672:
historian Dexter Hoyos believes the rebels would have been better served if their two forces had attacked separately but simultaneously, forcing the
Carthaginians to fight in two different directions. He ascribes their actual tactics to Spendius not trusting the inexperienced Libyans to manoeuvre independently. After a hotly contested battle, regarding which few details survive, the role of the Carthaginian elephants and the Numidian cavalry proved decisive and the rebels were defeated. They took heavy losses, but their survivors retreated from the field in good order. Rebel casualties were given by Polybius as 10,000 killed and 4,000 captured. Hoyos suggests this may be an exaggeration, but comments that it is not impossible. Spendius and Autaritus escaped the battle and made for Hippo. Carthaginian losses are not known.
664:. During the First Punic War a Roman army had campaigned in North Africa in 256 and 255 BC. Many Numidians had gone over to the Romans and after the Romans were expelled had been brutally suppressed. Aware of this broad history, the rebel commanders trusted the Numidians to be reliably anti-Carthaginian. However, Naravas' clan had family ties with Carthaginians, and he was apparently impressed by Hamilcar's military ability. He decided to switch sides. Naravas approached the Carthaginian camp undetected with a small escort, signalled for a parley and entered the camp unarmed and alone. He won Hamilcar's trust and was promised the hand of Hamilcar's daughter in marriage in exchange for his help. Naravas returned to his command and took it over to the Carthaginian side.
699:
676:
feared the disintegration of his army; he was aware such generous terms would not be extended to the rebel leaders. Encouraged by his senior subordinates, notably
Autaritus, to remove the possibility of any goodwill between the sides, he had 700 Carthaginian prisoners, including Gisco, tortured to death: they had their hands cut off, were castrated, their legs were broken, they were thrown into a pit and then buried alive. The Carthaginians, in turn, killed their prisoners. From this point, neither side showed any mercy, and the unusual ferocity of the fighting caused Polybius to term it the "Truceless War". Any further prisoners taken by the Carthaginians were trampled to death by elephants.
457:
624:
the
Carthaginians. Spendius probably also awaited reinforcements and a favourable situation in which to engage Hamilcar's army. It is not known what measures Hamilcar employed to counter the harassment tactics of Spendius, or the exact route Hamilcar followed after his victory over the rebels at the Bagradas River. Hamilcar's army by this time consisted of between 10,000 and 15,000 men, as well as his elephants. Spendius' force totalled some 20,000–25,000 men: half or more were freshly recruited Libyans, 8,000 were veterans from Sicily – many of them Gauls, under Autaritus – and there were 2,000
557:
2113:
653:
there has been much modern speculation, with widely separated possibilities being suggested, but no consensus has been reached. The
Carthaginian position was well fortified and had access to water, but food and animal fodder was limited. If Hamilcar was to avoid starvation, he was going to have to leave his camp and attempt to fight his way out against a prepared opponent, with a large enemy force in his rear. Polybius considered this "a great dilemma".
2493:
584:). Hanno, as the commander of Carthage's African army, took the field with an army of 8,000–10,000 men and 100 war elephants. Most of the Africans in his force remained loyal; they were accustomed to acting against their fellow Africans. His non-African contingent also remained loyal. An unknown number of Carthaginian citizens were incorporated into this army.
