1644:
31:
1601:
1721:
1845:
1713:
1864:
1826:
1732:
The gas is compressed, which adds external energy into the gas, to give it what is needed for running through the cycle. Linde's US patent gives an example with the low side pressure of 25 standard atmospheres (370 psi; 25 bar) and high side pressure of 75 standard atmospheres
1320:
1767:
In each cycle the net cooling is more than the heat added at the beginning of the cycle. As the gas passes more cycles and becomes cooler, reaching lower temperatures at the expansion valve becomes more difficult.
1763:
The gas is sent back to the compressor, mixed with warm incoming makeup gas (to replace condensed product), and returned to the compressor to make another trip through the cycle (and become still colder).
1736:
The high pressure gas is then cooled by immersing the gas in a cooler environment; the gas loses some of its energy (heat). Linde's patent example gives an example of brine at 10°C.
1843:, Linde, Carl, "Verfahren zur Verflüssigung atmosphärischer Luft oder anderer Gase (Method for the liquefaction of atmospheric air or other gases)", issued 1896-09-29
1862:, Linde, Carl, "Process of producing low temperatures, the liquefaction of gases, and the separation of the constituents of gaseous mixtures", issued 1903-05-12
1155:
1100:
1045:
852:
805:
720:
673:
585:
538:
1630:
756:
624:
990:
2023:
1331:
489:
1219:
828:
781:
696:
649:
561:
514:
453:
1309:
2185:
1342:
1724:
Hampson–Linde cycle; this diagram does not include the external cooler, highlight the countercurrent heat exchanger, or show significant holdup
1963:
1936:
912:
1623:
1210:
446:
324:
879:
1760:
After leaving the countercurrent heat exchanger, the gas is warmer than it was at its coldest, but cooler than it started out at step 1.
262:
2016:
1746:
The gas is further cooled by passing the gas through a Joule–Thomson orifice (expansion valve); the gas is now at the lower pressure.
1394:
1368:
889:
343:
2251:
295:
1447:
1689:
J–T cooling for air) to go beyond a single stage of cooling and can reach the low temperatures required to liquefy "fixed" gases.
918:
317:
2289:
1616:
1787:
1547:
79:
1442:
1757:
The low pressure gas is directed back to the countercurrent heat exchanger to cool the warmer, incoming, high-pressure gas.
2325:
2009:
1522:
1295:
272:
2236:
907:
110:
100:
115:
105:
2150:
2040:
1437:
1399:
1363:
75:
2335:
2304:
1192:
940:
386:
199:
189:
1701:
2345:
2340:
1824:, Hampson, W., "Improvements relating to the progressive refrigerating of gases", issued 1896-03-25
2284:
2269:
2215:
1740:
1604:
1432:
1229:
932:
871:
407:
396:
62:
1537:
1457:
1254:
338:
92:
67:
2130:
2090:
1879:
1821:
1659:
1472:
1049:
362:
208:
57:
1674:
independently filed for patents of the cycle in 1895: Hampson on 23 May 1895 and Linde on 5 June 1895.
1643:
2274:
1982:
1894:
1859:
1678:
1552:
1477:
1467:
267:
141:
129:
1840:
2330:
2279:
2180:
2032:
1497:
1492:
1259:
281:
247:
242:
155:
2136:
1586:
1249:
1197:
1110:
1055:
1000:
429:
413:
300:
252:
237:
227:
36:
30:
1244:
834:
787:
702:
655:
567:
520:
1716:
Hampson–Linde cycle sketch; this sketch does not show regeneration (gas fed back to compressor)
2299:
2121:
1959:
1955:
1932:
1581:
1542:
1532:
1104:
902:
738:
730:
603:
232:
222:
164:
2241:
1990:
1926:
1902:
1704:; this has the advantage that the cold side of the cooling apparatus needs no moving parts.
