1960:
466:, though altitude and soil vary between the Hauran's subregions. The Nuqrah, Jaydur and Jabal Hauran consist of arable land derived from decomposed basaltic, volcanic rock. The Nuqrah is a relatively low plateau measuring roughly 100 by 75 kilometers (62 mi × 47 mi) with an average elevation of 600 meters (2,000 ft) above sea level. Its land is characterized by vast, contiguous tracts of fertile, basalt-derived soil. In contrast to the Nuqrah, the Jaydur's landscape is more fractured and rocky. Its average elevation ranges between 600 and 900 meters (2,000 and 3,000 ft) above sea level, with some volcanic cones reaching above 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level, including
474:, the Jaydur is a topographic continuation of the Golan Heights. The Jabal Hauran was formed by large lava flows into a roughly 60 by 30 kilometers (37 mi × 19 mi) massif of volcanic hills, the highest point of which is over 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level in the range's center. The Lajat comprises a topography of depressions, rifts and ridges with scattered arable patches, and is characterized by rocky soil and scarce vegetation. Its average elevation is between 600–700 meters (2,000–2,300 ft) above sea level, though some of the area's volcanic cones are over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) with the highest over 1,150 meters (3,770 ft).
1036:
2315:
2350:
1708:
1589:
1672:
with the neighboring Druze, Ottoman irregulars and between themselves. Many southern plainsmen migrated to the northern Hauran plain, where the soil was more productive in comparison to the drier south and was less often overrun by the
Bedouin and their herds. According to the historian Norman Lewis, southern Haurani plainsmen "had been moving northwards for generations". Thus, by the start of the 19th century, the northern plains contained several full or half-empty villages, while the south had been all but deserted, with the exception of the larger towns of
40:
1492:
2034:
1208:, which only ended when the latter was allowed by the Byzantines to reestablish the Ghassanid phylarchy. This only lasted until al-Nu'man was exiled in 584, after which the empire dissolved the phylarchy into numerous, smaller Ghassanid and other Arab Christian units. Some of these units continued to fight alongside the Byzantines, but their overall power had diminished, leaving the area more vulnerable to invasion. In 613, the Sassanian Persians invaded Syria and defeated the Byzantines in a battle between Adraa and Bosra.
5160:
4853:
4748:
4638:
2239:
1481:
2248:
277:
2417:
2100:
1052:
2382:
place in the Hauran between the
Nabatean period in the 1st century to the Umayyad period in the 7th century. The region's pre-Islamic architectural tradition became the basis for later Islamic buildings in the Hauran, particularly in Bosra in the 12th–14th centuries. However, the Muslim patrons of these works also introduced outside elements, mostly inspired by Damascene architecture, to give their projects their own stately character.
1076:(Philippopolis) into an imperial city. Though Shahba and Auranitis prospered, the general state of the empire was marked by decline. Philip was killed in 249 and Auranitis was largely abandoned in the late 3rd century. By the early 3rd century, Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis had been annexed to Arabia, bringing the entire Hauran under the jurisdiction of a single province. This also coincided with the completion of the north–south
1894:, the Hauran also lost much of its importance within Syria's national economy. Though it continues to supply grain to Damascus, its role as the 'granary of Syria' was eclipsed by the country's northern and northeastern regions. Grain production in the Hauran has been limited by dependence on rain and underground reservoirs. Moreover, the region's economic potential has been curtailed by the creation of international borders and the
2228:
1959:
374:
2219:
1821:
1795:
secured and continued into the 20th century. To illustrate the extent of the Hauran's cultivation in the mid-1890s, Schumacher noted that "no hectare of good land was without its owner". The central plain had become entirely cultivated or settled, Daraa and Bosra grew significantly and many of the hamlets established or reestablished in the 1850s had become large villages. In 1891–95,
921:
5243:
5218:
4887:
4686:
4665:
4505:
1734:. attempted to integrate and reorganize the region. There followed other largely unsuccessful attempts by four successive Ottoman governors. At the time, the Hauran's leadership consisted of the chiefs of the largely pacified clans of the plains, such as Al Miqdad and Al Hariri; the more rebellious chiefs of the Druze clans of Jabal Hauran, such as Al Hamdan and
448:
2404:
wall-paintings and mosaics, are in a better state of preservation; but there is no region where numbers of towns of undoubted antiquity stand unburied, and still preserving their public and private buildings and their tombs in such a condition that, in many cases, they could be restored, with a small outlay, to their original state.
