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Nerve fiber innervation is much denser for inner hair cells than for outer hair cells. A single inner hair cell is innervated by numerous nerve fibers, whereas a single nerve fiber innervates many outer hair cells. Inner hair cell nerve fibers are also very heavily myelinated, which is in contrast
510:
Slow
Adaption: The dominating model suggests that slow adaptation occurs when myosin-1c slides down the stereocilium in response to elevated tension during bundle displacement. The resultant decreased tension in the tip link permits the bundle to move farther in the opposite direction. As tension
443:
Outer hair cells are found only in mammals. While hearing sensitivity of mammals is similar to that of other classes of vertebrates, without functioning outer hair cells, the sensitivity decreases by approximately 50 dB. Outer hair cells extend the hearing range to about 200 kHz in some
426:
of the hair cell. The electrical resonance for this method appears as a damped oscillation of membrane potential responding to an applied current pulse. The second method uses tonotopic differences of the basilar membrane. This difference comes from the different locations of the hair cells. Hair
418:
Hair cells chronically leak Ca. This leakage causes a tonic release of neurotransmitter to the synapses. It is thought that this tonic release is what allows the hair cells to respond so quickly in response to mechanical stimuli. The quickness of the hair cell response may also be due to the fact
633:
Research on the regrowth of cochlear cells may lead to medical treatments that restore hearing. Unlike birds and fish, humans and other mammals are generally incapable of regrowing the cells of the inner ear that convert sound into neural signals when those cells are damaged by age or disease.
439:
In mammalian outer hair cells, the varying receptor potential is converted to active vibrations of the cell body. This mechanical response to electrical signals is termed somatic electromotility; it drives variations in the cell's length, synchronized to the incoming sound signal, and provides
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Calcium ion influx plays an important role for the hair cells to adapt to the amplification of the signal. This allows humans to ignore constant sounds that are no longer new and allow us to be acute to other changes in our surrounding. The key adaptation mechanism comes from a motor protein
192:
681:. Rb stops cells from dividing by encouraging their exit from the cell cycle. Not only do hair cells in a culture dish regenerate when the Rb1 gene is deleted, but mice bred to be missing the gene grow more hair cells than control mice that have the gene. Additionally, the
203:
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marine mammals. They have also improved frequency selectivity (frequency discrimination), which is of particular benefit for humans, because it enabled sophisticated speech and music. Outer hair cells are functional even after cellular stores of ATP are depleted.
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in the differentiation of inner and outer hair cells. This discovery has allowed researchers to direct hair cells to develop into either inner or outer hair cells, which could help in replacing hair cells that have died and prevent or reverse hearing loss.
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Efferent projections from the brain to the cochlea also play a role in the perception of sound. Efferent synapses occur on outer hair cells and on afferent axons under inner hair cells. The presynaptic terminal bouton is filled with vesicles containing
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718:) has also been found to encourage regrowth of cochlear hair cells in mice following genetic deletion or knock down with siRNA targeting p27. Research on hair cell regeneration may bring us closer to clinical treatment for human
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decreases, channels close, producing the decline in transduction current. Slow adaptation is most prominent in vestibular hair cells that sense spatial movement and less in cochlear hair cells that detect auditory signals.
502:
Fast
Adaptation: During fast adaptation, Ca ions that enter a stereocilium through an open MET channel bind rapidly to a site on or near the channel and induce channel closure. When channels close, tension increases in the
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myosin-1c that allows slow adaptation, provides tension to sensitize transduction channels, and also participate in signal transduction apparatus. More recent research now shows that the calcium-sensitive binding of
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Erni, Silvia T.; Gill, John C.; Palaferri, Carlotta; Fernandes, Gabriella; Buri, Michelle; Lazarides, Katherine; Grandgirard, Denis; Edge, Albert S. B.; Leib, Stephen L.; Roccio, Marta (13 August 2021).
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and thus trigger action potentials in the nerve. In this way, the mechanical sound signal is converted into an electrical nerve signal. Repolarization of hair cells is done in a special manner. The
302:, this damage is permanent. Damage to hair cells can cause damage to the vestibular system and therefore cause difficulties in balancing. However, other vertebrates, such as the frequently studied
321:. The amplification may be powered by the movement of their hair bundles, or by an electrically driven motility of their cell bodies. This so-called somatic electromotility amplifies sound in all
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quiet sounds more than large ones so that a wide range of sound pressures can be reduced to a much smaller range of hair displacements. This property of amplification is called the
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75:. The inner hair cells are located at the termination of the "inner hair cell nerves" and the outer hair cells are located at the termination of the "outer hair cell nerve".
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cells that have high-frequency resonance are located at the basal end while hair cells that have significantly lower frequency resonance are found at the apical end of the
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Lombarte A, Yan HY, Popper AN, Chang JS, Platt C (January 1993). "Damage and regeneration of hair cell ciliary bundles in a fish ear following treatment with gentamicin".
