193:
used for graphs ranged from 0% to 31%, and the variation was primarily due to the number of graphs included rather than their sizes. Further analyses by Smith in 2000, based on samples of graphs from journals in seven major scientific disciplines, found that the amount of graph usage correlated "almost perfectly" with hardness (r=0.97). They also suggested that the hierarchy applies to individual fields, and demonstrated the same result using ten subfields of psychology (r=0.93).
189:
textbooks in soft sciences to rely on more recent work, while the material in textbooks from the hard sciences was more consistent over time. After he published in 1983, it has been suggested that Cole might have missed some relationships in the data because he studied individual measurements, without accounting for the way multiple measurements could trend in the same direction, and because not all the criteria that could indicate a discipline's scientific status were analysed.
2357:
197:
field. For example, the social sciences as a whole had a 2.3-fold increased odds of positive results compared to the physical sciences, with the biological sciences in between. They added that this supported the idea that the social sciences and natural sciences differ only in degree, as long as the social sciences follow the scientific approach.
2345:
201:
possibilities (hierarchy, hard/soft distinction, or no ordering), the results supported a hierarchy, with physical sciences performing the best followed by biological sciences and then social sciences. The results also held within disciplines, as well as when mathematics and the humanities were included.
188:
conducted a number of empirical studies attempting to find evidence for a hierarchy of scientific disciplines, and was unable to find significant differences in terms of core of knowledge, degree of codification, or research material. Differences that he did find evidence for included a tendency for
215:
stated that social science findings are more likely to intersect with everyday experience and may be dismissed as "obvious or insignificant" as a result. Being labelled a soft science can affect the perceived value of a discipline to society and the amount of funding available to it. In the 1980s,
192:
In 1984, Cleveland performed a survey of 57 journals and found that natural science journals used many more graphs than journals in mathematics or social science, and that social science journals often presented large amounts of observational data in the absence of graphs. The amount of page area
175:
specifically distinguished between the natural sciences as hard and the social sciences as soft. He defined hardness in terms of the degree to which a field uses mathematics and described a trend of scientific fields increasing in hardness over time, identifying features of increased hardness as
196:
In a 2010 article, Fanelli proposed that we expect more positive outcomes in "softer" sciences because there are fewer constraints on researcher bias. They found that among research papers that tested a hypothesis, the frequency of positive results was predicted by the perceived hardness of the
126:
or selectivity in accepting new results. Commonly cited methodological differences are also not a reliable indicator. For example, social sciences such as psychology and sociology use mathematical models extensively, but are usually considered soft sciences. However, there are some measurable
200:
In 2013, Fanelli tested whether the ability of researchers in a field to "achieve consensus and accumulate knowledge" increases with the hardness of the science, and sampled 29,000 papers from 12 disciplines using measurements that indicate the degree of scholarly consensus. Out of the three
158:(1798‒1857). He identified astronomy as the most general science, followed by physics, chemistry, biology, then sociology. This view was highly influential, and was intended to classify fields based on their degree of intellectual development and the complexity of their subject matter.
323:
Comte viewed astronomy as studying the physics of the entire cosmos, calling it "celestial physics". He classified the rest of physics (under the modern definition) as "terrestrial physics", which was therefore less
1443:
228:, describing Huntington's use of mathematics to quantify the relationship between factors such as "social frustration" (Lang asked Huntington if he possessed a "social-frustration meter") as "
251:
with a higher proportion of women in a given field leading to a "soft" perception even within STEM fields. This perception of softness is accompanied by a devaluation of the field's worth.
138:
The metaphor has been criticised for unduly stigmatizing soft sciences, creating an unwarranted imbalance in the public perception, funding, and recognition of different fields.
122:
have questioned the relationship between these characteristics and perceived hardness or softness. The more "developed" hard sciences do not necessarily have a greater degree of
171:. He explored why he considered some scientific fields to be more productive than others, though he did not actually use the terms themselves. In 1967, sociologist of science
209:
Critics of the concept argue that soft sciences are implicitly considered to be less "legitimate" scientific fields, or simply not scientific at all. An editorial in
1474:
1518:
176:
including better integration and organization of knowledge, an improved ability to detect errors, and an increase in the difficulty of learning the subject.