713:
led 40,000 men against
Hamilcar. After a period of campaigning, the details of which are not clear in the sources, the Carthaginians pinned the rebels in a pass or against a mountain range known as the Saw. Trapped in the mountains and with their food exhausted, the rebels ate their horses, their prisoners and then their slaves, hoping Mathos would
754:
Most of the towns and cities which had not already come to terms with
Carthage now did so, with the exceptions of Utica and Hippo, whose inhabitants feared vengeance for their massacre of Carthaginians. They attempted to hold out, but Polybius says they too "quickly" surrendered, probably in late 238
730:
in full view of the city. Mathos ordered a large-scale night attack, which surprised the
Carthaginians who suffered many casualties. Hannibal and a delegation of 30 Carthaginian notables who were visiting the army were captured. They were tortured and then nailed to the crosses previously occupied by
712:
At some point between March and
September 239 BC the previously loyal cities of Utica and Hippo slew their Carthaginian garrisons and joined the rebels. Mathos and the rebels previously operating in the area moved south and blockaded Carthage from Tunis. While Mathos maintained the blockade, Spendius
675:
Since leaving
Carthage, Hamilcar had treated rebels he had captured well and offered them a choice of joining his army or free passage home. He made the same offer to the 4,000 captives from the recent battle. Spendius perceived this generous treatment as the motivation behind Naravas's defection and
419:
troops responded by demanding even more. Gisco, who had a good reputation with the army, was brought over from Sicily in late 241 BC and despatched to the camp with enough money to pay most of what was owed. He started to disburse this, with promises that the balance would be paid as soon as it could
652:
by
Spendius, or a failed attempt by Hamilcar to attack an isolated part of the rebel army. Spendius blocked the valley exit with his Libyan contingent, threatened the camp with his main body and the Numidians took a position to the Carthaginian rear. The exact location of this position is not known:
439:
dissatisfied with Hanno's attitude towards tax raising from Carthage's African possessions, their generals. The news of a formed, experienced, anti-Carthaginian army in the heart of its territory spread rapidly and many cities and towns rose in rebellion. Provisions, money and reinforcements poured
298:
and cavalry on open ground, the rebels stayed on higher and rougher terrain and harassed the Carthaginian army. The Carthaginians became trapped in a mountain valley and their situation was bleak. Naravas defected to Carthage, bringing his 2,000 cavalry with him. Hamilcar, with his route of retreat
671:
high after this unexpected turn of events and their line of retreat secure, Hamilcar had his army leave their fortifications and deploy in battle formation. Spendius, despite his caution prior to Naravas' defection, joined the two remaining rebel forces together and moved down into the valley. The
623:
and so stayed on higher and broken ground, where much of the effect of the cavalry and elephants would have been nullified. From here the rebels harried the Carthaginian foragers and scouts. A war of attrition worked for the rebels, with their superior numbers they could withstand more losses than
414:
Freed from their long period of military discipline and with nothing to do, the men grumbled among themselves and refused all attempts by the Carthaginians to pay them less than the full amount due. Frustrated by the Carthaginian negotiators' attempts to haggle, all 20,000 troops marched to Tunis,
717:
from Tunis to rescue them. Eventually, the surrounded troops forced their leaders, including Spendius, to parley with Hamilcar, who, on a thin pretext, took them prisoner. The Carthaginians then attacked the leaderless, starving rebels with their whole force, led by their elephants, and massacred
302:
Spendius perceived Hamilcar's generous treatment of rebel prisoners as the motivation behind Naravas's defection and feared the disintegration of his army. To remove the possibility of any goodwill between the sides, he had 700 Carthaginian prisoners tortured to death. The Carthaginians, in turn,
406:
one at a time. He anticipated they would be promptly paid the several years back pay they were owed and hurried on their way home. The Carthaginian authorities decided instead to wait until all the troops had arrived and then attempt to negotiate a settlement at a lower rate. They despatched the
610:
Hamilcar was appointed joint commander of the Carthaginian army, alongside Hanno, but there was no cooperation between the two. While Hanno manoeuvred against Mathos to the north near Hippo, Hamilcar confronted several towns and cities that had gone over to the rebels, bringing them back to
640:, but just how far is not known. At some point during these manoeuvres he and the Carthaginian army became trapped in a mountain valley. Locations suggested for the battle by modern historians cover a swathe of territory and include: close to Tunis; near modern
603:, 2,000 cavalry, and 70 elephants, and was placed under the command of Hamilcar Barca, who had previously led the Carthaginian forces on Sicily. Hamilcar led this force out from Carthage and a rebel army of 25,000 under Spendius moved to attack it in the
368:) 300 km (190 mi) south west of their capital. Hanno was rigorous in squeezing taxes out of the newly conquered territory to pay for both the war with Rome and his own campaigns. Half of all agricultural output was taken as war tax, and the
420:
be raised, when discipline broke down. Several soldiers insisted no deal with Carthage was acceptable, a riot broke out, men who stayed loyal to Carthage were stoned to death, Gisco and his staff were taken prisoner, and his treasury was seized.
316:
725:
Hamilcar marched on Tunis and laid siege to it in late 238 BC. He occupied a position to the south with half the army, and his deputy Hannibal was to the north with the rest. The rebel leaders taken captive prior to the Saw were
750:
the rebels were crushed, with few losses to the Carthaginians. In an act of mercy captives were sold into slavery, except for Mathos who was dragged through the streets of Carthage and tortured to death by its citizens.