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to the unmyelinated outer hair cell nerve fibers. The region of the basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its
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Hair cells are also able to distinguish tone frequencies through one of two methods. The first method, found only in non-mammals, uses electrical resonance in the
284:. The stereocilia number from fifty to a hundred in each cell while being tightly packed together and decrease in size the further away they are located from the
2250:
García-Añoveros, Jaime; Clancy, John C.; Foo, Chuan Zhi; García-Gómez, Ignacio; Zhou, Yingjie; Homma, Kazuaki; Cheatham, Mary Ann; Duggan, Anne (2022-05-04).
585:) innervate cochlear and vestibular hair cells. The neurotransmitter released by hair cells that stimulates the terminal neurites of peripheral axons of the
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1459:
625:. The effects of these compounds vary; in some hair cells the acetylcholine hyperpolarizes the cell, which reduces the sensitivity of the cochlea locally.
507:, pulling the bundle in the opposite direction. Fast adaptation is more prominent in sound and auditory detecting hair cells, rather in vestibular cells.
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Sage, Cyrille; Huang, Mingqian; Vollrath, Melissa A.; Brown, M. Christian; Hinds, Philip W.; Corey, David P.; Vetter, Douglas E.; Zheng-Yi, Chen (2005).
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cochlear hair cells are of two anatomically and functionally distinct types, known as outer, and inner hair cells. Damage to these hair cells results in
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Manley GA (2004). "Advances and perspectives in the study of the evolution of the vertebrate auditory system". In Manley, et al. (eds.).
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have hair cells that can regenerate. The human cochlea contains on the order of 3,500 inner hair cells and 12,000 outer hair cells at birth.
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end of the cell. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the narrow space between the hair cell and a nerve terminal, where they then bind to
761:
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to myosin-1c could actually modulate the interaction of the adaptation motor with other components of the transduction apparatus as well.
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Löwenheim H, Furness DN, Kil J, Zinn C, Gültig K, Fero ML, Frost D, Gummer AW, Roberts JM, Rubel EW, Hackney CM, Zenner HP (1999-03-30).
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Brownell WE, Bader CR, Bertrand D, de
Ribaupierre Y (1985-01-11). "Evoked mechanical responses of isolated cochlear outer hair cells".
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that it can increase the amount of neurotransmitter release in response to a change of as little as 100 μV in membrane potential.
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The inner hair cells transform the sound vibrations in the fluids of the cochlea into electrical signals that are then relayed via the
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Cotanche, Douglas A. (1994). "Hair cell regeneration in the bird cochlea following noise damage or ototoxic drug damage".
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466:) that underlies somatic electromotility in the outer hair cells. Prestin's function has been shown to be dependent on
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2195:"Therapeutic Potential of Wnt and Notch Signaling and Epigenetic Regulation in Mammalian Sensory Hair Cell Regeneration"
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601:. This dense body is surrounded by synaptic vesicles and is thought to aid in the fast release of neurotransmitter.
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Coffin A, Kelley M, Manley GA, Popper AN (2004). "Evolution of sensory hair cells". In Manley, et al. (eds.).
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The molecular biology of hair cells has seen considerable progress in recent years, with the identification of the
383:. Instead, the influx of positive ions from the endolymph in the scala media depolarizes the cell, resulting in a
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325:. It is affected by the closing mechanism of the mechanical sensory ion channels at the tips of the hair bundles.
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A concise report on the recent development of sound sensors based on hair tuning by students of SMMEE,
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A movie clip showing an isolated outer hair cell moving in response to electrical stimulation can be seen
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inhibitor LY3056480, are being studied for their potential ability to regenerate hair cells in the cochlea.
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2086:"Sonic hedgehog initiates cochlear hair cell regeneration through downregulation of retinoblastoma protein"
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in birds and fish have been found to regenerate, their ability has been studied at length. In addition,
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1074:"A fast motile response in guinea-pig outer hair cells: the cellular basis of the cochlear amplifier"
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885:"A Short History of Nearly Every Sense – The Evolutionary History of Vertebrate Sensory Cell Types"
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2368:"Gene disruption of p27(Kip1) allows cell proliferation in the postnatal and adult organ of corti"
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1644:"Sensory transduction and adaptation in inner and outer hair cells of the mouse auditory system"
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Lu, Na; Chen, Yan; Wang, Zhengmin; Chen, Guoling; Lin, Qin; Chen, Zheng-Yi; Li, Huawei (2013).
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59:. Magnified. ("Outer hair cells" labeled near top; "inner hair cells" labeled near center).
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2428:"Silencing p27 reverses post-mitotic state of supporting cells in neonatal mouse cochleae"
2136:"Hair Cell Generation in Cochlear Culture Models Mediated by Novel γ-Secretase Inhibitors"
1397:
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2712:"Power steering for your hearing: Ears have tiny 'flexoelectric' motors to amplify sound"
1978:"Essential role of retinoblastoma protein in mammalian hair cell development and hearing"
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1993:
1693:"Myosin-1c interacts with hair-cell receptors through its calmodulin-binding IQ domains"
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Fettiplace R, Hackney CM (2006). "The sensory and motor roles of auditory hair cells".
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Gillespie, P. G.; Cyr, J. L. (2004). "Myosin-1c, the hair cell's adaptation motor".