1502:
1487:
1427:
1422:
1239:
1234:
960:
884:
352:
217:
2264:
1795:
1667:
1452:
1300:
954:
595:
418:
179:
146:
1986:
1898:
471:
2231:
2190:
2175:
2160:
2095:
2085:
2080:
2055:
1697:
1682:
1671:
1663:
1647:
1507:
1277:
813:
766:
681:
634:
546:
499:
377:
257:
194:
184:
52:
22:
2319:
2294:
2210:
2165:
2126:
2100:
2070:
2065:
1994:
1948:
1693:
1576:
894:
463:
424:
136:
2200:
2195:
2170:
2116:
2075:
1973:
Maytal, B. -Z. (2006). "Maximizing production rates of the Linde–Hampson machine".
1799:
1527:
1512:
1462:
945:
1482:
290:
2205:
1907:
1743:; the cooler gas leaving the last stage cools the gas going to the last stage.
1720:
1696:
only in the expansion step. Whereas the
Siemens cycle has the gas do external
1571:
1517:
169:
1712:
1285:
1202:
994:
402:
174:
1700:
to reduce its temperature, the
Hampson–Linde cycle relies solely on the
2001:
391:
1719:
1711:
1642:
1749:
The low pressure gas is now at its coolest in the current cycle.
367:
2005:
1685:
arrangement permits an absolute temperature difference (e.g.
1880:"Basics of Joule–Thomson Liquefaction and JT Cooling"
1752:
Some of the gas condenses and becomes output product.
1113:
1058:
1003:
963:
837:
816:
790:
769:
741:
705:
684:
658:
637:
606:
570:
549:
523:
502:
474:
2250:
2224:
2149:
2109:
2050:
2039:
1925:Timmerhaus, Klaus D.; Reed, Richard Palmer (2007).
1947:
1149:
1094:
1039:
984:
846:
822:
799:
775:
750:
714:
690:
667:
643:
618:
579:
555:
532:
508:
483:
1954:. Springer Science & Business Media. p.
1739:The high pressure gas is further cooled with a
1928:Cryogenic Engineering: Fifty Years of Progress
2017:
1728:The cooling cycle proceeds in several steps:
1624:
8:
16:Chemical process in the liquefaction of gas
2047:
2024:
2010:
2002:
1681:, a positive-feedback cooling system. The
1631:
1617:
1180:
332:
151:
29:
18:
1906:
1782:
1780:
1692:The Hampson–Linde cycle differs from the
1112:
1057:
1002:
962:
836:
815:
789:
768:
740:
704:
683:
657:
636:
605:
569:
548:
522:
501:
473:
2186:Homogeneous charge compression ignition
1776:
1377:
1354:
1308:
1268:
1218:
1183:
376:
351:
280:
207:
154:
21:
7:
1677:The Hampson–Linde cycle introduced
1887:Journal of Low Temperature Physics
838:
791:
706:
659:
571:
524:
344:Intensive and extensive properties
14:
1995:10.1016/j.cryogenics.2005.11.004
1600:
1599:
919:Table of thermodynamic equations
1395:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
1878:de Waele, A. T. A. M. (2017).
1733:(1,100 psi; 76 bar).
1129:
1117:
1074:
1062:
1019:
1007:
979:
967:
1:
1741:countercurrent heat exchanger
1296:Mechanical equivalent of heat
908:Onsager reciprocal relations
2091:Stirling (pseudo/adiabatic)
1950:History of industrial gases
1400:Entropy as energy dispersal
1211:"Perpetual motion" machines
1150:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1095:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1040:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
2362:
847:{\displaystyle \partial T}
800:{\displaystyle \partial V}
715:{\displaystyle \partial p}
668:{\displaystyle \partial V}
580:{\displaystyle \partial T}
533:{\displaystyle \partial S}
1908:10.1007/s10909-016-1733-3
1321:An Inquiry Concerning the
1334:Heterogeneous Substances
751:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
619:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
1946:Almqvist, Ebbe (2003).
1931:. Springer. p. 8.
