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examined so far in which hair analysis was used (the review was still in progress). The review concluded that in 257 of these 268 trials (95 percent), the analysts gave flawed testimony in court that overstated the accuracy of the findings in favor of the prosecution. About 1200 cases remain to be examined. The department emphasized its commitment to following up on these cases to correct any wrongs, saying that they "are committed to ensuring that affected defendants are notified of past errors and that justice is done in every instance. The department and the FBI are also committed to ensuring the accuracy of future hair analysis, as well as the application of all disciplines of forensic science."
142:. Hair analysis is less invasive than a blood test, if not quite as universally applicable. In this context, it has been reliably used to determine compliance with therapeutic drug regimes or to check the accuracy of a witness statement that an illicit drug has not been taken. Hair testing is an increasingly common method of assessment in substance misuse, particularly in legal proceedings, or in any situation where a subject may have decided not to tell the entire truth about his or her substance-using history. Post-mortem hair sample analysis can also be performed, to allow for determination of long-term drug use or poisoning. It is also used by employers, who test their employees.
240:
307:, announced that this investigation would be suspended, at the same time that he announced the end of a forensic science commission that had been working to establish standards on several tests and to improve accuracy; it was a "partnership with independent scientists to raise forensic science standards". Independent scientists, prosecutors, defense counsel and judges criticized ending the commission, saying that the criminal justice system needed to rely on the best science.
413:
unproven practice and its potential for health care fraud." A recent review of scientific literature by Dr
Kempson highlighted analysis of metals/minerals in hair can be applied in large population studies for researching epidemiology and groups of chronically exposed populations, however any attempt to provide a diagnosis based on hair for an individual is not possible. An exception to this can be in advanced analyses for acute poisoning.
49:
205:
such that the hair could be 'proof' of a specific suspect's presence. While the typed reports often hedged the certainty of microscopic hair analysis, witnesses in court would not always be as modest. The manager of the
Montana state crime lab testified there was a "1 in 10,000 chance" that hairs found at a crime scene did not come from the suspect in one case, for example.
114:
confirming that hairs do not match. But DNA testing of evidence has overturned many convictions that relied on hair analysis. Since 2012, the
Department of Justice has conducted a study of cases in which hair analysis testimony was given by its agents, and found that a high proportion of testimony could not be supported by the state of science of hair analysis.
276:(another technique which modern research has shown to be much less reliable than previously thought), Odom was sentenced to twenty or more years in jail. DNA analysis, however, proved that Odom was entirely innocent. While Odom had been released from prison in 2003, he was officially exonerated in 2012 and was paid a large settlement by the city.
412:
have unusual hair mineral contents. These uses are often controversial, and the
American Medical Association states, "The AMA opposes chemical analysis of the hair as a determinant of the need for medical therapy and supports informing the American public and appropriate governmental agencies of this
318:
in 1982, and was formally exonerated in 2021 after finishing his time in 1998. The only physical evidence the prosecution offered in 1982 was a hair analysis that was "consistent" with
Broadwater. More alarmingly, the only reason the case was re-examined was the unusual fact that Sebold had written
199:
Microscopic hair analysis consists of the comparison of several strands of hair under a microscope and determining if the physical characteristics of each individual hairs are consistent with each other or not. It was accepted as a forensic science by the 1950s. Researchers often monitored more than
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for the time when the crime was committed. The prosecutor overstated the reliability of hair analysis in identifying a single person, saying in his closing statement that "There is one chance, perhaps for all we know, in 10 million that it could someone else's hair." DNA testing in
January 2012,
256:
In 1994, the
Justice Department created a task force which would eventually review 6,000 cases by 2004, focusing on the work of one particularly zealous examiner, Michael Malone. These reviews came after reports that sloppy work by examiners at the FBI lab was producing unreliable forensic evidence
204:
with a certain suspect having been at the scene – black hair at the scene when the suspect has black hair – microscopic hair analysis began to claim a stronger standard by the 1970s. Rather than merely "narrow the field" of possibilities, hair analysts claimed to be able to match a specific person,
291:
The outcry from defense attorneys about the unreliability of hair analysis and overstatement by FBI experts has resulted in the FBI conducting a review of disputed hair analysis matches since 2012. Due to what it found, in July 2013 the
Justice department began an "unprecedented" review of older
333:
Analysis of hair samples has many advantages as a preliminary screening method for the presence of toxic substances deleterious to health after exposures in air, dust, sediment, soil and water, food and toxins in the environment. The advantages of hair analysis include the non-invasiveness, low
295:
By 2015, these cases included as many as 32 death penalty convictions, in which FBI experts may have exaggerated the reliability of hair analysis in their testimony and affected the verdict. Of these, 14 persons have been executed or died in prison. In 2015, DOJ released findings on 268 trials
370:
in pregnant women and effects of supplementation, it was concluded that "From the analyses, it was clear that hair concentrations of Ca, Fe, and Zn could reflect the effects of supplementation... Finally, it could be concluded that mineral element deficiencies might be convalesced by adequate
261:
reported that "Instead of releasing those findings, they made them available only to the prosecutors in the affected cases." A study of FBI Laboratory hair analysis cases between 1996 and 2000 was released in 2002 by Max M. Houck and Bruce
Budowle. The study showed that 11% of hair analysis
252:
was introduced as a key new technique into forensics investigations; it introduced a new level of certainty about matching suspects to evidence. DNA analysis of old cases from the 1970s and 80s, however, contradicted conclusions about a number of earlier matches on the basis of hair analysis.
262:"matches" were contradicted by DNA analysis. As the set of cases analyzed was one which would be expected to favor matches strongly in any case – only hair of individuals the police already believed to be potential suspects was sent in – this error rate was considered to be extremely high.
113:
Microscopic hair analysis has traditionally been used in forensics as well. Analysts examine a number of different characteristics of hairs under a microscope, usually comparing hair taken from a crime scene and hair taken from a suspect. It is still acknowledged as a useful technique for
200:
a dozen attributes, including pigment distribution and scale patterns. This technique has been used in criminal investigations to try to tie hair found at a crime scene, or other location of note, and confirm if the hair matches that of a suspect. While a simple hair color match might be
334:
cost, and the ability to measure a large number of, potentially interacting, toxic and biologically essential elements. Hence, head hair analysis is increasingly being used as a preliminary test to see whether individuals have absorbed poisons linked to behavioral or health problems.
247:
Skepticism about the stronger claims used by witnesses in the 1970s and 1980s existed at the time. Researchers said in 1974 that the whole process was inherently subjective, and the FBI wrote in 1984 that hair analysis cannot positively match one single person. In the 1990s,
425:
Auwärter V.: Fettsäureethylester als Marker exzessiven
Alkoholkonsums – Analytische Bestimmung im Haar und in Hautoberflächenlipiden mittels Headspace-Festphasenmikroextraktion und Gaschromatographie-Massenspektrometrie. Dissertation Humboldt-Universität Berlin
82:
sample, but can also refer to microscopic analysis or comparison. Chemical hair analysis may be considered for retrospective purposes when blood and urine are no longer expected to contain a particular contaminant, typically three months or less.
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288:
however, showed that the prosecution's key piece of evidence, the hair, did not in fact match the defendant. Tribble was fully exonerated in December 2012, having served 28 years in prison that resulted in severe health problems.
397:. The hair is sampled, processed and analyzed, studying the levels of mineral and metals in the hair sample. Using the results, as part of a proper examination or test protocol, practitioners screen for toxic exposure and
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1006:
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The use of hair analysis appears to be valid for the measurement of lifelong, or long-term heavy metal burden, if not the measurement of general elemental analysis. Several studies, including the analysis of
1354:, in (eds. Edward. J. Cone, Ph.D., Michael. J. Welch, Ph.D., and M. Beth Grigson Babecki, M.A.), "Hair Testing for Drugs of Abuse: International Research on Standards and Technology", 1995, pp. 91–120.
430:
Pragst F.; Auwärter V.; Kiessling B.; Dyes C. (2004). "Wipe-test and patch-test for alcohol misuse based on the concentration ratio of fatty acid ethyl esters and squalen CFAEE/CSQ in skin surface lipids".