236:, social science was disproportionately targeted for funding cuts compared to mathematics and natural science. Proposals were made for the United States'
1335:
1038:
Platt, J. R. (16 October 1964). "Strong
Inference: Certain systematic methods of scientific thinking may produce much more rapid progress than others".
1451:
2137:
1574:
146:
The origin of the terms "hard science" and "soft science" is obscure. The earliest attested use of "hard science" is found in an 1858 issue of the
1803:
1974:
1309:
1179:
Simonton DK (2004). "Psychology's Status as a
Scientific Discipline: Its Empirical Placement Within an Implicit Hierarchy of the Sciences".
811:
Lodahl, Janice Beyer; Gordon, Gerald (1972). "The
Structure of Scientific Fields and the Functioning of University Graduate Departments".
1796:
1511:
1546:
656:
398:
2157:
2152:
2105:
1786:
689:
740:
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2381:
2337:
1504:
709:
2027:
2020:
294:
225:
1879:
1854:
1839:
1417:
237:
488:
Smith LD, Best LA, Stubbs A, Johnston J, Archibald AB (2000). "Scientific Graphs and the
Hierarchy of the Sciences".
244:
altogether. Both of these incidents prompted critical discussion of the distinction between hard and soft sciences.
185:
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2032:
1940:
1936:
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97:
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73:
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2010:
1945:
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84:, higher levels of consensus, faster progression of the field, greater explanatory success, cumulativeness,
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783:
541:
284:
2095:
2047:
2015:
2005:
1964:
1744:
1621:
1527:
161:
The modern distinction between hard and soft science is often attributed to a 1964 article published in
115:
81:
61:
Precise definitions vary, but features often cited as characteristic of hard science include producing
863:"Random Drift versus Selection in Academic Vocabulary: An Evolutionary Analysis of Published Keywords"
172:
2080:
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1950:
1834:
1739:
1712:
1594:
1262:
949:
884:
601:
546:
274:
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221:
123:
1475:"More women in a STEM field leads people to label it as a 'soft science,' according to new research"
788:
2142:
1824:
1717:
1692:
1677:
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434:
260:
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1955:
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119:
77:
69:
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1979:
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1734:
1628:
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1290:
1161:
1120:
1102:
1063:
1055:
967:
912:
772:"How hard is hard science, how soft is soft science? The empirical cumulativeness of research"
685:
652:
629:
439:
370:
241:
162:
89:
35:
2320:
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2255:
1791:
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1151:
1110:
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31:
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1984:
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1849:
1663:
1643:
1363:
233:
128:
109:
43:
461:
1266:
985:
Winkworth, Thos. (29 October 1858). "Journal of the
Society of Arts, Vol. 6, no. 310]".
953:
888:
748:
605:
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2230:
2090:
1729:
1638:
1285:
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1115:
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907:
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265:
51:
39:
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429:
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1844:
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1200:
771:
571:
509:
229:
168:
155:
105:
93:
85:
27:
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2305:
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2235:
2225:
2197:
2127:
2085:
1959:
1913:
1884:
1864:
1012:
705:
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897:
614:
2315:
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1927:
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1904:
1869:
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1749:
1702:
1589:
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1391:
304:
289:
248:
1098:
797:
501:
2202:
1931:
1922:
1909:
1653:
1616:
846:
Latour, B. (1990). "Drawing things together". In M. Lynch; S. Woolgar (eds.).