476:
Carthaginian armies were nearly always composed of foreigners; citizens only served in the army if there was a direct threat to the city of Carthage. Roman sources refer to these foreign fighters derogatively as
444:, although many would have been tied down in garrisoning their home towns against Carthaginian retribution. The pay dispute had become a full-scale revolt. The three years of war that followed are known as the
401:
The post-war evacuation of the Carthaginian army of 20,000 men from Sicily was left in the hands of Gisco. He split the army into small detachments based on their regions of origin and sent these back to
375:
After immense material and human losses on both sides during the First Punic War, the Carthaginians were defeated. The Carthaginian Senate ordered the commander of its forces on Sicily,
648:
or close to the Mellane river; between Utica and Hippacra; or near modern Souk al Jamaa. It is unclear from the sources whether Hamilcar becoming trapped was because of a successful
591:. For the rest of the year Hanno skirmished with the rebel force, repeatedly missing opportunities to bring it to battle or to place it at a disadvantage; the military historian
518:. Both Spain and Gaul provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted. Specialist
660:
which Spendius had used to plug the pass at the Carthaginian's rear – through which they had entered the valley – was a young Numidian noble named
175:
538:
at the time. Both armies are likely to have been composed of similar types and proportions of troops, except the rebels were weaker in cavalry and lacked elephants.
485:
describes this as "a gross oversimplification". They served under a variety of arrangements; for example, some were the regular troops of allied cities or kingdoms
611:
Carthaginian allegiance with varying mixtures of diplomacy and force. He was shadowed by a superior-sized rebel force under Spendius, assisted by the experienced
379:, to negotiate a peace treaty on whatever terms he could; convinced the surrender was unnecessary he left Sicily in a rage, delegating negotiations to his deputy
286:
Hamilcar's army had manoeuvred to bring rebel-controlled towns back to Carthage while a rebel army under the command of Spendius, which included a contingent of
503:; as well as close-order shock cavalry carrying spears (also known as "heavy cavalry") – both were noted for their discipline and staying power.
595:
writes of Hanno's "incompetence as a field commander". At some point during 240 BC the Carthaginians raised another army, of approximately 10,000. It included
1971:
2134:
775:"Shock" troops are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before or immediately upon contact.
604:
551:
344:
in the 3rd century BC, and lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC. The two powers struggled for supremacy primarily on the Mediterranean island of
202:
303:
killed their prisoners. From this point, neither side showed any mercy, and the unusual ferocity of the fighting caused the contemporary historian
2174:
168:
2526:
2052:
1939:
1915:
1894:
1872:
1850:
1829:
1807:
1786:
1765:
1744:
1702:
1678:
1651:
2057:
2072:
2478:
755:
BC or very early 237 BC. The surrendered towns and cities were treated leniently, although Carthaginian governors were imposed on them.
2283:
2203:
1997:
161:
2144:
698:
307:
to term it the "Truceless War". The rebel army was finally defeated in 238 BC, with the last rebel city surrendering in 237 BC.
1964:
1906:
Scullard, H. H. (2006) . "Carthage and Rome". In Walbank, F. W.; Astin, A. E.; Frederiksen, M. W. & Ogilvie, R. M. (eds.).
2468:
2154:
689:
572:
the two main cities – other than Carthage – that had not already come over: the major ports of
217:
2315:
2278:
372:
due from all towns and cities was doubled. These exactions were harshly enforced, causing extreme hardship in many areas.
2012:
356:
led a series of campaigns which greatly increased the area of Africa controlled by Carthage. He extended its control to
2473:
2360:
2345:
2330:
2310:
530:. Sicilians and Italians had also joined up during the war to fill the ranks. The Carthaginians frequently employed
2531:
2425:
2335:
1957:
784:
These were typically about 2.5-metre-high (8 ft) at the shoulder, and should not be confused with the larger
2405:
2193:
2092:
1860:
2087:
2463:
2420:
2228:
2198:
1927:
526:. The close-order Libyan infantry and the citizen militia would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a
424:
456:
2415:
2340:
2290:
2273:
2263:
2253:
2233:
535:
428:
2082:
299:
now clear, deployed for battle. Spendius chose to engage and in a hard-fought battle was heavily defeated.
2385:
2365:
2302:
2248:
2159:
2037:
747:
693:
469:
222:
2325:
2268:
2097:
1882:
785:
2458:
2223:
2218:
2007:
489:
to Carthage as part of formal arrangements. The majority of these foreigners were from North Africa.
17:
2497:
2380:
2188:
380:
2435:
2355:
2350:
2294:
2238:
2102:
2062:
2032:
1777:
Koon, Sam (2015) . "Phalanx and Legion: the "Face" of Punic War Battle". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
1721:
1690:
607:. After a complex battle, the Carthaginians routed the rebels, who suffered losses of 8,000 men.
482:
384:
353:
2112:
315:
1910:. Vol. 7, Part 2 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 486–569.