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might detect drugs taken in the past 2–3 days; hair analysis can sometimes detect use as far as 90 days, although certain cosmetic treatments (e.g. dyeing hair) can interfere with this. Notably,
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Welch M.J.; Sniegoski L.T.; Allgood C.C.; Habram M. (1993). "Hair analysis for drugs of abuse: Evaluation of analytical methods, environmental issues, and development of reference materials".
807:
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Romolo F.S.; Rotolo M.C.; Palmi I.; Pacifici R.; Lopez A. (2003). "Optimized conditions for simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine and benzoylecgonine in hair samples by GC-MS".
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Lathe, Richard, and Michael Le Page. "Toxic metal clue to autism: a study has revealed startling differences in mercury levels in the hair of autistic and normal children. (This Week)."
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As of late 2019, 75 people who were convicted of a crime based on microscopic hair comparison were subsequently exonerated. Another notable case that received media attention since was
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was convicted in 1979 at the age of 17 in Washington, DC of murder due to FBI testimony in a hair analysis match of hair found at the scene. But he had three witnesses who gave him an
180:(GC-MS). Chromato-mass-spectrometry is less likely to result in false positive findings than ELISA, but the former requires expensive equipment and highly trained personnel.
601:
Høiseth, Gudrun; Arnestad, Marianne; Karinen, Ritva; Morini, Luca; Rogde, Sidsel; Sempio, Cristina; Vindenes, Vigdis; Øiestad, Åse Marit Leere (September 14, 2017).
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Leung, PL; Huang, HM; Sun, DZ; Zhu, MG (September 1999). "Hair concentrations of calcium, iron, and zinc in pregnant women and effects of supplementation".
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series before being widely used by the police. Fictional TV programs involving police procedurals and detectives have continued to use it since, including
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Pragst F., Balikova M.A.: State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drugs and alcohol abuse; Clinica Chimic Acta 370 2006 17–49.
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Kempson I.M., Henry D.A. (2010). "Synchrotron Radiation Reveals Arsenic Poisoning and Metabolism in Hair: The case of Phar Lap".
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Hair analysis: A potential for medical abuse. Policy number H-175.995,(Sub. Res. 67, I-84; Reaffirmed by CLRPD Rep. 3 – I-94)
1362:
Kintz P (2007). "Bioanalytical procedures for detection of chemical agents in hair in the case of drug-facilitated crimes".
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cases involving hair analysis, examining more than 21,000 cases referred to the FBI Lab's hair unit from 1982 through 1999.
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Microscopic hair analysis has a long tradition of being used in crime fiction as well; it was originally popularized in the
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was convicted of rape in Washington, DC in 1982 by no physical evidence except microscopic hair analysis performed by the
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Large-scale drug screening (or urine, hair and other samples) is usually done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (
54:
1059:"Bloodstain Analysis Convinced a Jury She Stabbed Her 10-Year-Old Son. Now, Even Freedom Can't Give Her Back Her Life"
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Trace element analysis in hair: factors determining accuracy, precision, and reliability – Statistical Data Included.
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Usman, Muhammad; Naseer, Abid; Baig, Yawar; Jamshaid, Tahir; Shahwar, Muhammad; Khurshuid, Shazia (April 27, 2019).
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Hair testing is taking root. 2011. Ann Clin Biochem. 48/6, 516-30. G.a.A. Cooper. doi: 10.1258/acb.2011.011112.
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Hair testing is taking root. 2011. Ann Clin Biochem. 48/6, 516-30. G.A.A. Cooper. doi: 10.1258/acb.2011.011112.
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Sachs H. Kintz (1998). "Testing for drugs in hair. Critical review of chromatographic procedures since 1992".
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Kempson I.M., Lombi E. (2011). "Hair analysis as a biomonitor for toxicology, disease and health status".
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1493:
Cary T. Oien, Unit Chief, FBI Lab, "Forensic Hair Comparison: Background Information for Interpretation"
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Houck, Max; Budowle, Bruce (2002). "Correlation of microscopic and mitochondrial DNA hair comparisons".