1374:
1229:
monasteries and large homes for their chieftains. Although a
Christian presence in some cities of Auranitis was established in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by the 5th century nearly all the villages in the Hauran had churches, most of them dedicated to saints favored by the Arabs. The Ghassanids played a significant role in promoting
394:
1976:, smuggling funds and weapons to sustain the rebellion. According to historian Nicholas Heras, "the major tribes of Dar`a are reported to share common grievances... ...against the al-Assad government in Dar`a". During the course of the war, they formed loosely-coordinated rebel militias, fighting under the banner of the
2185:
mostly in the southern parts of Jabal Hauran. In the northern parts, the Bani 'Amer predominate in eleven villages, while the other major clan in the northern Jabal Hauran was the
Halabiya family. Though the Bani al-Atrash and Bani ‘Amer were the more powerful clans in the governorate, members of the Banu Assaf of
2381:
The architecture of the
Byzantine era was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the consequent construction of churches and monasteries, the majority dating between the 4th century and early 6th century. Surveys of the region indicated that a long period of uninterrupted building activity took
1671:
The Hauran plains declined economically and demographically during the 17th and 18th centuries. Factors that caused this decline included the taxation of the peasantry by both the government and the
Bedouin, periodic raids by the Bedouin and the encroachments of their livestock, and occasional strife
1516:
into the army. However, as state authority receded, the region effectively became autonomous. An exception to this virtual autonomy came during the annual thirty- to sixty-day Hajj season, during which the state mobilized its forces to organize, protect and supply the annual Muslim pilgrim caravan to
1092:
For the first time since the
Hellenistic age the Hawran in its entirety came under one administrative system. The road network and the settlements it linked were the framework upon which the economic and social infrastructure of the region was built. Secure towns and safe, well-maintained roads meant
2377:
to Bosra. The
Nabateans were avid builders who had their own distinctive architectural tradition. After the Romans annexed the Kingdom of the Nabateans in 106, the area experienced a building boom that lasted until the onset of strife and instability in the mid-3rd century. Though the Romans greatly
1786:
and auctioned massive tracts of state land. From 1869, many
Damascene merchants and landowners and entrepreneurial Haurani farmers invested in these lands, which increased agricultural production. With these investments came a reinforced military presence and a consequent reduction in Bedouin raids.
1628:
in 1711. The new arrivals were concentrated in the northwestern corner of Jabal Hauran and the Lajat and established roots in abandoned villages with extensive ancient ruins. The area was chosen by the Druze because it was well-watered, defensible and relatively close to the Druze settlements in the
1397:
in the coastal regions of Bilad al-Sham in 1099 had repercussions for the Hauran and the region was periodically targeted by
Crusaders in plundering campaigns. These occurred when the Crusaders captured Muslim-held fortresses in the Hauran or passed by the region after raids against Damascus. In the
1245:
The advent of Islam in Arabia and its expansion northward to Syria was countered by the Byzantines and their Arab Christian allies. However, the region's defenses had been significantly weakened as a consequence of the Ghassanids' decline in status in 582–584. The first Arab Muslim forces arrived in
1228:
and others. They were entrusted by the Byzantines to secure the Hauran's agricultural production and stave off nomadic marauders. The region prospered under Ghassanid supervision and the tribe itself built or patronized secular and religious architecture in the region's villages, including churches,
960:
troops. Herod ultimately stabilized the area after establishing permanent colonies and a network of forts in the less vulnerable Batanea district, from which Herod's forces could keep order without fear of attack by the nomads of Auranitis and Trachonitis. Through the establishment of security, land
2455:
Renewed interest in the Hauran's ancient sites began in the 1970s. Umm al-Jimal was surveyed between 1972 and 1981 by the American archaeologist Bert de Vries and reports from that expedition were published in 1998. Surveys of the Hauran plain in Syria were carried out by French expeditionary teams