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Ono K, Nakagawa T, Kojima K, Matsumoto M, Kawauchi T, Hoshino M, Ito J (Dec 2009).
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to block the regrowth of cochlear hair cells in adults. The Rb1 gene encodes the
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2645:"Built-in amps: How subtle head motions, quiet sounds are reported to the brain"
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1961:
Henderson M (2005-01-15). "Gene that may no longer turn a deaf ear to old age".
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1982:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1845:
1238:"Ca2+ current-driven nonlinear amplification by the mammalian cochlea in vitro"
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2252:"Tbx2 is a master regulator of inner versus outer hair cell differentiation"
2002:
1548:
Santos-Sacchi Joseph; Song Lei; Zheng Jiefu; Nuttall Alfred L (2006-04-12).
1368:
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up the food chain, the effect is pronounced in top marine predators such as
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that may allow the damaged cells to be regenerated. Because hair cells of
17:
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1746:"Ionic currents of outer hair cells isolated from the guinea-pig cochlea"
1303:
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322:
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Breneman KD, Brownell WE, Rabbitt RD (22 April 2009). Brezina V (ed.).
2193:
Samarajeewa, Anshula; Jacques, Bonnie E.; Dabdoub, Alain (8 May 2019).
1026:
976:
549: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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72:
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689:, thereby inducing cell cycle re-entry and the regrowth of new cells.
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715:
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Researchers have identified a mammalian gene that normally acts as a
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signaling and that it is compromised by the common marine pesticide
2593:"Mechanical amplification by hair cells in the semicircular canals"
1253:
50:
479:
347:
3120:
1501:"Making an effort to listen: mechanical amplification in the ear"
1287:"Sensory Hair Cells: An Introduction to Structure and Physiology"
836:"Sensory Hair Cells: An Introduction to Structure and Physiology"
3711:
3557:
3023:
2894:
1550:"Control of mammalian cochlear amplification by chloride anions"
785:
Lumpkin, Ellen A.; Marshall, Kara L.; Nelson, Aislyn M. (2010).
703:
415:
makes the positive ions flow through channels to the perilymph.
307:
3124:
2785:
961:"Sensory hair cell regeneration in the zebrafish lateral line"
518:
391:; calcium ions then enter the cell and trigger the release of
230:
107:
Amplify sound waves and transduce auditory information to the
2741:
2342:"Genetic discovery may help scientists reverse hearing loss"
440:
mechanical amplification by feedback to the traveling wave.
2776:
2660:"Hair cell bundles: flexoelectric motors of the inner ear"
2037:"Deafness: lack of regulation encourages hair cell growth"
1411:"Auditory amplification: outer hair cells pres the issue"
371:
that allow any small, positively charged ions (primarily
252:, the auditory hair cells are located within the spiral
2591:
Rabbitt RD, Boyle R, Highstein SM (1–5 February 2010).
210:
How sounds make their way from the source to your brain
706:(T-box transcription factor 2) has been shown to be a
1691:
Cyr, J. L.; Dumont, R. A.; Gillespie, P. G. (2002).
1008:
1006:
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245:, hair cells detect movement in their environment.
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732:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
662:, have been shown to regrow in species such as the
593:. At the presynaptic juncture, there is a distinct
411:has a very low concentration of positive ions. The
156:
151:
132:
124:
114:
103:
95:
85:
80:
43:
1189:"Cadherins and mechanotransduction by hair cells"
2544:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
2317:"New Tool to Create Hearing Cells Lost in Aging"
685:protein has been shown to block activity of the
2737:Outer hair cell dancing "rock around the clock"
2597:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1922:"Zebrafish as a model for hearing and deafness"
298:, and because the inner ear hair cells cannot
3136:
2797:
1804:"Cranial Nerve VIII. Vestibulocochlear Nerve"
1342:
1340:
1134:(2008). "Cochlear Outer Hair Cell Motility".
589:(towards the brain) neurons is thought to be
344:Inner hair cells – from sound to nerve signal
8:
435:Outer hair cells – acoustical pre-amplifiers
268:. They derive their name from the tufts of
2584:Evolution of the Vertebrate Auditory System
2565:Evolution of the Vertebrate Auditory System
2491:Evolution of the Vertebrate Auditory System
2140:Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
959:Lush, Mark E.; Piotrowski, Tatjana (2013).
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1055:Rémy Pujol, Régis Nouvian, Marc Lenoir, "
984:
924:Nadol, Joseph B. (1993). "Hearing loss".
900:
859:
810:
565:Learn how and when to remove this message
30:For hair cells on the external skin, see
1637:
1635:
1618:10.1146/annurev.physiol.66.032102.112842
190:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
777:
741:
2340:Handsley-Davis, Matilda (2022-05-05).
1236:Chan DK, Hudspeth AJ (February 2005).
178:
40:
2563:Manley GA, Popper AN, Fay RR (2004).
1642:Stauffer, E. A.; Holt, J. R. (2007).
722:caused by hair cell damage or death.
27:Auditory sensory receptor nerve cells
7:
547:adding citations to reliable sources
356:, showing inner and outer hair cells
1291:Integrative and Comparative Biology
889:Integrative and Comparative Biology
883:Schlosser, Gerhard (June 1, 2018).