2410:
2400:
2375:
2370:
2213:
2183:
2149:
2067:
2022:
2002:
1935:
1911:
1890:
1868:
1846:
1825:
1803:
1782:
1761:
1740:
1698:
1674:
1647:
739:
719:
685:
637:
244:
212:
2504:
2243:
2169:
2077:
1666:
802:
657:
620:
577:
523:
519:
466:
415:
16 km (10 mi) from Carthage. Panicking, the Senate agreed to payment in full. The
333:
291:
268:
92:
2536:
2450:
2430:
2395:
2390:
2320:
2258:
2208:
2129:
2027:
2017:
1989:
588:
556:
547:
492:
329:
197:
1756:
Hoyos, Dexter (2015) . "Carthage in Africa and Spain, 241–218". In Hoyos, Dexter (ed.).
2440:
2047:
2042:
649:
645:
587:
In early 240 BC Hanno was defeated while attempting to raise the siege of Utica at the
573:
512:
376:
337:
248:
107:
788:. The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.
734:
Mathos led the rebel army 160 km (100 mi) south to the wealthy port city of
271:. The precise location of the battle is unknown. Carthage was fighting a coalition of
2520:
2121:
1670:
1639:
731:
Spendius and his colleagues. Hamilcar abandoned the siege and withdrew to the north.
592:
445:
396:
341:
295:
276:
185:
43:
1817:
1712:
Hoyos, Dexter (2000). "Towards a Chronology of the 'Truceless War', 241–237 B.C.".
735:
531:
462:
349:
1840:
727:
704:
511:
who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat, and javelin-armed
352:. While the war with Rome was being fought on Sicily, the Carthaginian general
1981:
515:
486:
361:
1949:
641:
616:
596:
504:
478:
256:
116:
440:
in; eventually another 70,000 men according to the ancient Roman historian
798:
569:
496:
441:
403:
357:
321:
304:
260:
252:
112:
1725:
743:
661:
625:
600:
581:
527:
508:
436:
369:
365:
264:
240:
67:
563:
The line labelled "6" represents the possible locations of the battle.
499:
equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting
1661:
Eckstein, Arthur (2017). "The First Punic War and After, 264-237BC".
1644:
The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage and the Struggle for the Mediterranean
714:
668:
432:
416:
408:
345:
272:
619:. Spendius felt unable to face Hamilcar's cavalry and elephants in
746:). Hanno and Hamilcar marched after the rebels and at the ensuing
697:
555:
500:
455:
314:
287:
991:
989:
818:
Not to be confused with Hannibal Barca, of Second Punic War fame.
1244:
1242:
806:
612:
294:
under Naravas, shadowed it. Unable to confront the Carthaginian
153:
1953:
157:
976:
974:
703:
An illustration by Victor Armand Poirson which envisages the
1665:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Online Library. pp. 1–14.
1088:
1086:
1084:
1737:
Truceless War: Carthage's Fight for Survival, 241 to 237 BC
1324:
1322:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1760:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 204–222.
1534:
1532:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1217:
1215:
636:
Hamilcar marched a long distance to the east during this
1447:
1445:
898:
896:
1781:. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. pp. 77–94.
1130:
1128:
1006:
1004:
913:
911:
644:
or close to ancient Nepheris; to the east of the lower
859:
857:
431:
who faced death by torture if he were recaptured, and
387:
was agreed and brought the First Punic War to an end.
1103:
1101:
2449:
2168:
2120:
1988:
1845:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
1802:. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
599:from the rebels, newly hired mercenaries, citizen
461:Modern recreations of Carthaginian soldiers and a
448:and threatened Carthage's existence as a state.
1695:The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC
239:took place in 240 BC in what is now north-west
36:
275:soldiers and rebellious African cities in the
1965:
568:Mathos ordered two groups of rebels north to
169:
8:
1475:
1092:
1063:
995:
953:
836:
1972:
1958:
1950:
1182:
407:returning troops to Sicca Veneria (modern
176:
162:
154:
33:
1887:The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World
1562:
1451:
1158:
1039:
887:
561:Main manoeuvres during the Mercenary War
552:Battle of the Bagradas River (c. 240 BC)
348:and its surrounding waters, and also in
1842:The First Punic War: A Military History
1538:
1511:
1424:
1301:
1272:
1221:
1119:
980:
965:
917:
902:
875:
848:
829:
768:
1376:
27:240 BC battle during the Mercenary War
1934:. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc.