2390:
The Hauran is distinguished by the large-scale preservation of its ancient structures. This preservation extends to public and religious buildings, but also to simpler structures, such as village dwellings. The durability of basalt is generally credited with their well-preserved state. As a result,
1719:
During the 1850s, increased demand for grain in the Damascene and European markets led to a resurgence of grain cultivation in the Hauran. This in turn brought about the mass resettlement of abandoned villages and the establishment of new settlements. By the end of the decade, resettlement caused a
1600:
The Bedouin used the Hauran for access to water, to graze their camels and sheep and to stock up on supplies for the winter. They traded their livestock and meats for grains from the plainsmen, and wares from other Syrian merchants. The Hajj caravan was a major source of income for the Bedouin, who
1511:
following its conquest of Mamluk Syria in 1517. In the early Ottoman era, during the 16th and 17th centuries, there were numerous agrarian, primarily grain-growing villages in the Hauran plain and the western slopes of Jabal Hauran. Most of the inhabitants paid taxes on wheat and barley. The Hauran
490:
have historically allowed the Nuqrah and Jabal Hauran to become major grain-growing regions. The Hauran plain receives an average 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall, which allows the plains to support stable, grain-based agriculture. Jabal Hauran receives considerably greater rainfall, which
4465:
2310:
stone for building material. Known for its hardness and black color, basalt is readily available throughout the region and until recent decades, was used for nearly all construction work done in the Hauran. Due to a lack of timber, basalt took the usual place of wood and was used for doors, window
1757:
did centralization efforts take hold. Rashid sought to change the general view in the Hauran that the government was an alien power that was only intent on collecting taxes and conscripting its youth. He accomplished this change by according the chiefs of Wuld Ali and Rwala adequate grazing lands;
1550:
This hinterland political system had its own internal checks and, of course, its strains, but it appears to have existed with a fair degree of equilibrium for a very long period of time. The low pressure of population on the land and the natural economies that existed between steppe and cultivated
1432:
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the Hauran continued to be administratively divided into the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts of Damascus. In general, both districts were well-populated and prosperous, benefiting particularly from grain production. Though mostly Muslim, a significant portion of
1122:
veterans who upon returning to their villages in the Hauran invested money in land, houses, tombs, temples and public buildings and filled high-ranking local positions. Agriculture was the main economic sector, with Batanea and Auranitis mainly producing grain and wine, respectively, both of which
418:
to the southwest and the desert steppe to the south and southeast. To the west is the Golan plateau and to the east are the uplands of Jabal Hauran. The plain has historically been divided into the northern Jaydur and the southern Nuqrah. The former is identified with the ancient Iturea, while the
1971:
was sparked in the Hauran town of Daraa on 6 March 2011 when anti-government demonstrations were organized in response to the detention and alleged torture of a group of teenagers by the local branch of the security forces. As the revolt spread in the Hauran, anti-government forces utilized their
935:
extended its influence to all of Syria and initially charged local princes with keeping order in Auranitis (Jabal Hauran), Batanea (Nuqrah) and Trachonitis (Lajat). However, the districts remained largely in the hands of nomadic tribes. To supplement their meager income, these nomads often raided
1794:
Into the 1870s and 1880s, the peasants of the Hauran, including the Druze, persisted in their agitation against the central government, European commercial interests and their own leaders. However, increased security in the plains as well as an end to Bedouin tribute collection were both largely
1749:
and a coalition he formed, that included the Bedouin and many of the Haurani plainsmen. This coalition was defeated in 1862 and the government came to terms with al-Atrash, entrusting him to collect taxes from the entire Hauran and to pay heavy fines in place of conscription. Though this did not