840:Integrative and Comparative Biology
634:Researchers are making progress in
474:. Because this class of pollutant
2761:Neuroscience Information Framework
2538:, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000).
2035:Raphael Y, Martin DM (July 2005).
1709:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-07-02487.2002
1465:. In Reynolds J, Rommel S (eds.).
834:McPherson, Duane (June 18, 2018).
714:The cell cycle inhibitor p27kip1 (
280:of the cell into the fluid-filled
25:
2321:Northwestern Medicine News Center
1285:McPherson, Duane R (2018-08-01).
387:. This receptor potential opens
2718:(Press release). April 22, 2009.
2348:. Royal Institution of Australia
760:
744:
523:
447:The effect of this system is to
360:The deflection of the hair-cell
317:low-level sound that enters the
175:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
3307:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell
1834:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1460:"Marine Mammal Sensory Systems"
1193:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
926:New England Journal of Medicine
623:calcitonin gene-related peptide
534:needs additional citations for
3086:Ventral posterolateral nucleus
2146:. Frontiers Media SA: 710159.
1764:10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019030
1566:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4548-05.2006
1092:10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016617
389:voltage gated calcium channels
34:. For algal 'hair cells', see
1:
3072:Lateral vestibulospinal tract
2567:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
1471:Smithsonian Institution Press
1458:Wartzog D, Ketten DR (1999).
1427:10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00030-4
767:Stereocilia of frog inner ear
296:decreased hearing sensitivity
3068:Medial vestibulospinal tract
2685:10.1371/journal.pone.0005201
2541:Principles of Neural Science
2500:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1891:10.1016/0378-5955(93)90002-i
1517:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.07.012
3417:Postganglionic nerve fibers
3106:Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
2211:10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.03.017
2205:(5). Elsevier BV: 904–911.
1810:. Loyola University Chicago
1697:The Journal of Neuroscience
1606:Annual Review of Physiology
1409:Géléoc GS, Holt JR (2003).
938:10.1056/nejm199310073291507
791:The Journal of Cell Biology
787:"The cell biology of touch"
577:Neurons of the auditory or
490:Hair cell signal adaptation
36:Trichocyte (disambiguation)
3988:
3412:Preganglionic nerve fibers
3037:Lateral vestibular nucleus
2732:Molecular Basis of Hearing
2315:Paul, Marla (2022-05-04).
2276:10.1038/s41586-022-04668-3
2102:10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.11.088
1846:10.1016/j.conb.2008.10.001
1648:Journal of Neurophysiology
1499:Hudspeth AJ (2008-08-28).
1187:Müller, U (October 2008).
1150:10.1152/physrev.00044.2006
696:inhibitors, including the
658:function and are found in
29:
3922:Olfactory receptor neuron
3586:Neurofibril/neurofilament
3033:Medial vestibular nucleus
2447:10.1016/j.mcn.2009.08.011
2153:10.3389/fcell.2021.710159
1828:Edge AS, Chen ZY (2008).
1751:The Journal of Physiology
1467:Biology of Marine Mammals
1205:10.1016/j.ceb.2008.06.004
1079:The Journal of Physiology
755:and subjacent structures.
654:hair cells, which have a
173:
64:
48:
2948:Medial geniculate nuclei
2766:Hair-Tuning-Sound-Sensor
2372:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
2096:(2). Elsevier: 700–705.
1830:"Hair cell regeneration"
1391:here (physiol.ox.ac.uk).
413:electrochemical gradient
133:Postsynaptic connections
2966:Primary auditory cortex
2916:Superior olivary nuclei
2618:10.1073/pnas.0906765107
2003:10.1073/pnas.0510631103
1926:Journal of Neurobiology
1920:Whitfield, T.T (2002).
1554:Journal of Neuroscience
1369:10.1126/science.3966153
1070:Ashmore, Jonathan Felix
694:Notch signaling pathway
579:vestibulocochlear nerve
276:that protrude from the
142:vestibulocochlear nerve
125:Presynaptic connections
3869:Neuromuscular junction
3732:III or Aδ or fast pain
2750:NIF Search – Hair Cell
2393:10.1073/pnas.96.7.4084
1015:Anatomy and Embryology
965:Developmental Dynamics
687:retinoblastoma protein
675:retinoblastoma protein
595:presynaptic dense body
357:
211:
3064:Vestibulospinal tract
2054:10.1038/sj.gt.3302523
1660:10.1152/jn.00914.2007
1137:Physiological Reviews
803:10.1083/jcb.201006074
351:
313:The outer hair cells
209:
71:Cross-section of the
57:spiral organ of Corti
3887:Meissner's corpuscle
3852:Postsynaptic density
3749:Efferent nerve fiber
3737:IV or C or slow pain
3679:Afferent nerve fiber
3505:Satellite glial cell
3051:Flocculonodular lobe
2849:Otoacoustic emission
543:improve this article
424:basolateral membrane
352:Section through the
315:mechanically amplify
55:Section through the
3892:Merkel nerve ending
2676:2009PLoSO...4.5201B
2651:. February 9, 2010.