1622:
1610:
1598:
1586:
1574:
1550:
1523:
1499:
1487:
1463:
1436:
1412:
1400:
1388:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1313:
1284:
1260:
1248:
1233:
1206:
1194:
1170:
1146:
1134:
1075:
1051:
1022:
1010:
941:
929:
863:
340:, the two main powers of the western
7:
1107:
18:Hamilcar's victory with Navaras
1800:The Art of War in the Western World
1663:The Encyclopedia of Ancient Battles
411:), 180 km (110 mi) away.
738:(just south of the modern city of
25:
1714:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie
2492:
2491:
2111:
1671:10.1002/9781119099000.wbabat0270
2140:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
1739:. Leiden ; Boston: Brill.
801:Barca, who won fame during the
290:under Autaritus and a group of
237:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
208:Hamilcar's victory with Naravas
690:Siege of Tunis (Mercenary War)
534:; North Africa had indigenous
1:
1889:. London: Thames and Hudson.
1779:A Companion to the Punic Wars
1758:A Companion to the Punic Wars
251:defeated a rebel army led by
66:Unknown location in northern
2527:Battles of the Mercenary War
759:Notes, citations and sources
605:Battle of the Bagradas River
481:", but the modern historian
267:defected from the rebels to
656:The commander of the 2,000
2553:
1865:Carthage Must be Destroyed
683:
545:
394:
2487:
2109:
1908:Cambridge Ancient History
193:
135:
122:
101:
86:
49:
41:
1355:, pp. 133, 135–138.
1251:, pp. 240, 263–265.
536:African forest elephants
522:were recruited from the
279:which had started in 241
2426:Great Plains (Bagradas)
1839:Lazenby, John (1996).
1798:Jones, Archer (1987).
1735:Hoyos, Dexter (2007).
809:to invade Roman Italy.
748:Battle of Leptis Parva
709:
694:Battle of Leptis Parva
565:
473:
325:
102:Commanders and leaders
786:African bush elephant
718:them to a man in the
701:
684:Further information:
559:
546:Further information:
495:provided close-order
459:
395:Further information:
318:
136:Casualties and losses
2204:Crossing of the Alps
1343:, pp. 136, 146.
423:The rebels declared
78:Carthaginian Victory
37:Defection of Naravas
1867:. London: Penguin.
1697:. London: Phoenix.
1691:Goldsworthy, Adrian
1646:. London: Pimlico.
1589:, pp. 241–242.
1553:, pp. 220–223.
1526:, pp. 217–218.
1514:, pp. 121–122.
1415:, pp. 150–151.
1403:, pp. 146–150.
1367:, pp. 136–138.
1331:, pp. 133–134.
1316:, pp. 207–208.
1275:, pp. 115–117.
1173:, pp. 201–202.
1161:, pp. 240–245.
998:, pp. 133–134.
983:, pp. 112–114.
427:, an escaped Roman
332:was fought between
2295:Claw of Archimedes
2103:Treaty of Lutatius
710:
707:in front of Tunis.
667:With Carthaginian
566:
483:Adrian Goldsworthy
474:
385:Treaty of Lutatius
326:
2532:240s BC conflicts
2514:
2513:
1941:978-1-56619-210-1
1928:Warmington, Brian
1917:978-0-521-23446-7
1896:978-0-500-40025-8
1874:978-0-141-01809-6
1852:978-0-8047-2673-3
1831:978-2-213-59550-4
1824:. Paris: Fayard.
1809:978-0-252-01380-5
1788:978-1-1190-2550-4
1767:978-1-1190-2550-4
1746:978-90-474-2192-4
1704:978-0-304-36642-2
1680:978-1-4051-8645-2
1653:978-0-7126-6608-4
1236:, pp. 92–93.
720:Battle of the Saw
686:Battle of the Saw
245:Carthaginian army
231:
230:
152:
151:
82:
81:
16:(Redirected from
2544:
2505:Military history
2495:
2494:
2469:Port of Carthage
2305:
2298:
2297:
2177:
2170:Second Punic War
2115:
2053:Bagradas (Tunis)
1974:
1967:
1960:
1951:
1945:
1921:
1900:
1878:
1856:
1835:
1813:
1792:
1771:
1750:
1729:
1720:(3/4): 369–380.
