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outer curves. These hot spots are typically less than 1% of the road length, but a large share of all skid crashes occur there. One method for the road designer to reduce the crash risk is to move the cross slope transition from the outer curve and to a straight road section, where lateral forces are lower. If possible, the cross slope transition should be placed in a slight up- or downgrade, thereby avoiding that the drainage gradient drops to zero. The UK road design manual actually calls for placement of a cross slope transition in an artificially created slope, if needed. In some cases, permeable asphalt or concrete can be used to improve drainage in the cross slope transitions.
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a crosswind, if aquaplaning should occur, the crosswind will cause the aircraft to simultaneously weathervane into the wind (i.e. the nose will turn toward the wind) as well as slide downwind (the plane will tend to slide in the direction the air is moving). For small aircraft, holding the nose up as if performing a soft field landing and using the rudder to aerodynamically maintain directional control while holding the upwind aileron in the best position to prevent lifting the wing should help. However, avoid landing in heavy rain where the crosswind component of the wind is higher than the maximum demonstrated crosswind listed in the Pilot
Operations Handbook.
162:: Cross slope is the extent to which the cross-section of a road resembles an upturned U. Higher cross slopes allow water to drain more easily. Grade is the steepness of the road at a particular point, which affects both drainage and force exerted by the vehicle on the road. Vehicles are less likely to aquaplane while traveling uphill, and far more likely to do so at the trough of two connected hills where water tends to pool. The resultant of cross slope and grade is called
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than it can dissipate. Water pressure in front of the wheel forces a wedge of water under the leading edge of the tire, causing it to lift from the road. The tire then skates on a sheet of water with little, if any, direct road contact, and loss of control results. If multiple tires aquaplane, the vehicle may lose directional control and slide until it either collides with an obstacle, or slows enough that one or more tires contact the road again and friction is regained.
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525:, slush, and/or wet snow. Aquaplaning can have serious adverse effects on ground controllability and braking efficiency. The three basic types of aquaplaning are dynamic aquaplaning, reverted rubber aquaplaning, and viscous aquaplaning. Any one of the three can render an aircraft partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll.
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keeps the tire off the runway. A side effect of the heat is it causes the rubber in contact with the runway to revert to its original uncured state. Indications of an aircraft having experienced reverted rubber aquaplaning, are distinctive 'steam-cleaned' marks on the runway surface and a patch of reverted rubber on the tire.
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Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes should be applied firmly until reaching a point just short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilot should release brake pressure and allow the wheels to spin up. Directional control should be maintained as far as possible with the rudder. In
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Aquaplaning, also known as hydroplaning, is a condition in which standing water, slush or snow, causes the moving wheel of an aircraft to lose contact with the load bearing surface on which it is rolling with the result that braking action on the wheel is not effective in reducing the ground speed of
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or "resulting grade". Most road design manuals require that the drainage gradient in all road sections must exceed 0.5%, in order to avoid a thick water film during and after rainfall. Areas where the drainage gradient may fall below the minimum limit 0.5% are found at the entrance and exit of banked
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Viscous aquaplaning is due to the viscous properties of water. A thin film of fluid no more than 0.025 mm in depth is all that is needed. The tire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on top of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than dynamic aquaplane, but requires a smooth
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Control inputs tend to be counterproductive while aquaplaning. If the car is not in a turn, easing off the accelerator may slow it enough to regain traction. Steering inputs may put the car into a skid from which recovery would be difficult or impossible. If braking is unavoidable, the driver should
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aquaplane, there may be a sudden audible rise in engine RPM and indicated speed as they begin to spin. In a broad highway turn, if the front wheels lose traction, the car will suddenly drift towards the outside of the bend. If the rear wheels lose traction, the back of the car will slew out sideways
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When confronted with the possibility of aquaplaning, pilots are advised to land on a grooved runway (if available). Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible consistent with safety. After the nosewheel is lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be applied. If deceleration is not detected
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However, the above equation only gives a very rough approximation. Resistance to aquaplaning is governed by several different factors, chiefly vehicle weight, tire width and tread pattern, as all affect the surface pressure exerted on the road by the tire over a given area of the contact patch - a
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benefit from narrow tires with round, canoe-shaped contact patches. Narrow tires are less vulnerable to aquaplaning because vehicle weight is distributed over a smaller area, and rounded tires more easily push water aside. These advantages diminish on lighter motorcycles with naturally wide tires,
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Reverted rubber (steam) aquaplaning occurs during heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate this type of aquaplaning. The tire skidding generates enough heat to change the water film into a cushion of steam which
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systems cannot replace defensive driving techniques and proper tire selection. These systems rely on selective wheel braking, which depends in turn on road contact. While stability control may help recovery from a skid when a vehicle slows enough to regain traction, it cannot prevent aquaplaning.