2609:2010PNAS..107.3864R
2586:. pp. 360–368.
2384:1999PNAS...96.4084L
2268:2022Natur.605..298G
1994:2006PNAS..103.7345S
1361:1985Sci...227..194B
1242:Nature Neuroscience
656:mechanotransduction
449:nonlinearly amplify
243:mechanotransduction
241:of fishes. Through
146:inferior colliculus
3927:Photoreceptor cell
3897:Pacinian corpuscle
3828:Electrical synapse
3782:Lower motor neuron
3777:Upper motor neuron
3498:Internodal segment
3438:Connective tissues
3408:Autonomic ganglion
2962:Acoustic radiation
2934:Inferior colliculi
2771:2021-08-26 at the
2755:2016-03-03 at the
2746:video Yale Ear Lab
1396:2012-03-07 at the
1304:10.1093/icb/icy064
1027:10.1007/bf00193125
977:10.1002/dvdy.24167
902:10.1093/icb/icy024
852:10.1093/icb/icy064
753:lamina reticularis
648:vestibular systems
453:cochlear amplifier
385:receptor potential
366:mechanically gated
358:
239:lateral line organ
212:
3949:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3912:Free nerve ending
3879:Sensory receptors
3807:
3806:
3722:Ib or Golgi or Aα
3630:
3629:
3513:
3512:
3390:Ramus communicans
3329:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3195:Commissural fiber
3190:Association fiber
3185:Projection fibers
3118:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3099:Vestibular cortex
3029:Vestibular nuclei
2993:Vestibular system
2974:
2973:
2930:Lateral lemniscus
2854:Tullio phenomenon
2493:. pp. 55–94.
2435:Mol Cell Neurosci
2262:(7909): 298–303.
2199:Molecular Therapy
2047:(13): 1021–1022.
1988:(19): 7345–7350.
1939:10.1002/neu.10123
1560:(15): 3992–3998.
1355:(4683): 194–196.
1132:Ashmore, Jonathan
971:(10): 1187–1202.
932:(15): 1092–1102.
738:Additional images
640:stem-cell therapy
575:
574:
567:
515:Neural connection
393:neurotransmitters
227:vestibular system
219:sensory receptors
207:
189:
188:
184:
99:Unique (see text)
16:(Redirected from
3979:
3842:Synaptic vesicle
3837:Chemical synapse
3816:
3536:
3529:
3340:
3235:
3165:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3122:
3015:Vestibular nerve
2983:
2900:Cochlear nucleus
2829:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2783:
2719:
2707:
2697:
2687:
2652:
2640:
2630:
2620:
2603:(8): 3864–3869.
2587:
2578:
2559:
2531:
2494:
2477:
2476:
2458:
2432:
2423:
2417:
2416:(primary source)
2415:
2405:
2395:
2378:(7): 4084–4088.
2363:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2312:
2306:
2305:
2295:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2230:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2155:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2113:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2056:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2015:
2005:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1857:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1783:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1720:
1703:(7): 2487–2495.
1688:
1682:
1681:
1671:
1654:(6): 3360–3369.
1639:
1630:
1629:
1601:
1588:
1587:
1577:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1528:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1481:. Archived from
1464:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1438:
1406:
1400:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1344:
1335:
1334:
1324:
1306:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1216:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1066:
1060:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1010:
999:
998:
988:
956:
950:
949:
921:
915:
914:
904:
880:
874:
873:
863:
831:
825:
824:
814:
782:
764:
748:
708:master regulator
679:tumor suppressor
671:molecular switch
570:
563:
559:
556:
550:
527:
519:
468:chloride channel
381:action potential
332:to the auditory
258:basilar membrane
208:
181:edit on Wikidata
115:Neurotransmitter
69:
53:
41:
21:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3976:
3962:Auditory system
3952:
3951:
3950:
3941:
3873:
3803:
3752:
3743:
3727:II or Aβ and Aγ
3682:
3673:
3626:
3616:Apical dendrite
3611:Dendritic spine
3590:
3552:
3522:
3509:
3493:Node of Ranvier
3488:Myelin incisure
3460:
3432:
3321:
3312:Oligodendrocyte
3295:Ependymal cells
3276:
3226:
3154:
3149:
3119:
3110:
2997:
2970:
2882:Spiral ganglion
2858:
2844:Bone conduction
2839:Auditory system
2820:
2810:
2773:Wayback Machine
2757:Wayback Machine
2728:
2710:
2657:
2643:
2590:
2581:
2575:
2562:
2556:
2534:
2512:10.1038/nrn1828
2497:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2430:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2351:
2349:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2325:
2323:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2083:
2082:
2078:
2034:
2033:
2029:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1641:
1640:
1633:
1603:
1602:
1591:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1473:. p. 132.