1708:
1684:
1657:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1476:Goldsworthy 2006
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1123:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1096:
1093:Goldsworthy 2006
1090:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1064:Goldsworthy 2006
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1026:
1020:
1014:
1008:
999:
996:Goldsworthy 2006
993:
984:
978:
969:
963:
957:
954:Goldsworthy 2006
951:
945:
939:
933:
927:
921:
915:
906:
900:
891:
885:
879:
873:
867:
861:
852:
846:
840:
837:Goldsworthy 2006
834:
819:
816:
810:
805:by crossing the
803:Second Punic War
795:
789:
782:
776:
773:
658:Numidian cavalry
524:Balearic Islands
320:The location of
292:Numidian cavalry
282:
188:
178:
171:
164:
155:
51:
50:
34:
21:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2483:
2451:Third Punic War
2445:
2406:Carteia (naval)
2301:
2289:
2288:
2173:
2172:
2164:
2116:
2107:
2078:Drepana (siege)
1990:First Punic War
1984:
1980:Battles of the
1978:
1948:
1942:
1926:
1918:
1905:
1897:
1883:Scullard, H. H.
1881:
1875:
1859:
1853:
1838:
1832:
1816:
1810:
1797:
1789:
1776:
1768:
1755:
1747:
1734:
1711:
1705:
1689:
1681:
1660:
1654:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1621:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1585:
1581:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1537:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1443:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1259:
1255:
1247:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1189:
1183:Warmington 1993
1181:
1177:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1099:
1091:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1002:
994:
987:
979:
972:
964:
960:
952:
948:
940:
936:
928:
924:
916:
909:
901:
894:
886:
882:
874:
870:
862:
855:
847:
843:
835:
831:
827:
822:
817:
813:
796:
792:
783:
779:
774:
770:
766:
761:
708:
696:
682:
634:
589:Battle of Utica
564:
562:
554:
548:Battle of Utica
544:
507:provided light
472:
454:
452:Opposing armies
399:
393:
330:First Punic War
324:
313:
280:
263:cavalry led by
234:
233:
232:
227:
189:
184:
182:
147:
145:
115:
70:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2550:
2548:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2501:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2455:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2401:Carteia (land)
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2316:2nd Beneventum
2313:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2299:
2281:
2279:1st Beneventum
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2229:Lake Trasimene
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2178:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2126:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2013:Lipari Islands
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1969:
1962:
1954:
1947:
1946:
1940:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1902:
1901:
1895:
1879:
1873:
1861:Miles, Richard
1857:
1851:
1836:
1830:
1814:
1808:
1794:
1793:
1787:
1773:
1772:
1766:
1752:
1751:
1745:
1731:
1730:
1709:
1703:
1686:
1685:
1679:
1658:
1652:
1640:Bagnall, Nigel
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1625:, p. 210.
1615:
1613:, p. 377.
1603:
1601:, p. 211.
1591:
1579:
1577:, p. 241.
1567:
1565:, p. 568.
1555:
1543:
1541:, p. 122.
1528:
1516:
1504:
1502:, p. 376.
1492:
1490:, p. 374.
1480:
1478:, p. 135.
1468:
1466:, p. 210.
1456:
1441:
1439:, p. 208.
1429:
1427:, p. 118.
1417:
1405:
1393:
1391:, p. 146.
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1318:
1306:
1304:, p. 117.
1289:
1287:, p. 209.
1277:
1265:
1263:, p. 207.
1253:
1238:
1226:
1224:, p. 115.
1211:
1209:, p. 373.
1199:
1187:
1185:, p. 188.
1175:
1163:
1151:
1149:, p. 240.
1139:
1137:, p. 207.
1124:
1112:
1097:
1080:
1068:
1056:
1054:, p. 204.
1044:
1042:, p. 567.
1027:
1015:
1013:, p. 371.
1000:
985:
970:
968:, p. 112.
958:
956:, p. 133.
946:
944:, p. 196.
934:
932:, p. 206.
922:
907:
905:, p. 157.
892:
880:
878:, p. 114.
868:
866:, p. 205.
853:
841:
828:
826:
823:
821:
820:
811:
790:
777:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
702:
681:
678:
633:
630:
560:
543:
540:
513:light infantry
460:
453:
450:
392:
389:
377:Hamilcar Barca
319:
312:
309:
259:, after 2,000
249:Hamilcar Barca
229:
228:
226:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
194:
191:
190:
183:
181:
180:
173:
166:
158:
150:
149:
148:4,000 captured
142:
138:
137:
133:
132:
129:
125:
124:
120:
119:
110:
108:Hamilcar Barca
104:
103:
99:
98:
95:
89:
88:
84:
83:
80:
79:
76:
72:
71:
65:
63:
59:
58:
55:
47:
46:
39:
38:
32:
31:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2549:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:Ager Falernus
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2122:Mercenary War
2119:
2114:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2058:Cape Hermaeum
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1943:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1818:Lancel, Serge
1815:
1811:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1563:Scullard 2006
1559:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1452:Eckstein 2017
1448:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1382:
1379:, p. 17.