1788:"Technical information"
1725:
1717:
1651:
1151:
1096:
1041:
986:
985:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
848:
824:
801:
777:
752:
716:
692:
669:
645:
620:
581:
557:
534:
510:
485:
464:Specific heat capacity
68:Quantum thermodynamics
1723:
1715:
1660:liquefaction of gases
1658:is a process for the
1646:
1332:On the Equilibrium of
1152:
1097:
1050:Helmholtz free energy
1042:
987:
849:
825:
802:
778:
753:
717:
693:
670:
646:
621:
582:
558:
535:
511:
486:
2326:Thermodynamic cycles
2275:Regenerative cooling
2153:combustion / thermal
2052:Without phase change
2043:combustion / thermal
2033:Thermodynamic cycles
1702:Joule–Thomson effect
1679:regenerative cooling
1345:Motive Power of Fire
1111:
1056:
1001:
961:
913:Bridgman's equations
890:Fundamental relation
835:
814:
788:
767:
739:
703:
682:
656:
635:
604:
568:
547:
521:
500:
472:
1987:2006Cryo...46...49M
1899:2017JLTP..186..385D
1656:Hampson–Linde cycle
1323:Source ... Friction
1255:Loschmidt's paradox
447:Material properties
325:Conjugate variables
1802:on 14 October 2012
1726:
1718:
1652:
1587:Order and disorder
1343:Reflections on the
1250:Heat death paradox
1147:
1092:
1037:
982:
844:
820:
797:
773:
748:
712:
688:
665:
641:
616:
577:
553:
530:
506:
484:{\displaystyle c=}
481:
454:Property databases
430:Reduced properties
414:Chemical potential
378:Functions of state
301:Thermal efficiency
37:Carnot heat engine
2313:
2312:
2290:Vapor-compression
2216:Staged combustion
2145:
2144:
2110:With phase change
1965:978-0-306-47277-0
1938:978-0-387-46896-9
1662:, especially for
1641:
1640:
1582:Self-organization
1407:
1406:
1105:Gibbs free energy
903:Maxwell relations
861:
860:
857:
856:
823:{\displaystyle V}
776:{\displaystyle 1}
731:Thermal expansion
725:
724:
691:{\displaystyle V}
644:{\displaystyle 1}
590:
589:
556:{\displaystyle N}
509:{\displaystyle T}
437:
436:
353:Process functions
339:Property diagrams
318:System properties
308:
307:
273:Endoreversibility
165:Equation of state
2353:
2336:Industrial gases
2285:Vapor absorption
2048:
2026:
2019:
2012:
2003:
1998:
1969:
1953:
1942:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1893:(5–6): 385–403.
1884:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1798:. Archived from
1784:
1688:
1687:0.27 °C/atm
1633:
1626:
1619:
1603:
1602:
1310:Key publications
1291:
1290:("living force")
1240:Brownian ratchet
1235:Entropy and life
1230:Entropy and time
1181:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1148:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1038:
991:
989:
988:
983:
885:Clausius theorem
880:Carnot's theorem
853:
851:
850:
845:
829:
827:
826:
821:
806:
804:
803:
798:
782:
780:
779:
774:
761:
760:
757:
755:
754:
749:
721:
719:
718:
713:
697:
695:
694:
689:
674:
672:
671:
666:
650:
648:
647:
642:
629:
628:
625:
623:
622:
617:
586:
584:
583:
578:
562:
560:
559:
554:
539:
537:
536:
531:
515:
513:
512:
507:
494:
493:
490:
488:
487:
482:
460:
459:
333:
152:
33:
19:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2346:1895 in Germany
2341:1895 in science
2316:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2246:
2220:
2152:
2141:
2131:Organic Rankine
2105:
2059:
2056:hot air engines
2053:
2042:
2035:
2030:
1972:
1966:
1945:
1939:
1924:
1921:
1919:Further reading
1916:
1882:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1820:
1819:
1815:
1805:
1803:
1796:Lund University
1786:
1785:
1778:
1774:
1710:
1686:
1668:William Hampson
1650:'s 1895 patent.