1462:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1415:Trends Neurosci
1408:
1407:
1403:
1398:Wayback Machine
1388:
1384:
1346:
1345:
1338:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1012:
1011:
1002:
958:
957:
953:
923:
922:
918:
882:
881:
877:
833:
832:
828:
784:
783:
779:
775:
768:
765:
756:
749:
740:
728:
698:gamma secretase
631:
607:receptive field
571:
560:
554:
551:
540:
528:
517:
492:
476:bioconcentrates
437:
346:
338:auditory cortex
223:auditory system
191:
185:
76:
60:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3985:
3983:
3975:
3974:
3969:
3967:Receptor cells
3964:
3954:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3939:
3937:Taste receptor
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3907:Muscle spindle
3904:
3902:Ruffini ending
3899:
3894:
3889:
3883:
3881:
3875:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3864:Ribbon synapse
3861:
3856:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3834:
3824:
3822:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3758:
3756:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3686:
3684:Sensory neuron
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3659:
3654:
3652:Pseudounipolar
3649:
3644:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3620:Basal dendrite
3613:
3608:
3600:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3571:Axon terminals
3568:
3562:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3544:
3542:
3533:
3526:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3470:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3442:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3430:
3425:
3423:Nerve fascicle
3420:
3414:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3346:
3344:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3292:
3286:
3284:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3243:
3241:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3152:Nervous tissue
3150:
3148:
3147:
3140:
3133:
3125:
3116:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3089:
3088:
3076:
3075:
3054:
3053:
3041:
3040:
3019:
3018:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2989:
2987:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2952:
2951:
2938:
2937:
2920:
2919:
2912:Trapezoid body
2890:
2889:
2886:Cochlear nerve
2868:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2812:Physiology of
2811:
2809:
2808:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2763:
2747:
2739:
2734:
2727:
2726:External links
2724:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2649:Medical Xpress
2588:
2579:
2573:
2560:
2554:
2532:
2495:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2441:(4): 391–398.
2418:
2358:
2332:
2307:
2242:
2185:
2125:
2076:
2027:
1968:
1953:
1932:(2): 157–171.
1912:
1885:(2): 166–174.
1869:
1840:(4): 377–382.
1820:
1795:
1740:Housley, G D;
1732:
1683:
1631:
1589:
1540:
1511:(4): 530–545.
1491:
1488:on 2018-09-19.
1450:
1421:(3): 115–117.
1401:
1382:
1336:
1297:(2): 282–300.
1277:
1254:10.1038/nn1385
1248:(2): 149–155.
1228:
1199:(5): 557–566.
1179:
1144:(1): 173–210.
1123:
1086:(1): 323–347.
1061:
1048:
1000:
951:
916:
895:(2): 301–316.
875:
846:(2): 282–300.
826:
797:(2): 237–248.
776:
774:
771:
770:
769:
766:
759:
757:
750:
743:
739:
736:
735:
734:
727:
724:
683:sonic hedgehog
630:
627:
573:
572:
555:September 2016
531:
529:
522:
516:
513:
491:
488:
484:toothed whales
436:
433:
354:organ of Corti
345:
342:
330:auditory nerve
278:apical surface
254:organ of Corti
187:
186:
177:
171:
170:
161:
154:
153:
149:
148:
138:auditory nerve
134:
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54:
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26:
24:
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10:
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3:
2:
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3957:
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3915:
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3876:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
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3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3798:
3797:γ motorneuron
3795:
3793:
3792:β motorneuron
3790:
3788:
3787:α motorneuron
3785:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
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3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3296:
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3285:
3283:
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3273:
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3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
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3236:
3233:
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3220:
3218:
3215:
3211:
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3201:
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676:
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649:
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637:
628:
626:
624:
620:
616:
615:acetylcholine
610:
608:
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596:
592:
588:
584:
583:cranial nerve
580:
569:
566:
558:
548:
544:
538:
537:
532:This section
530:
526:
521:
520:
514:
512:
508:
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500:
498:
489:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
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461:
460:motor protein
456:
454:
450:
445:
441:
434:
432:
430:
425:
420:
416:
414:
410:
409:scala tympani
406:
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331:
326:
324:
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316:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
287:
283:
282:cochlear duct
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
246:
244:
240:
237:, and in the
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
182:
176:
172:
169:
165:
164:sao1582628662
162:
159:
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143:
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113:
110:
106:
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98:
94:
91:
88:
84:
79:
74:
68:
63:
58:
52:
47:
42:
37:
33:
32:Hair follicle
19:
3931:
3832:Gap junction
3754:Motor neuron
3548:Axon hillock
3524:nerve fibers
3478:Schwann cell
3388:
3371:
3349:
3267:Medium spiny
3180:White matter
3168:Tissue Types
3092:
3079:
3057:
3044:
3022:
3008:
2955:
2941:
2923:
2893:
2877:
2871:
2742:
2715:
2670:(4): e5201.
2667:
2663:
2648:
2600:
2596:
2583:
2564:
2540:
2506:(1): 19–29.
2503:
2499:
2490:
2483:Bibliography
2438:
2434:
2421:
2375:
2371:
2361:
2350:. Retrieved
2345:
2335:
2324:. Retrieved
2320:
2310:
2259:
2255:
2245:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2143:
2139:
2128:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2044:
2040:
2030:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1963:Times Online
1962:
1956:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1812:. Retrieved
1807:
1798:
1758:(1): 73–98.