217:
65:
1192:
1106:
1059:
1969:
1562:
132:
127:
differences between hard and soft sciences. For example, hard sciences make
1294:
1124:
1067:
971:
916:
633:
374:
1165:
1989:
1707:
62:
1496:
998:
1687:
1235:
832:
563:
1754:
365:
348:
101:
92:. A closely related idea (originating in the nineteenth century with
1227:
962:
937:
824:
1019:(3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. June 2015
555:
1418:"Social science emulates scientific method to escape retrenchment"
879:
1633:
1140:"The hard sciences and the soft: some sociological observations"
590:""Positive" results increase down the Hierarchy of the Sciences"
1500:
1444:"Congress should cut funding for political science research"
154:
can be found earlier, in the work of the French philosopher
1364:"Serge Lang, 78, a Gadfly and Mathematical Theorist, Dies"
1214:
Cleveland WS (1984). "Graphs in
Scientific Publications".
131:, and soft sciences are more prone to a rapid turnover of
1392:"Humanities to lose English universities teaching grant"
649:
Scientific
Uncertainty and Environmental Problem Solving
532:
Cole, Stephen (1983). "The
Hierarchy of the Sciences?".
247:
The perception of hard vs soft science is influenced by
1251:"Bibliometric Evidence for a Hierarchy of the Sciences"
462:"What Is the Difference Between Hard and Soft Science?"
1336:"Science Academy Rejects Harvard Political Scientist"
220:
successfully blocked influential political scientist
2175:
2166:
2068:
1998:
1812:
1534:
1362:Change, Kenneth; Warren Leary (25 September 2005).
741:"Soft sciences are often harder than hard sciences"
677:
1083:"On the Hard and Soft Sciences in Public Health"
100:of hard to soft on the basis of factors such as
1334:Johnson, George; Laura Mansnerus (3 May 1987).
734:
732:
730:
38:, exactitude, and objectivity. In general, the
932:
930:
928:
926:
1512:
583:
581:
392:
390:
388:
386:
384:
343:
341:
88:, and generally applying a purer form of the
8:
460:Helmenstine, Anne Marie (29 November 2019).
399:"'Soft' sciences don't deserve the snobbery"
861:Bentley, R. A. (2008). Allen, Colin (ed.).
850:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 19–68.
527:
525:
523:
521:
519:
483:
481:
479:
477:
475:
2172:
1519:
1505:
1497:
423:
421:
419:
2138:Relationship between religion and science
1284:
1274:
1155:
1114:
961:
906:
896:
878:
787:
623:
613:
545:
364:
96:) is that scientific disciplines can be
710:"How Reliable Are the Social Sciences?"
337:
316:
1390:Richardson, Hannah (26 October 2010).
104:, "development", and whether they are
848:Representation in scientific practice
680:Lifelines: Biology Beyond Determinism
240:to cease funding disciplines such as
7:
54:and other sciences are described as
684:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
397:Wilson, Timothy D. (12 July 2012).
987:The Journal of the Society of Arts
14:
2158:Sociology of scientific knowledge
2153:Sociology of scientific ignorance
2106:History and philosophy of science
1308:Berezow, Alex B. (13 July 2012).
2355:
2343:
80:, a high degree of accuracy and
1547:Analytic–synthetic distinction
1416:Jump, Paul (20 January 2011).
1310:"Why psychology isn't science"
739:Diamond, Jared (August 1987).
148:Journal of the Society of Arts
1:
1442:Lane, Charles (4 June 2012).
1249:Fanelli D, Glänzel W (2013).
534:American Journal of Sociology
1276:10.1371/journal.pone.0066938
1181:Review of General Psychology
1081:VanLandingham, Mark (2014).
1052:10.1126/science.146.3642.347
898:10.1371/journal.pone.0003057
813:American Sociological Review
770:Hedges, Larry (1 May 1987).
615:10.1371/journal.pone.0010068
430:"Soft science and hard news"
295:Philosophy of social science
226:National Academy of Sciences
129:more extensive use of graphs
1880:Hypothetico-deductive model
1855:Deductive-nomological model
1840:Constructivist epistemology
349:"In praise of soft science"
238:National Science Foundation
2398:
1099:10.1177/003335491412900204
798:10.1037/0003-066X.42.5.443
502:10.1177/030631200030001003
34:on the basis of perceived
16:Fields of scientific study
2334:
1941:Semantic view of theories
1860:Epistemological anarchism
1797:dependent and independent
1216:The American Statistician
1017:Oxford English Dictionary
651:. Blackwell. p. 99.