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This article is about scientific uses of hair analysis. For pseudo-scientific health practice, see
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are present in higher concentrations in hair compared with benzodiazepines and cannabinoids.
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Hair analysis has the virtue of showing a 'history' of drug use due to hair's slow growth.
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1033:"Sessions orders Justice Dept. to end forensic science commission, suspend review policy"
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479:"Validity of Head Hair Analysis and Methods of Assessing Multiple Chemical Sensitivity"
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Niculescu, T; Dumitru, R; Botha, V; Alexandrescu, R; Manolescu, N (February 1983).
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926:"Kirk Odom, who served 20 years for 1981 D.C. rape, is innocent, prosecutors say"
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Center for Environmental Health Sciences at Dartmouth. Accessed December 9, 2006.
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1159:"Relationship between the lead concentration in hair and occupational exposure"
1007:"U.S. reviewing 27 death penalty convictions for FBI forensic testimony errors"
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Chemical hair analysis is used for the detection of many therapeutic drugs and
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808:"Convicted defendants left uninformed of forensic flaws found by Justice Dept"
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325:), which allowed later investigators to uncover major problems with the case.
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The judicial admissibility of the test in the United States is guided by the
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651:"Common Industries & Jobs That Require Drug Testing | Checkr Blog"
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in court trials. At first, these investigations were largely kept quiet;
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Nakahara Y (1999). "Hair analysis for abused and therapeutic drugs".
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The image depicts different properties that make up a strand of hair.
172:). Positive ELISA findings are followed by confirmatory testing with
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drugs get incorporated into hair to a greater extent than neutral or
131:
1088:
Knoll, Corina; Zraick, Karen; Alter, Alexandra (December 15, 2021).
110:, but these uses are controversial, evolving, and not standardized.
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Gaillard Y., Pepin G. (1999). "Testing hair for pharmaceuticals".
1090:"He Was Convicted of Raping Alice Sebold. Then the Case Unraveled"
562:"Hair Analysis for Drugs of Abuse: Plausibility of Interpretation"
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952:"Santae Tribble cleared in 1978 murder based on DNA hair test"
839:"DNA Analysis Exposes Flaws in an Inexact Forensic Science"
772:"Nevada Employment Security Department v. Cynthia Holmes"
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as a method of investigation to assist screening and/or
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762:: Second series, Volume 681. West Pub. Co. 1996. p. 44
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United States v. Medina, 749 F.Supp. 59 (E.D.N.Y.1990)
347:'s hair, have been conducted in conjunction with the
781:, Kamer Zucker Abbott. 1996. Accessed March 21, 2011
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Occupational, environmental and alternative medicine
695:"Forensic toxicological analysis of hair: a review"
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Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub
401:. Some advocates claim that they can also diagnose
61:
41:
86:Its most widely accepted use is in the fields of
981:"FBI admits flaws in hair analysis over decades"
272:. Combined with a witness's identification in a
664:Gautam, Lata; Cole, Mike (September 13, 2013).
832:
830:
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603:"Is Hair Analysis Useful in Postmortem Cases?"
385:Hair analysis has been used in occupational,
371:compensations of mineral element nutrients."
53:Schema depicting how human hair appears in a
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1350:Henderson, G.L., Harkey, M.R., Jones, R.T.,
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1513:"Skeptoid #821: Forensic (Pseudo) Science"
358:In a 1999 study on hair concentrations of
353:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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503:Dartmouth Toxic Metals Research Program.
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338:Detection of long-term elemental effects
319:an extensive memoir of her experiences (
78:may refer to the chemical analysis of a
1535:, Criminology, Florida State University
1285:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
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174:liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
666:"Hair Analysis in Forensic Toxicology"
195:Microscopic hair analysis in forensics
38:
1057:Colloff, Pamela (December 20, 2018).
699:Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences
7:
1216:Altern Med Review 2001;6(5):472–481.
688:
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381:Hair analysis (alternative medicine)
178:gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
94:and, increasingly, in environmental
34:Hair analysis (alternative medicine)
481:. Dartmouth College. Archived from
314:, who had been convicted of raping
1205:Bass DA, Hickok D, Quig D, Urek K.