1755:
1749:
1742:Ashmore, J F
1735:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1651:
1647:
1609:
1605:
1557:
1553:
1543:
1508:
1504:
1494:
1483:the original
1466:
1453:
1418:
1414:
1404:
1385:
1352:
1348:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1245:
1241:
1231:
1196:
1192:
1182:
1141:
1135:
1126:
1083:
1077:
1064:
1059:(cochlea.eu)
1051:
1018:
1014:
968:
964:
954:
929:
925:
919:
892:
888:
878:
843:
839:
829:
794:
790:
780:
720:hearing loss
713:
702:
691:
668:
652:lateral line
636:gene therapy
632:
619:neuropeptide
611:
603:
594:
581:(the eighth
576:
561:
552:
541:Please help
536:verification
533:
509:
501:
493:
457:
446:
442:
438:
421:
417:
369:ion channels
359:
327:
312:
290:
274:hair bundles
273:
256:on the thin
247:
221:of both the
214:
213:
168:sao429277527
3972:Human cells
3847:Active zone
3812:Termination
3662:Interneuron
3566:Telodendron
3474:Myelination
3456:Endoneurium
3451:Perineurium
3272:Interneuron
3262:Von Economo
3210:Decussation
3205:Nerve tract
3175:Grey matter
3059:spinal cord
2743:Dancing OHC
1612:: 521–545.
1021:(1): 1–18.
472:tributyltin
362:stereocilia
336:and to the
270:stereocilia
235:vertebrates
152:Identifiers
3956:Categories
3917:Nociceptor
3657:Multipolar
3606:Nissl body
3483:Neurilemma
3446:Epineurium
3231:Cell Types
3046:cerebellum
2878:Hair cells
2456:2433/87734
2352:2022-05-11
2326:2022-05-11
1814:2008-06-04
1057:Hair cells
773:References
660:anamniotes
497:calmodulin
429:epithelium
300:regenerate
286:kinocilium
215:Hair cells
18:Hair cells
3932:Hair cell
3466:Neuroglia
3428:Funiculus
3317:Microglia
3290:Astrocyte
3247:Pyramidal
3200:Lemniscus
3010:inner ear
2873:inner ear
2777:IIT Ropar
2536:Kandel ER
2473:206831997
2284:1476-4687
2219:1525-0016
2162:2296-634X
2041:Gene Ther
1879:Hear. Res
1772:1469-7793
1313:1540-7063
1158:0031-9333
1100:1469-7793
664:zebrafish
591:glutamate
405:perilymph
401:receptors
373:potassium
334:brainstem
323:tetrapods
304:zebrafish
292:Mammalian
266:inner ear
119:Glutamate
109:brainstem
44:Hair cell
3717:Ia or Aα
3647:Unipolar
3596:Dendrite
3581:Axolemma
3576:Axoplasm
3360:Ganglion
3300:Tanycyte
3252:Purkinje
3239:Neuronal
3222:Meninges
3217:Neuropil
3094:cerebrum
3081:thalamus
2957:cerebrum
2943:thalamus
2925:midbrain
2904:Anterior
2769:Archived
2759:via the
2753:Archived
2716:Phys.org
2704:19384413
2664:PLOS ONE
2637:20133682
2528:10155096
2520:16371947
2465:19733668
2412:10097167
2302:35508658
2237:30982678
2180:34485296
2120:23211596
2071:28974038
2063:19202631
2022:16648263
1948:12382273
1864:18929656
1744:(1992).
1727:11923413
1678:17942617
1626:14977412
1584:16611815
1535:18760690
1479:48867300
1445:12591210
1394:Archived
1331:29917041
1272:15643426
1223:18619539
1174:17722638
1166:18195086
1072:(1987).