1564:
confederation increasingly took advantage of the security vacuum. The Bedouin encamped in the Hauran in the spring and retreated into the desert as soon as the autumn rains began. The Anaza's entry into the Hauran caused the exodus of the semi-nomadic tribes of the Banu Rabi'a confederation. The
1138:
process was well underway and by the 4th century Greek supplanted the Hauran's native languages at the official level. Though the particularly wealthy and army veterans engaged in Hellenistic activities, such as visiting theaters and bathhouses, much of the population held on to Arab and Aramaic
2184:
Like the agrarian Sunni clans of the plains, the Druze in Jabal Hauran were traditionally organized in a hierarchical clan order that saw a disparity in the distribution of social influence and prestige. The Bani al-Atrash are the leading clan and predominate in some sixteen towns and villages,
951:
After Herod quelled resistance in the Hauran during the early years of his rule, the brigandage of the nomads largely ceased. Their rebellion resumed in 12 BC and two years later Herod renewed his efforts to bring the nomads to heel. This resulted in an alliance formed between the nomads of
1010:
98–117) no longer saw the need for local intermediaries. The deaths of the Herodian and Nabatean monarchs in relatively quick succession provided an opportunity for the Romans to absorb their domains. In 106, the empire formally annexed the entire Hauran, incorporating its southern part in
2403:
There is no other country in the world where the architectural monuments of antiquity have been preserved in such large numbers, in such perfection, and in so many varieties as in North Central Syria and in the Hauran. There are many places where the minor details of buildings, such as
1309:
as its capital. Settlement within the Hauran continued and in some cases "thrived" in the early Islamic period, with "no perceptible change in activity or cultural patterns under the Umayyad caliphs", according to historian Moshe Hartal. According to the 10th-century Muslim geographer
196:'s grain. The region saw a decline in the 17th century until increased demand for Syrian grain and improved security led to the agricultural revival and re-population of the Hauran in the mid-19th century. The region also historically benefited as a key transit area on the traditional
1938:(1970–2000). Politically, many of the clans that dominated local politics under the French continued to do so under the Ba'ath. Economically and socially, however, the higher levels of leadership within the clans declined and lower-ranking members gradually became more influential.
1652:, caused by the increased turbulence they faced, continued throughout the 18th century: historian Kais Firro stated that "each sign of danger in their traditional lands of settlement seemed to instigate a new Druze migration to the Hauran". During the final years of the decade-long
164:
client kings until it was formally annexed by the empire in the 2nd century AD. The Hauran prospered under Roman rule (106–395 AD) and its villages functioned as largely self-governing units, some of which developed into imperial cities. The region continued to prosper in the
2448:, which contained numerous ruins, some as high as three storeys high. The period in which these surveys were carried out coincided with the Hauran's mass resettlement. This resulted in the partial damage of some sites due to their occupation as homes or as a source of
1097:
After Rome's annexation, the rural villages of the Hauran exercised considerable self-rule. Each village had common areas and buildings, a law council and a treasury. Between the late 1st and 5th centuries, several underwent urbanization and became cities, including
1921:
Unlike other rural regions in Syria, most land in the Hauran was not concentrated in the hands of large owners, being owned instead by small or medium-sized proprietors. Thus, the region was not as affected by the Agrarian Reform Law passed in 1958 during the
1440:
Following its incorporation into the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hauran continued to be divided into the two districts of the Bosra-centered Hauran and the Adhri'at-centered Bathaniyya. However, within the region were the two smaller administrative units of
1945:(2000–present), the Hauran has remained an important agricultural region. Its principal city, Daraa, is a major transit hub for commercial traffic between Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, as well as for smuggled goods between these countries.