1378:
1373:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1197:, p. 88.
1196:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1159:Scullard 1974
1155:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1113:
1110:, p. 80.
1109:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1095:, p. 32.
1094:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1066:, p. 33.
1065:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1040:Scullard 2006
1036:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1025:, p. 94.
1024:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
990:
986:
982:
977:
975:
971:
967:
962:
959:
955:
950:
947:
943:
938:
935:
931:
926:
923:
920:, p. 97.
919:
914:
912:
908:
904:
899:
897:
893:
889:
888:Eckstein 2017
884:
881:
877:
872:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
851:, p. 99.
850:
845:
842:
839:, p. 82.
838:
833:
830:
824:
815:
812:
808:
804:
800:
794:
791:
787:
781:
778:
772:
769:
763:
758:
756:
752:
749:
745:
741:
737:
732:
729:
723:
721:
716:
706:
700:
695:
691:
687:
679:
677:
673:
670:
665:
663:
659:
654:
651:
647:
643:
639:
631:
629:
627:
622:
618:
614:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:Nigel Bagnall
590:
585:
583:
579:
575:
571:
558:
553:
549:
541:
539:
537:
533:
532:war elephants
529:
525:
521:
517:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
488:
484:
480:
471:
468:
464:
458:
451:
449:
447:
446:Mercenary War
443:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
418:
412:
410:
405:
398:
397:Mercenary War
390:
388:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
342:Mediterranean
339:
335:
331:
323:
317:
310:
308:
306:
300:
297:
296:war elephants
293:
289:
284:
278:
277:Mercenary War
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
195:
192:
187:
186:Mercenary War
179:
174:
172:
167:
165:
160:
159:
156:
146:10,000 killed
143:
140:
139:
134:
131:18,000–23,000
130:
128:12,000–17,000
127:
126:
121:
118:
114:
111:
109:
106:
105:
100:
96:
94:
91:
90:
85:
77:
74:
73:
69:
64:
61:
60:
56:
53:
52:
48:
45:
44:Mercenary War
40:
35:
30:
19:
2503:
2496:
2474:2nd Nepheris
2464:1st Nepheris
2366:New Carthage
2361:2nd Tarentum
2346:2nd Herdonia
2336:Upper Baetis
2331:1st Herdonia
2311:1st Tarentum
2249:Silva Litana
2160:Leptis Parva
2139:
2093:2nd Mt. Eryx
2088:1st Mt. Eryx
2038:Cape Ecnomus
1931:
1907:
1886:
1864:
1841:
1821:
1799:
1778:
1757:
1736:
1717:
1713:
1694:
1662:
1643:
1618:
1606:
1594:
1582:
1570:
1558:
1546:
1539:Bagnall 1999
1519:
1512:Bagnall 1999
1507:
1495:
1483:
1471:
1459:
1454:, p. 7.
1432:
1425:Bagnall 1999
1420:
1408:
1396:
1384:
1372:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1309:
1302:Bagnall 1999
1280:
1273:Bagnall 1999
1268:
1256:
1229:
1222:Bagnall 1999
1202:
1190:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1122:, p. 8.
1120:Bagnall 1999
1115:
1078:, p. 1.
1071:
1059:
1047:
1018:
981:Bagnall 1999
966:Bagnall 1999
961:
949:
937:
925:
918:Bagnall 1999
903:Lazenby 1996
890:, p. 6.
883:
876:Bagnall 1999
871:
849:Bagnall 1999
844:
832:
814:
793:
780:
771:
753:
736:Leptis Parva
733:
724:
711:
705:crucifixions
674:
666:
655:
635:
609:
586:
567:
491:
475:
470:re-enactment
465:at the 2012
463:war elephant
422:
413:
400:
374:
350:North Africa
327:
301:
285:
236:
235:
223:Leptis Parva
207:
87:Belligerents
42:Part of the
29:
2269:Decimomannu
2083:Mount Ercte
1377:Lancel 1995
621:open battle
516:skirmishers
479:mercenaries
467:Arverniales
2521:Categories
2459:Lake Tunis
2224:Ebro River
2008:Agrigentum
1982:Punic Wars
1623:Hoyos 2015
1611:Hoyos 2000
1599:Miles 2011
1587:Hoyos 2007
1575:Hoyos 2007
1551:Hoyos 2007
1524:Hoyos 2007
1500:Hoyos 2000
1488:Hoyos 2000
1464:Miles 2011
1437:Miles 2011
1413:Hoyos 2007
1401:Hoyos 2007
1389:Hoyos 2007
1365:Hoyos 2007
1353:Hoyos 2007
1341:Hoyos 2007
1329:Hoyos 2007
1314:Miles 2011
1285:Miles 2011
1261:Miles 2011
1249:Miles 2011
1234:Hoyos 2007
1207:Hoyos 2000
1195:Hoyos 2007
1171:Hoyos 2007
1147:Miles 2011
1135:Hoyos 2015
1076:Jones 1987
1052:Miles 2011
1023:Hoyos 2007
1011:Hoyos 2000
942:Miles 2011
930:Hoyos 2015
864:Hoyos 2015
797:Father of
632:Engagement
615:commander
311:Background
2421:2nd Utica
2416:1st Utica
2381:Grumentum
2341:2nd Capua
2321:1st Capua
2189:Lilybaeum
2175:(Battles)
2073:Lilybaeum
1930:(1993) .