490:Social Studies of Science
359:(7045): 1003–2005. 2005.
184:In the 1970s sociologist
152:hierarchy of the sciences
98:arranged into a hierarchy
1683:Intertheoretic reduction
1672:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
1649:Functional contextualism
1193:10.1037/1089-2680.8.1.59
2168:Philosophers of science
1946:Scientific essentialism
1895:Model-dependent realism
1830:Constructive empiricism
1723:Evidence-based practice
224:'s admission to the US
2251:Alfred North Whitehead
2241:Charles Sanders Peirce
1422:Times Higher Education
1138:Storer, N. W. (1967).
285:Methodological dualism
70:controlled experiments
30:terms used to compare
2382:Philosophy of science
2350:Philosophy portal
2101:Hard and soft science
2096:Faith and rationality
1965:Scientific skepticism
1745:Scientific Revolution
1528:Philosophy of science
1087:Public Health Reports
776:American Psychologist
672:Rose, Steven (1997).
647:Lemons, John (1996).
234:late 2000s recessions
120:historians of science
2076:Criticism of science
1951:Scientific formalism
1835:Constructive realism
1740:Scientific pluralism
1713:Problem of induction
938:"A different agenda"
275:soft science fiction
222:Samuel P. Huntington
150:, but the idea of a
142:History of the terms
36:methodological rigor
2143:Rhetoric of science
2081:Descriptive science
1825:Confirmation holism
1718:Scientific evidence
1678:Inductive reasoning
1607:Demarcation problem
1479:theconversation.com
1448:The Washington Post
1267:2013PLoSO...866938F
1144:Bull Med Libr Assoc
1013:"hard, adj. and n."
954:2012Natur.487Q.271.
948:(7407): 271. 2012.
889:2008PLoSO...3.3057B
751:on 13 December 2012
606:2010PLoSO...510068F
435:Columbia University
261:Demarcation problem
78:mathematical models
2362:Science portal
2291:Carl Gustav Hempel
2246:Wilhelm Windelband
2133:Questionable cause
1956:Scientific realism
1777:Underdetermination
1612:Empirical evidence
1602:Creative synthesis
1481:. The Conversation
1454:on 29 October 2013
1369:The New York Times
1341:The New York Times
714:The New York Times
588:Fanelli D (2010).
300:Positivism dispute
280:History of science
2369:
2368:
2211:
2210:
2123:Normative science
1980:Uniformitarianism
1735:Scientific method
1629:Explanatory power
1314:Los Angeles Times
1046:(3642): 347–353.
403:Los Angeles Times
242:political science
180:Empirical support
90:scientific method
32:scientific fields
2389:
2360:
2359:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2321:Bas van Fraassen
2276:Hans Reichenbach
2256:Bertrand Russell
2173:
1999:Philosophy of...
1782:Unity of science
1575:Commensurability
1521:
1514:
1507:
1498:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1473:Light, Alysson.
1470:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1450:. Archived from
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1278:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1159:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1118:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1009:
1003:
1002:
993:(310): 697–706.