2011:
to recapture the rebel-held areas of the Daraa and Quneitra governorates. By the end of the following month, the entire Hauran was under government control, including a pocket of territory in the Yarmouk basin that had previously been held by the
1211:
The Byzantine era in the Hauran was marked by the dual processes of rapid Arabization and the growth of Christianity. The region's Ghassanid rulers were semi-nomadic and established permanent encampments throughout the Hauran, chief of which was
2052:
form a majority in the Hauran plain in Syria and Jordan and are known as Ḥawarna (singular: Ḥawrānī). In addition to the indigenous Ḥawarna, the plains are also populated by communities of former Bedouin tribes who gradually became settled, and
1766:
and facilitating the Hajj caravan. Tax concessions were also granted, but an Ottoman military presence was retained, as Rashid Pasha viewed it as a stabilising force. As part of the Hauran's reorganization, a new administrative district, the
1723:
The civil war of 1860, which spilled over into Damascus, where thousands of Christians were massacred, spurred the Ottomans to expand their centralization efforts in Syria. Prior to 1860, the Hauran had been largely excluded from the
2330:. Among these methods was the cutting of long, narrow beams from basalt to roof large areas spanning 10 meters (33 ft) or longer. Because of the size restrictions of the beams, a distinctive system of traverse, semi-circular
1410:(fief), which he held until his death in 1146. Under his patronage the region, and Bosra in particular, saw a renewal of building activity after a roughly 300-year hiatus. The population of the Hauran at the time was largely
1187:
tribal confederation, the Ghassanids established themselves in Arabia Province and like the Salihids, embraced Christianity. They became formal military allies of the Byzantines in 502, contributing troops in the wars with
1890:. It remained a significant source of the country's grain and point of transit between Syria and Jordan. It was often a place where Bedouin came to trade their wool and butter for other commodities. However, following
1807:
and established there a Jewish village, but in 1896 the authorities evicted the non-Ottoman Jewish families. In 1904, the annual Hajj caravan and Muzayrib's role in it was replaced by the construction of the
2456:
led by François Villeneuve in 1985 and Jean-Marie Dentzer in 1986. Early photographs of Hauran's archaeological sites, taken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the German explorer and photographer
1365:. The villages of Hawran and Bathaniyya were rehabilitated by Abu Mahmud Ibrahim, the nominal Fatimid governor of Damascus, in the early 980s, after the damage inflicted on the area by the Fazara and Murra.
1620:('mountain of the Druze'). Their arrival pushed the mountain's previous inhabitants to the Hauran plains and introduced a new element of instability to the region. A small group of Druze led by the
340:
begins the country of Hauran. It is bordered on the east by the rocky district of Lajat, and by the Jabal Hauran, both of which are sometimes comprised within the Hauran ... To the southeast, where
2142:. The Miqdad are predominant in many of the villages southwest of Daraa. They are also the largest clan in the city of Bosra, but are predated there by the smaller al-Hamd clan. The tribesmen of
2020:, most rebel factions surrendered in reconciliation deals with the government and remained in their hometowns. A number of rebel groups also joined the Syrian Army offensive against ISIL.
243:
styles. The durability of basalt is credited for the Hauran's possession of one of the highest concentrations of well-preserved Classical-era monuments in the world. Hauran towns such as
961:
distribution and early tax incentives, Batanea prospered under Herod and his successors and became Syria's main source of grain. Auranitis began to similarly prosper during the reign of
4895:
1088:
with Bosra, the provincial capital, and an east–west road connecting the cities of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line. Commenting on this development, historian Henry Innes MacAdam writes:
1534:
secured revenue from the region's population to fund the Hajj caravan, escorted the caravan and other travelers and policed the region. The principal restriction on the power of the
2134:
The second largest clan are the Hariri, who generally inhabit eighteen villages, including many that are inhabited by the Zu'bi. They are mostly concentrated just north of Daraa in
2131:. They form the predominant group in the city of Daraa and many of its surrounding villages. Altogether, they number some 160,000 members in southern Syria and northern Jordan.
5017:
1314:, the Hauran and Bathaniyya were "...two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to... ...the
1305:. The Hauran subdistrict roughly corresponded to the ancient Auranitis and its capital was Bosra, while the Bathaniyya subdistrict corresponded to the ancient Batanea and had
284:
Though its geographic definition may vary, the Hauran generally consists of the following subregions: the Hauran plain, which forms the heart of the region; the mountains of
212:
until being largely supplanted by northern Syria in the mid-20th century, which coincided with its separation from interdependent areas due to international borders and the
1023:–Bosra–Salkhad line that had separated the Herodian and Nabatean kingdoms. This administrative division remained intact for much of the 2nd century. This period, under the
3995:
Separation of Trans-Jordan from Palestine, Yitzhak Gil-Har, The Jerusalem Cathedra, ed. Lee Levine, Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi and Wayne State University, Jerusalem, 1981, p.306
2080:(Melkite), in the Hauran region as a whole, though most Christians are concentrated in the towns and villages straddling the western foothills of Jabal Hauran. A sizable
895:. By the end of the 2nd century BC, Seleucid control of the Hauran had become largely nominal and the region became a contested area between the Nabataean Kingdom, the
263:
and numerous others contain Roman temples and theaters, Byzantine-era churches and monasteries, and forts, mosques and bathhouses built by successive Muslim dynasties.