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Every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between the tires and the road surface. The grooves of a rubber tire are designed to disperse water from beneath the tire, providing high friction even in wet conditions. Aquaplaning occurs when a tire encounters more water
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Reverted rubber aquaplaning frequently follows an encounter with dynamic aquaplaning, during which time the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt to slow the aircraft. Eventually the aircraft slows enough to where the tires make contact with the runway surface and the aircraft begins to
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skid. The remedy for this type of aquaplane is for the pilot to release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up and apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber aquaplaning is insidious in that the pilot may not know when it begins, and it can persist to very slow groundspeeds (20 knots or less).
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class. Further, wet conditions reduce the lateral force that any tire can accommodate before sliding. While a slide in a four-wheeled vehicle may be corrected, the same slide on a motorcycle will generally cause the rider to fall. Thus, despite the relative lack of aquaplaning danger in wet
149:: Concrete can be preferable to hotmix asphalt because it offers better resistance to rut formation, though this depends on the age of the surface and the construction techniques employed while paving. Concrete also requires special attention to ensure that it has sufficient texture.
593:) in knots is about 9 times the square root of the tire pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). For an aircraft tire pressure of 64 PSI, the calculated aquaplaning speed would be approximately 72 knots. This speed is for a rolling, non-slipping wheel; a locked wheel reduces the V
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narrow tire with a lot of weight placed upon it and an aggressive tread pattern will resist aquaplaning at far higher speeds than a wide tire on a light vehicle with minimal tread. Furthermore, the likelihood of aquaplaning drastically increases with water depth.
229:: Combination vehicles like semi-trailers are more likely to experience uneven aquaplaning caused by uneven weight distribution. An unloaded trailer will aquaplane sooner than the cab pulling it. Pickup trucks or SUVs towing trailers also present similar problems.
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into a skid. If all four wheels aquaplane at once, the car will slide in a straight line, again towards the outside of the bend if in a turn. When any or all of the wheels regain traction, there may be a sudden jerk in whatever direction that wheel is pointed.
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inch) deep. As the speed of the aircraft and the depth of the water increase, the water layer builds up an increasing resistance to displacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge of water beneath the tire. At some speed, termed the aquaplaning speed
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is the speed in mph for when the vehicle will begin to totally hydroplane. Considering an example vehicle with a tire pressure of 35 psi, one can approximate that 61 mph is the speed when the tires would lose contact with the road's surface.
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The best strategy is to avoid contributors to aquaplaning. Proper tire pressure, narrow and unworn tires, and reduced speeds from those judged suitably moderate in the dry will mitigate the risk of aquaplaning, as will avoidance of standing water.
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braking have the advantage over road vehicles in such situations, as this type of braking is not affected by aquaplaning, but it requires a considerable distance to operate as it is not as effective as wheel braking on a dry runway.
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If the vehicle is traveling straight, it may begin to feel slightly loose. If there was a high level of road feel in normal conditions, it may suddenly diminish. Small correctional control inputs have no effect.
581:), the upward force generated by water pressure equals the weight of the aircraft and the tire is lifted off the runway surface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute to directional control, and
544:. Grooving has since been adopted by most major airports around the world. Thin grooves are cut in the concrete which allows for water to be dissipated and further reduces the potential to aquaplane.
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is nil. Dynamic aquaplaning is generally related to tire inflation pressure. Tests have shown that for tires with significant loads and enough water depth for the amount of tread so that the
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When a surface is wet, a layer of water can act as a lubricant, greatly reducing the traction and stability of the vehicle. If enough water is under the tire, hydroplaning can occur.
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to 7.7 times the square root of the pressure. Therefore, once a locked tire starts aquaplaning it will continue until the speed reduces by other means (air drag or reverse thrust).
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or smooth-acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown area coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings. Such a surface can have the same friction coefficient as wet ice.
201:: Worn tires will aquaplane more easily for lack of tread depth. Half-worn treads result in aquaplaning about 4.8–6.4 km/h (3–4 mph) lower than with full-tread tires.
223:: More weight on a properly inflated tire lengthens the contact patch, improving its aspect ratio. Weight can have the opposite effect if the tire is underinflated.
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465:, the driver should steer in the direction of the skid until the rear tires regain traction, and then rapidly steer in the other direction to straighten the car.