982:
976:
975:
965:
934:
921:
920:
910:
900:
882:
858:
852:
851:
843:
837:
836:
808:
802:
801:
791:
767:
761:
760:
758:
756:
747:. Archived from
736:
725:
724:
722:
720:
702:
696:
695:
683:
669:
663:
662:
644:
638:
637:
627:
617:
585:
576:
575:
549:
547:10.1.1.1033.9702
529:
514:
513:
485:
470:
469:
457:
451:
450:
448:
446:
425:
414:
413:
411:
409:
394:
379:
378:
368:
366:10.1038/4351003a
345:
325:
321:
173:Norman W. Storer
44:natural sciences
2397:
2396:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2354:
2344:
2342:
2330:
2311:Paul Feyerabend
2271:Michael Polanyi
2207:
2193:Galileo Galilei
2162:
2148:Science studies
2064:
1994:
1985:Verificationism
1890:Instrumentalism
1875:Foundationalism
1850:Conventionalism
1808:
1644:Feminist method
1530:
1525:
1495:
1494:
1484:
1482:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1457:
1455:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1372:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1344:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1318:
1316:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1228:10.2307/2683400
1213:
1212:
1208:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1037:
1036:
1032:
1022:
1020:
1011:
1010:
1006:
984:
983:
979:
963:10.1038/487271a
936:
935:
924:
860:
859:
855:
845:
844:
840:
825:10.2307/2093493
810:
809:
805:
789:10.1.1.408.2317
769:
768:
764:
754:
752:
738:
737:
728:
718:
716:
708:(17 May 2012).
704:
703:
699:
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671:
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659:
646:
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641:
587:
586:
579:
531:
530:
517:
487:
486:
473:
459:
458:
454:
444:
442:
428:Frost, Pamela.
427:
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396:
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382:
347:
346:
339:
334:
329:
328:
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257:
207:
182:
144:
52:social sciences
46:are considered
40:formal sciences
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2335:
2332:
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2329:
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2298:
2296:W. V. O. Quine
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2231:Rudolf Steiner
2228:
2223:
2221:Henri Poincaré
2218:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2170:
2164:
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2160:
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2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2091:Exact sciences
2088:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2069:Related topics
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2028:Social science
2025:
2024:
2023:
2021:Space and time
2013:
2008:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1934:
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1920:
1907:
1902:
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1779:
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1732:
1730:Scientific law
1727:
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1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1639:Falsifiability
1636:
1631:
1626:
1625:
1624:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1568:Mill's Methods
1560:
1549:
1544:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1516:
1509:
1501:
1493:
1492:
1465:
1434:
1408:
1382:
1354:
1326:
1300:
1241:
1222:(4): 261–269.
1206:
1171:
1130:
1093:(2): 124–126.
1073:
1030:
1004:
977:
922:
853:
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2128:Protoscience
2100:
2086:Epistemology
1960:Anti-realism
1958: /
1939: /
1930: /
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1914:Reductionism
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1885:Inductionism
1865:Evolutionism
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2286:Karl Popper
2266:C. D. Broad
2183:Roger Bacon
2111:Non-science
2053:Linguistics
2033:Archaeology
1928:Rationalism
1918:Determinism
1905:Physicalism
1870:Fallibilism
1820:Coherentism
1750:Testability
1703:Observation
1698:Objectivity
1659:alternative
1590:Correlation
1580:Consilience
1458:19 December
1427:19 December
1401:19 December
1375:19 December
1347:19 December
1319:19 December
755:19 December
719:19 December
408:19 December
305:STEM fields
290:Non-science
249:gender bias
82:objectivity
66:predictions
2203:David Hume
2176:Precursors
2058:Psychology
2038:Economics‎
1932:Empiricism
1923:Pragmatism
1910:Positivism
1900:Naturalism
1770:scientific
1654:Hypothesis
1617:Experiment
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332:References
218:Serge Lang
28:colloquial
2043:Geography
2011:Chemistry
1970:Scientism
1765:ladenness
1585:Construct
1563:Causality
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1060:0036-8075
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784:CiteSeerX
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133:buzzwords
124:consensus
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2376:Category
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1813:Theories
1787:Variable
1708:Paradigm
1595:function
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1542:Analysis
1535:Concepts
1396:BBC News
1295:23840557
1255:PLOS ONE
1125:24587545
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745:Discover
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440:Metanews
375:15973363
324:general.
255:See also
63:testable
2048:History
2016:Physics
2006:Biology
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1792:control
1688:Inquiry
1286:3694152
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106:basic
102:rigor
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