034: 1031: 1027: 1002: 999: 988: 987: 986: 985: 983: 982: 965: 956: 947: 944: 938: 932: 929: 926: 923: 914: 908: 905: 896: 893: 890: 878: 875: 864: 863: 862: 861: 860: 857: 855: 851: 847: 839: 835: 830: 823: 821: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 743: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 700: 699:Ancient Greek 696: 685: 680: 678: 673: 671: 666: 665: 663: 662: 656: 651: 645: 642: 632: 631: 630: 629: 620: 617: 616: 615: 614:Rapid transit 612: 608: 605: 604: 603: 600: 598: 595: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 580:Skateboarding 578: 576: 573: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 540: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 525: 524: 521: 517: 514: 510: 507: 506: 505: 502: 501: 500: 497: 493: 490: 488: 487:Solar vehicle 485: 481: 478: 477: 476: 473: 472: 471: 470:Green vehicle 468: 467: 464: 459: 458: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 395: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 351:Tidal barrage 349: 348: 347: 344: 342: 341:Marine energy 339: 337: 334: 330: 327: 325: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 310: 307: 306: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 268: 265: 264: 263: 260: 259: 256: 251: 250: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 192:Passive house 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 59: 56: 51: 50: 46: 42: 41: 38: 34: 30: 29: 26: 22: 7881: / 7755:Exploitation 7640:Conservation 7583:Desalination 7518: 7411:conservation 7246:Biodiversity 7194:conservation 7041:Agricultural 6995: 6969:Fossil fuels 6791:Pelton wheel 6695: 6651: 6639: 6627: 6615: 6397:Oil refinery 6357: 6341:Cogeneration 6274:Nuclear fuel 6263: 6080:Quintessence 5868:Free entropy 5801:Energy level 5765:Fundamental 5680:TC 4 website 5641: 5619: 5607: 5595: 5570: 5566: 5560: 5548: 5536: 5529:McNeill 2000 5524: 5483: 5479: 5458: 5431: 5427: 5417: 5403:cite journal 5381:(3): 14–25. 5378: 5374: 5364: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5296: 5292: 5250: 5246: 5240: 5207: 5203: 5197: 5164: 5160: 5154: 5135: 5129: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5067: 5061: 5028: 5024: 5018: 5007:, retrieved 5002: 4995: 4978: 4974: 4954:, retrieved 4949: 4927: 4920:McCully 2001 4915: 4896: 4890: 4879:, retrieved 4874: 4867: 4855: 4844:, retrieved 4839:Hetch Hetchy 4838: 4832: 4799: 4795: 4789: 4777: 4757: 4750: 4717: 4713: 4707: 4700:McCully 2001 4695: 4688:McCully 2001 4683: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4623: 4619: 4613: 4580: 4576: 4570: 4563:McCully 2001 4558: 4549: 4544: 4532: 4525:McCully 2001 4498: 4492: 4473: 4467: 4456:, retrieved 4451: 4444: 4417: 4413: 4403: 4391:. Retrieved 4386: 4376: 4357: 4331: 4323:the original 4313: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4273: 4265:the original 4260: 4250: 4217: 4213: 4203: 4194: 4188: 4169: 4160: 4146:cite journal 4119: 4115: 4105: 4070: 4066: 4056: 4045:, retrieved 4023: 4013: 3993: 3986: 3974: 3965: 3948: 3929: 3908: 3902: 3883: 3877: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3815: 3806: 3787: 3758: 3736:. Retrieved 3732: 3722: 3710:. Retrieved 3706: 3681:. Retrieved 3677:the original 3672: 3662: 3650:. Retrieved 3646: 3636: 3624:. Retrieved 3621:The Guardian 3620: 3610: 3598:. Retrieved 3594: 3569:. Retrieved 3565: 3556: 3537: 3531: 3512: 3506: 3487: 3481: 3468: 3451: 3447: 3441: 3432: 3422: 3389: 3383: 3353: 3324:. Retrieved 3320: 3311: 3291: 3259:. Retrieved 3255: 3246: 3234:. Retrieved 3230: 3221: 3209:. Retrieved 3205: 3196: 3177: 3171: 3153: 3145: 3138:. Retrieved 3133: 3124: 3100: 3096:Hill, Donald 3075:. 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