1043:25619337
995:25045019
911:29741623
870:29917041
821:20956378
726:See also
692:Several
644:auditory
629:Regrowth
587:afferent
505:tip link
225:and the
217:are the
158:NeuroLex
104:Function
86:Location
3859:Autapse
3820:Synapse
3667:Renshaw
3642:Bipolar
3519:Neurons
3372:Ventral
3343:General
3257:Granule
3002:Pathway
2986:General
2979:Balance
2864:Pathway
2832:General
2825:Hearing
2818:hearing
2814:balance
2695:2668172
2672:Bibcode
2628:2840494
2605:Bibcode
2546:590–594
2380:Bibcode
2293:9803360
2264:Bibcode
2228:6520458
2171:8414802
2111:3579567
2013:1450112
1990:Bibcode
1907:4766481
1899:8432687
1855:5653255
1808:Meddean
1790:1593487
1781:1176188
1718:6758312
1669:2647849
1575:6673883
1526:2724262
1436:2724262
1377:3966153
1357:Bibcode
1349:Science
1322:6104712
1263:2151387
1214:2692626
1118:3656195
1109:1192551
1035:8192233
986:4177345
946:8371732
861:6104712
812:2958478
621:called
464:prestin
407:in the
395:at the
377:calcium
319:cochlea
272:called
264:of the
262:cochlea
260:in the
250:mammals
233:of all
229:in the
90:Cochlea
81:Details
73:cochlea
3712:fibers
3350:Dorsal
2908:Dorsal
2702:
2692:
2635:
2625:
2571:
2552:
2526:
2518:
2471:
2463:
2410:
2400:
2346:Cosmos
2300:
2290:
2282:
2256:Nature
2235:
2225:
2217:
2178:
2168:
2160:
2118:
2108:
2069:
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2020:
2010:
1946:
1905:
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1852:
1788:
1778:
1770:
1725:
1715:
1676:
1666:
1624:
1582:
1572:
1533:
1523:
1505:Neuron
1477:
1443:
1433:
1375:
1329:
1319:
1311:
1270:
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1172:
1164:
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1106:
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1041:
1033:
993:
983:
944:
909:
868:
858:
819:
809:
716:CDKN1B
617:and a
599:ribbon
364:opens
306:, and
3635:Types
3532:Parts
3401:White
3382:Ramus
3365:Ramus
3282:Glial
2524:S2CID
2469:S2CID
2431:(PDF)
2403:22424
2067:S2CID
1903:S2CID
1486:(PDF)
1475:S2CID
1463:(PDF)
1170:S2CID
1039:S2CID
480:orcas
397:basal
308:birds
179:[
96:Shape
3558:Axon
3540:Soma
3396:Gray
3377:Root
3355:Root
3024:pons
2910:) →
2895:pons
2816:and
2700:PMID
2633:PMID
2569:ISBN
2550:ISBN
2516:PMID
2461:PMID
2408:PMID
2298:PMID
2280:ISSN
2233:PMID
2215:ISSN
2176:PMID
2158:ISSN
2116:PMID
2059:PMID
2018:PMID
1944:PMID
1895:PMID
1860:PMID
1786:PMID
1768:ISSN
1723:PMID
1674:PMID
1622:PMID
1580:PMID
1531:PMID
1441:PMID
1373:PMID
1327:PMID
1309:ISSN
1268:PMID
1219:PMID
1162:PMID
1154:ISSN
1114:PMID
1096:ISSN
1031:PMID
991:PMID
942:PMID
907:PMID
866:PMID
817:PMID
751:The
704:TBX2
646:and
638:and
482:and
375:and
231:ears
136:Via
128:None
3772:SVE
3767:GVE
3762:GSE
3707:SVA
3702:SSA
3697:GVA
3692:GSA
3335:PNS
3160:CNS
2690:PMC
2680:doi
2623:PMC
2613:doi
2601:107
2508:doi
2451:hdl
2443:doi
2398:PMC
2388:doi
2288:PMC
2272:doi
2260:605
2223:PMC
2207:doi
2166:PMC
2148:doi
2106:PMC
2098:doi
2094:430
2049:doi
2008:PMC
1998:doi
1986:103
1934:doi
1887:doi
1850:PMC
1842:doi
1776:PMC
1760:doi
1756:448
1713:PMC
1705:doi
1664:PMC
1656:doi
1614:doi
1570:PMC
1562:doi
1521:PMC
1513:doi
1431:PMC
1423:doi
1365:doi
1353:227
1317:PMC
1299:doi
1258:PMC
1250:doi
1209:PMC
1201:doi
1146:doi
1104:PMC
1088:doi
1084:388
1023:doi
1019:189
981:PMC
973:doi
969:243
934:doi
930:329
897:doi
856:PMC
848:doi
807:PMC
799:doi
795:191
597:or
545:by
248:In
144:to
140:to
3958::
3476::
3070:,
3035:,
2964:→
2932:→
2914:→
2906:,
2884:→
2880:→
2714:.
2698:.
2688:.
2678:.
2666:.
2662:.
2647:.
2631:.
2621:.
2611:.
2599:.
2595:.
2548:.
2522:.
2514:.
2502:.
2467:.
2459:.
2449:.
2439:42
2437:.
2433:.
2406:.
2396:.
2386:.
2376:96
2374:.
2370:.
2344:.
2319:.
2296:.
2286:.
2278:.
2270:.
2258:.
2254:.
2231:.
2221:.
2213:.
2203:27
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2174:.
2164:.
2156:.
2142:.
2138:.
2114:.
2104:.
2092:.
2088:.
2065:.
2057:.
2045:12
2043:.
2039:.
2016:.
2006:.
1996:.
1984:.
1980:.
1942:.
1930:53
1928:.
1924:.
1901:.
1893:.
1883:64
1881:.
1858:.
1848:.
1838:18
1836:.
1832:.
1806:.
1784:.
1774:.
1766:.
1754:.
1748:.
1721:.
1711:.
1701:22
1699:.
1695:.
1672:.
1662:.
1652:98
1650:.
1646:.
1634:^
1620:.
1610:66
1608:.
1592:^
1578:.
1568:.
1558:26
1556:.
1552:.
1529:.
1519:.
1509:59
1507:.
1503:.
1469:.
1439:.
1429:.
1419:26
1417:.
1413:.
1371:.
1363:.
1351:.
1339:^
1325:.
1315:.
1307:.
1295:58
1293:.
1289:.
1266:.
1256:.
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