1108:Koon 2015
825:Citations
728:crucified
680:Aftermath
650:stratagem
642:Grombalia
628:cavalry.
617:Autaritus
597:deserters
505:Numidians
257:Autaritus
117:Autaritus
2498:Category
2479:Carthage
2436:Insubria
2386:Metaurus
2356:Canusium
2351:Numistro
2291:Heat ray
2284:Syracuse
2274:3rd Nola
2264:2nd Nola
2254:1st Nola
2239:Geronium
2184:Saguntum
2145:Carthage
2135:Bagradas
2063:Panormus
2033:Tyndaris
1998:Treaties
1932:Carthage
1885:(1974).
1863:(2011).
1822:Hannibal
1820:(1995).
1726:41234468
1693:(2006).
1642:(1999).
799:Hannibal
740:Monastir
646:Bagradas
638:campaign
626:Numidian
580:(modern
570:blockade
520:slingers
497:infantry
487:seconded
442:Polybius
425:Spendius
417:mutinous
404:Carthage
360:(modern
358:Theveste
334:Carthage
322:Carthage
305:Polybius
273:mutinous
269:Carthage
261:Numidian
253:Spendius
203:Bagradas
123:Strength
113:Spendius
93:Carthage
62:Location
2411:Crotona
2376:Petelia
2371:Baecula
2326:Silarus
2303:Sambuca
2214:Ticinus
2150:The Saw
2098:Aegates
2068:Drepana
2023:Thermae
2003:Messana
1632:Sources
744:Tunisia
662:Naravas
601:militia
582:Bizerte
542:Prelude
528:phalanx
509:cavalry
493:Libyans
370:tribute
366:Algeria
362:Tébessa
265:Naravas
247:led by
241:Tunisia
213:The Saw
141:Unknown
68:Tunisia
2537:240 BC
2244:Cannae
2219:Trebia
1938:
1914:
1893:
1871:
1849:
1828:
1806:
1785:
1764:
1743:
1724:
1701:
1677:
1650:
715:sortie
692:, and
669:morale
613:Gallic
501:spears
437:Berber
433:Mathos
409:El Kef
391:Mutiny
383:. The
346:Sicily
281:
144:Up to:
97:Rebels
75:Result
57:240 BC
2431:Cirta
2396:Sucro
2391:Ilipa
2259:Ibera
2209:Cissa
2199:Rhone
2194:Malta
2155:Tunis
2130:Utica
2043:Aspis
2028:Sulci
2018:Mylae
1722:JSTOR
764:Notes
578:Hippo
574:Utica
429:slave
381:Gisco
364:, in
354:Hanno
288:Gauls
218:Tunis
198:Utica
2441:Zama
2293:and
2048:Adys
1936:ISBN
1912:ISBN
1891:ISBN
1869:ISBN
1847:ISBN
1826:ISBN
1804:ISBN
1783:ISBN
1762:ISBN
1741:ISBN
1699:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1648:ISBN
807:Alps
576:and
550:and
435:, a
338:Rome
336:and
328:The
283:BC.
255:and
243:. A
54:Date
1718:143
1667:doi
2523::
1716:.
1673:.
1531:^
1444:^
1321:^
1292:^
1241:^
1214:^
1127:^
1100:^
1083:^
1030:^
1003:^
988:^
973:^
910:^
895:^
856:^
742:,
722:.
688:,
1973:e
1966:t
1959:v
1944:.
1920:.
1899:.
1877:.
1855:.
1834:.
1812:.
1791:.
1770:.
1749:.
1728:.
1707:.
1683:.
1669::
1656:.
477:"
177:e
170:t
163:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.