1637:
1592:
1591:
1567:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1417:
1409:
1408:
1387:
1373:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1289:
1282:
1264:
1245:Maxwell's demon
1207:
1178:
1177:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1054:
1053:
1052:
999:
998:
997:
959:
958:
957:
955:Internal energy
950:
935:
925:
924:
899:
874:
864:
863:
862:
833:
832:
812:
811:
786:
785:
765:
764:
737:
736:
701:
700:
680:
679:
654:
653:
633:
632:
602:
601:
596:Compressibility
566:
565:
545:
544:
519:
518:
498:
497:
470:
469:
449:
439:
438:
419:Particle number
372:
331:
320:
310:
309:
268:Irreversibility
180:State of matter
147:Isolated system
132:
122:
121:
120:
95:
85:
84:
80:Non-equilibrium
72:
47:
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2359:
2357:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2318:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2256:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2139:
2134:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2062:
2060:
2051:
2045:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1970:
1964:
1943:
1937:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1870:
1851:
1832:
1813:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1709:
1706:
1683:heat exchanger
1672:Carl von Linde
1664:air separation
1639:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1364:Thermodynamics
1360:
1357:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1318:
1313:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1281:
1280:
1278:Caloric theory
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1102:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1047:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
992:
981:
978:
975:
972:
969:
966:
951:
949:
948:
943:
937:
936:
931:
930:
927:
926:
923:
922:
915:
910:
905:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
876:
875:
870:
869:
866:
865:
859:
858:
855:
854:
843:
840:
830:
819:
808:
807:
796:
793:
783:
772:
758:
747:
744:
734:
727:
726:
723:
722:
711:
708:
698:
687:
676:
675:
664:
661:
651:
640:
626:
615:
612:
609:
599:
592:
591:
588:
587:
576:
573:
563:
552:
541:
540:
529:
526:
516:
505:
491:
480:
477:
467:
458:
457:
456:
450:
445:
444:
441:
440:
435:
434:
433:
432:
427:
422:
411:
400:
381:
380:
374:
373:
371:
370:
365:
359:
356:
355:
349:
348:
347:
346:
341:
322:
321:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
305:
304:
303:
298:
293:
285:
284:
278:
277:
276:
275:
270:
265:
260:
258:Free expansion
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
212:
211:
205:
204:
203:
202:
197:
195:Control volume
192:
187:
185:Phase (matter)
182:
177:
172:
167:
159:
158:
150:
149:
144:
139:
133:
128:
127:
124:
123:
119:
118:
113:
108:
103:
97:
96:
91:
90:
87:
86:
83:
82:
71:
70:
65:
60:
55:
49:
48:
45:
44:
41:
40:
35:The classical
34:
26:
25:
23:Thermodynamics
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2358:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2280:Transcritical
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2260:Hampson–Linde
2258:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2252:Refrigeration
2249:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2181:Gas-generator
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2166:Brayton/Joule
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2071:Brayton/Joule
2069:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2013:
2008:
2007:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1951:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1918:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1871:
1861:
1855:
1852:
1842:
1836:
1833:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1769:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1694:Siemens cycle
1690:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1622:
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1615:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1606:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:Self-assembly
1575:
1573:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1548:van der Waals
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:von Helmholtz
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1412:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1182:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1106:
1103:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1051:
1048:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1004:
996:
993:
976:
973:
970:
964:
956:
953:
952:
947:
944:
942:
939:
938:
934:
929:
928:
921:
920:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
896:
895:Ideal gas law
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
877:
873:
868:
867:
841:
831:
817:
810:
809:
794:
784:
770:
763:
762:
759:
745:
742:
735:
732:
729:
728:
709:
699:
685:
678:
677:
662:
652:
638:
631:
630:
627:
613:
610:
607:
600:
597:
594:
593:
574:
564:
550:
543:
542:
527:
517:
503:
496:
495:
492:
478:
475:
468:
465:
462:
461:
455:
452:
451:
448:
443:
442:
431:
428:
426:
425:Vapor quality
423:
421:
420:
415:
412:
410:
409:
404:
401:
398:
394:
393:
388:
385:
384:
383:
382:
379:
375:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
358:
357:
354:
350:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
335:
334:
330:
326:
319:
314:
313:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
287:
286:
283:
279:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
263:Reversibility
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
215:
214:
213:
210:
206:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
161:
160:
157:
153:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
137:Closed system
135:
134:
131:
126:
125:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
98:
94:
89:
88:
81:
77:
74:
73:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
54:
51:
50:
43:
42:
38:
32:
28:
27:
24:
20:
2259:
2137:Regenerative
2066:Bell Coleman
1981:(1): 49–85.