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Because pooled water and changes in road conditions can require a smooth and timely reduction in speed, cruise control should not be used on wet or icy roads.
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505:, when it can cause the aircraft to run off the end of the runway. Aquaplaning has been a factor in multiple aircraft accidents, including the destruction of
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that prevents the vehicle from responding to control inputs. If it occurs to all wheels simultaneously, the vehicle becomes, in effect, an uncontrolled
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and aquaplaning is suspected, the nose should be raised and aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to a point where the brakes do become effective.
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Dynamic aquaplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that is at least 2.5 mm (
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The risk of aquaplaning increases with the depth of standing water, higher speeds, and the sensitivity of a vehicle to that water depth.
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B. N. J. Persson; U. Tartaglino; O. Albohr & E. Tosatti (2004). "Sealing is at the origin of rubber slipping on wet roads".
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Airplane Flying
Handbook, FAA Publication FAA-H-8083-3A, available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at
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What the driver experiences when a vehicle aquaplanes depends on which wheels have lost traction and the direction of travel.
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207:: Underinflation can cause a tire to deflect inward, raising the tire center and preventing the tread from clearing water.
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There is no precise equation to determine the speed at which a vehicle will aquaplane. Existing efforts have derived
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conditions, motorcycle riders must be even more cautious because overall traction is reduced by wet roadways.
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from empirical testing. In general, cars start to aquaplane at speeds above 72–93 km/h (45–58 mph).
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pressure from the speed is applied to the whole contact patch, the minimum speed for dynamic aquaplaning (V
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Aquaplaning is a condition that can exist when an aircraft is landed on a runway surface contaminated with
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It is possible to approximate the speed at which total hydroplaning occurs, with the following equation:
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103:. Aquaplaning is a different phenomenon from when water on the surface of the roadway merely acts as a
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However this can be prevented by grooves on runways. In 1965, a US delegation visited the
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173:: Wider roads require a higher cross slope to achieve the same degree of drainage.
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Any aquaplaning tire reduces both braking effectiveness and directional control.
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938:"REPORT ON GROOVED RUNWAY EXPERIENCE AT WASHINGTON NATIONAL AIRPORT"
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698:"Roadway Hydroplaning - The Trouble with Highway Cross Slope"
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Depth of compacted wheel tracks and longitudinal depressions
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Horne, Walter B.; Dreher, Robert C. (November 1, 1963).
719:. Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company. p. 180.
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The driver's speed, acceleration, braking, and steering
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for reduced aquaplaning and initiated a study by the
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in 2007 during heavy rain. Aircraft which can employ
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30:"Aquaplane" redirects here. Not to be confused with
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in the pavement over time that allow water to pool.
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27:Loss of traction due to water buildup under tires
988:0.25 mm for worn tires and 0.76 mm for new tires
893:"Best and Worst Tires in All Weather Conditions"
458:do so smoothly and be prepared for instability.
91:or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer of
925:: 5 – via NASA Technical Reports Server.
397:is the tire pressure in psi and the resulting
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1636:European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation
1105:'Phenomena of pneumatic tire hydroplaning'.
296:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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919:"Phenomena of Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning"
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316:Learn how and when to remove this message
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977:"1/2009 G-XLAC G-BWDA G-EMBO Section 1"
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830:"Don't lose your grip in wet weather".
715:Glennon, John C.; Paul F. Hill (2004).
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509:which ran off the end of the runway in
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65:Two vehicles aquaplaning through large
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876:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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771:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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368:{\displaystyle V_{p}=10.35{\sqrt {p}}}
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643:, for effects similar to aquaplaning
294:adding citations to reliable sources
1679:Uniform Tire Quality Grading (UTQG)
1101:NASA paper describing aquaplaning,
984:Air Accidents Investigation Branch
891:Petersen, Gene (28 October 2015).
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944:. Federal Aviation Administration
717:Roadway Safety and Tort Liability
696:Glennon, John C. (January 2006).
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147:Pavement micro- and macrotexture
57:A diagram of an aquaplaning tire
1535:Tire-pressure monitoring system
182:Rainfall intensity and duration
936:McGuire, R.C. (January 1969).
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1525:Central Tire Inflation System
673:"Preventing Loss of Traction"
532:at Farnborough to view their
213:: The longer and thinner the
671:Ron Kurtus (28 March 2008).