950:Hsu, Spencer (December 14, 2012).
863:Toobin, Jeffery (April 30, 2007).
27:Chemical analysis of a hair sample
25:
1499:, April 2009, Volume 11, Number 2
1533:"Hair Drug Testing Bibliography"
837:Haberman, Clyde (May 18, 2014).
607:Journal of Analytical Toxicology
1497:Forensic Science Communications
1442:10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.07.013
1229:178.2400 (June 21, 2003): 4(2).
1031:Hsu, Spencer (April 18, 2017).
979:Hsu, Spencer (April 18, 2015).
806:Hsu, Spencer (April 16, 2012).
445:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.02.041
1430:Forensic Science International
1352:"Analysis of Hair for Cocaine"
1005:Hsu, Spencer (July 17, 2013).
924:Hsu, Spencer (July 10, 2012).
299:In 2017, new Attorney General
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1471:10.1016/S0378-4347(98)00168-6
1413:10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00059-6
1336:10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00263-7
349:National Institutes of Health
1065:. ProPublica. Archived from
891:Journal of Forensic Sciences
187:. A notable court case was
55:scanning electron microscope
329:In environmental toxicology
92:pre-employment drug testing
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1212:November 11, 2006, at the
511:November 26, 2006, at the
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1376:10.1007/s00216-007-1209-z
712:10.1186/s41935-019-0119-5
303:, appointed by President
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1358:Publication No. 95-3727.
1250:Chemical Society Reviews
102:fields also use various
1503:Society of Hair Testing
777:March 21, 2012, at the
560:Balikova Marie (2005).
1297:10.1002/anie.200906594
244:
118:In forensic toxicology
408:and that people with
399:heavy metal poisoning
389:and some branches of
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539:10.1093/jat/17.7.389
485:on September 3, 2005
391:alternative medicine
345:Ludwig van Beethoven
270:FBI Crime Laboratory
100:alternative medicine
1559:Forensic techniques
1364:Anal. Bioanal. Chem
1175:10.1136/oem.40.1.67
1116:Biol Trace Elem Res
1069:on January 16, 2020
1037:The Washington Post
1011:The Washington Post
985:The Washington Post
956:The Washington Post
930:The Washington Post
812:The Washington Post
579:10.5507/bp.2005.026
477:Masters, Rogers D.
279:In a similar case,
259:The Washington Post
88:forensic toxicology
1262:10.1039/C1CS15021A
1128:10.1007/BF02783879
1094:The New York Times
843:The New York Times
620:10.1093/jat/bkx077
312:Anthony Broadwater
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124:recreational drugs
106:for environmental
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126:, including
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1073:January 16,
489:December 9,
176:(LC-MS) or
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18:Hair sample
1554:Trichology
1543:Categories
1099:January 8,
1016:August 31,
961:August 31,
935:August 31,
848:August 31,
817:August 31,
675:August 13,
461:References
417:Literature
221:Quincy, ME
202:consistent
108:toxicology
96:toxicology
1042:April 18,
990:April 22,
729:150379671
721:2090-5939
629:0146-4760
395:diagnosis
1518:Skeptoid
1450:14642715
1421:10572981
1392:28981255
1384:17340077
1344:10572983
1305:20432493
1270:21468435
1210:Archived
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1136:10468164
911:12353582
874:April 6,
775:Archived
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509:Archived
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1479:9700557
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547:8309210
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360:calcium
274:line-up
215:Columbo
163:cocaine
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230:, and
227:Dexter
155:acidic
132:heroin
1388:S2CID
1140:S2CID
725:S2CID
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426:2006.
322:Lucky
285:alibi
170:ELISA
151:basic
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68:P2031
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1475:PMID
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1417:PMID
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1132:PMID
1101:2022
1075:2020
1044:2017
1018:2014
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850:2014
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717:ISSN
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633:PMID
625:ISSN
584:PMID
543:PMID
491:2006
449:PMID
368:zinc
364:iron
351:and
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