1978:
1974:
1949:
1927:
1890:
1886:
1873:
1854:
1835:
1822:GB 189510165
1816:
1804:. Retrieved
1800:the original
1791:
1766:
1727:
1691:
1676:
1655:
1653:
1438:Carathéodory
1369:Heat engines
1341:
1330:
1319:
1301:Motive power
1286:
946:Free entropy
917:
417:
416: /
406:
405: /
397:introduction
390:
389: /
328:
291:Heat engines
78: /
2305:Ionocaloric
2300:Vuilleumier
2122:Hygroscopic
1260:Synergetics
941:Free energy
387:Temperature
248:Quasistatic
243:Isenthalpic
200:Instruments
190:Equilibrium
142:Open system
76:Equilibrium
58:Statistical
2331:Cryogenics
2320:Categories
2270:Pulse tube
2242:Mixed/dual
1975:Cryogenics
1806:26 January
1772:References
1572:Nucleation
1416:Scientists
1220:Philosophy
933:Potentials
296:Heat pumps
253:Polytropic
238:Isentropic
228:Isothermal
2265:Kleemenko
2151:Internal
1860:US 727650
1708:The cycle
1553:Waterston
1503:von Mayer
1458:de Donder
1448:Clapeyron
1428:Boltzmann
1423:Bernoulli
1384:Education
1355:Timelines
1139:−
1084:−
872:Equations
839:∂
792:∂
743:α
707:∂
660:∂
614:−
608:β
572:∂
525:∂
233:Adiabatic
223:Isochoric
209:Processes
170:Ideal gas
53:Classical
2232:Combined
2191:Humphrey
2176:Expander
2161:Atkinson
2096:Stoddard
2086:Stirling
2081:Ericsson
2041:External
1841:DE 88824
1605:Category
1543:Thompson
1453:Clausius
1433:Bridgman
1287:Vis viva
1269:Theories
1203:Gas laws
995:Enthalpy
403:Pressure
218:Isobaric
175:Real gas
63:Chemical
46:Branches
2295:Siemens
2211:Scuderi
2127:Rankine
1983:Bibcode
1895:Bibcode
1792:Kryolab
1528:Smeaton
1523:Rankine
1513:Onsager
1498:Maxwell
1493:Massieu
1198:Entropy
1193:General
1184:History
1174:Culture
1171:History
395: (
392:Entropy
329:italics
130:Systems
2201:Miller
2196:Lenoir
2171:Diesel
2117:Kalina
2101:Manson
2076:Carnot
1962:
1935:
1866:
1847:
1828:
1518:Planck
1508:Nernst
1483:Kelvin
1443:Carnot
733:
598:
466:
408:Volume
323:Note:
282:Cycles
111:Second
101:Zeroth
2225:Mixed
1883:(PDF)
1648:Linde
1566:Other
1533:Stahl
1488:Lewis
1478:Joule
1468:Gibbs
1463:Duhem
156:State
116:Third
106:First
2237:HEHC
2206:Otto
1960:ISBN
1933:ISBN
1808:2013
1698:work
1670:and
1654:The
1538:Tait
368:Heat
363:Work
93:Laws
1991:doi
1956:160
1903:doi
1891:186
1381:Art
327:in
2322::
1989:.
1979:46
1977:.
1958:.
1901:.
1889:.
1885:.
1794:.
1790:.
1779:^
1666:.
2133:)
2129:(
2058:)
2054:(
2025:e
2018:t
2011:v
1997:.
1993::
1985::
1968:.
1941:.
1911:.
1905::
1897::
1810:.
1632:e
1625:t
1618:v
1145:S
1142:T
1136:H
1133:=
1130:)
1127:p
1124:,
1121:T
1118:(
1115:G
1090:S
1087:T
1081:U
1078:=
1075:)
1072:V
1069:,
1066:T
1063:(
1060:A
1035:V
1032:p
1029:+
1026:U
1023:=
1020:)
1017:p
1014:,
1011:S
1008:(
1005:H
980:)
977:V
974:,
971:S
968:(
965:U
842:T
818:V
795:V
771:1
746:=
710:p
686:V
663:V
639:1
611:=
575:T
551:N
528:S
504:T
479:=
476:c
399:)
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