530:Royal Aircraft Establishment
478:Electronic stability control
1646:Tire Science and Technology
1166:Low rolling resistance tire
188:Vehicle sensitivity factors
139:: Heavy vehicles can cause
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507:TAM Airlines Flight 3054
469:Prevention by the driver
1487:Slip (vehicle dynamics)
1444:Lateral Force Variation
1394:Pacejka's Magic Formula
1374:Cold inflation pressure
1033:(7 November): 882–885.
840:(2): 49. February 2011.
211:Tire tread aspect ratio
205:Tire inflation pressure
1583:List of tire companies
1454:Traction (engineering)
1449:Radial Force Variation
1089:http://av-info.faa.gov
1002:Cite journal requires
675:. School for Champions
641:Traction (engineering)
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700:. US. Archived from
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290:improve this section
18:Hydroplaning (tires)
1540:Tire-pressure gauge
1176:Michelin PAX System
1082:Driving in the Rain
1049:2004NatMa...3..882P
923:NASA Technical Note
123:Water depth factors
32:Aquaplaning (sport)
1578:Tire manufacturing
1409:Rolling resistance
417:{\textstyle V_{p}}
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1404:Relaxation length
1281:Formula One tyres
1080:Smart Motorist –
808:Missing or empty
636:Road slipperiness
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258:In motor vehicles
177:Roadway curvature
171:Width of pavement
164:drainage gradient
36:Hydroplane (boat)
16:(Redirected from
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1697:Outline of tires
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1510:Tire maintenance
1459:Treadwear rating
1369:Circle of forces
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1231:Orange oil tires
1221:Mud-terrain tire
1201:All-terrain tire
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306:September 2019
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1741:Road hazards
1717:
1641:Tire Society
1555:Tire changer
1550:Bead breaker
1520:Bicycle pump
1476:
1429:Tire balance
1339:Presta valve
1334:Dunlop valve
1276:Racing slick
1271:Tractor tire
1256:Tubular tire
1251:Bicycle tire
1181:Airless tire
1081:
1030:
1026:
995:cite journal
987:
946:. Retrieved
941:
931:
922:
912:
900:. Retrieved
896:
886:
860:. Retrieved
856:the original
846:
837:
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810:|title=
790:. Retrieved
781:
755:. Retrieved
748:the original
735:
716:
710:
702:the original
691:
683:
677:. Retrieved
666:
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587:dynamic head
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446:drive wheels
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288:Please help
276:
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227:Vehicle type
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118:
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78:hydroplaning
77:
73:
72:
1669:Plus sizing
1593:Waste tires
1545:Direct TPMS
1530:Tire mousse
1502:Maintenance
1477:Aquaplaning
1246:Tundra tire
1226:Paddle tire
1211:Knobby tire
1161:Radial tire
488:In aircraft
246:Motorcycles
241:Motorcycles
155:cross slope
74:Aquaplaning
48:Flying boat
1725:Categories
1674:Tire label
1570:Life cycle
1492:Tramlining
1419:Slip angle
1356:Attributes
1329:Valve stem
1301:Components
1286:Spare tire
1216:Large tire
948:5 February
862:October 6,
792:2010-01-31
679:2012-01-13
653:References
251:supersport
44:Floatplane
1664:Tire code
1613:Flat tire
1603:Tire fire
1560:Tire iron
1469:Behaviors
1261:Lego tire
1196:Snow tire
1191:Rain tyre
1103:TN D-2056
757:March 28,
511:São Paulo
463:oversteer
277:does not
153:Pavement
105:lubricant
1707:Category
1314:Beadlock
1206:Bar grip
1073:15635210
1065:15531886
872:cite web
801:cite web
767:cite web
630:See also
499:aborting
453:Recovery
433:Response
97:traction
89:aircraft
40:Seaplane
1608:Blowout
1588:Retread
1045:Bibcode
1019:General
902:30 July
571:⁄
562:Dynamic
553:Viscous
503:takeoff
495:landing
444:If the
298:removed
283:sources
85:vehicle
67:puddles
1071:
1063:
723:
658:Inline
377:where
111:Causes
1736:Tires
1319:Tread
1186:Tweel
1148:Types
1140:Tires
1069:S2CID
1035:arXiv
980:(PDF)
751:(PDF)
744:(PDF)
548:Types
356:10.35
329:Speed
159:grade
93:water
46:, or
1309:Bead
1061:PMID
1008:help
950:2017
904:2017
878:link
864:2009
814:help
773:link
759:2009
721:ISBN
542:NASA
540:and
281:any
279:cite
157:and
141:ruts
101:sled
82:road
1053:doi
538:FAA
497:or
292:by
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