1421:
had conquered the region in the late 12th century, but their rule collapsed in Syria following the Mongol invasion in 1260. That year the Mongols were defeated by the
192:
Under the Romans, the grain of Batanea and the wine of Auranitis were important for imperial trade, and throughout its history, the Hauran was the major source of the
431:
is a relatively recent appellation, meaning "the cavity" in Arabic. The Jaydur extends northwest from al-Sanamayn to the minor lava field located at the foothills of
1126:
Much of the settled population consisted of Arameans, Jews and a larger Arab population, consisting of Nabateans and Safaitic groups. These groups continued to use
1750:
translate into the ultimate goal of integrating the Hauran, and the Bedouin continued their rebellions in 1863–1864, it still ended the region's virtual autonomy.
1163:, the Byzantines turned to certain powerful Arab tribes to maintain internal order and guard the Hauran. Beginning in the 4th century, this role was played by the
4492:
4390:
4360:
4322:
2338:, typically no longer than 4 meters (13 ft), were used to expand the intervals between the arches and the walls. This method "gave rise to the distinctive,
2790:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2311:
seals and ceilings. The reliance upon basalt in the Hauran "formed a truly lithic architecture“, according to the architectural anthropologist Fleming Aalund.
1596:
Bedouin and their camels on the move to better pastures in the Syrian desert steppe. Beginning in the 18th century the Anaza seasonally encamped in the Hauran.
1855:, which began in the Hauran, the area experienced increased prosperity and security, as its inhabitants were now protected from incursions by Bedouin tribes.
2378:
influenced the region's architecture, the Hauran's Nabatean inhabitants largely maintained their own building traditions, particularly in the smaller towns.
1601:
supplied the pilgrims with protection, logistical support, meat and transportation. Bedouin depredations against the locals included the imposition of the
4209:
2115:
clans, such as the Hariri, Zu'bi, Miqdad, Abu Zeid, Mahamid, Masalma and Jawabra. The Zu'bi are the largest clan, inhabiting some sixteen villages in the
1512:
had long been a major grain-producing region and officially, its land belonged to the Ottoman state and its inhabitants were required to pay taxes and be
2201:
historically dominated the judiciary, while the Hajari, Hinnawi and Jarbu families historically provided the Druze community's religious leadership in
1886:
In the period following Syria's independence from France in 1946, the Hauran developed into "a busy and prosperous region", according to the historian
1605:(tribute), ostensibly in return for protection. The Bedouin also launched occasional raids and their flocks often grazed on the plainsmen's fields.
1542:
sought to become more indispensable to the local population. To that end, they often mediated between the settled inhabitants of the plain and the
1530:, who commanded small, mobile units of mounted irregulars. In return for the political and economic influence they were allowed in the Hauran, the
1274:
and the ensuing chaos of succession, the Umayyads' Arab tribal allies in Syria convened a summit in the Hauran town of al-Jabiya, where they chose
5009:"Late Hellenistic Settlements in Hawrân (Southern Syria). Survival of Proto-historic Urbanism and Village Architecture in a Hellenized Context"
4784:
1787:
These combined factors caused the peasantry to “feel themselves more protected and risk further settlement", according to German archaeologist
1546:
nomads, and between the Hauran's population as a whole and all outside powers, including the state. According to historian Linda S. Schilcher,
4181:
5277:
4928:
4547:
2488:. In her survey in 1985, historian Robert Brenton Betts noted that this rate had likely declined and that many rural Christians had moved to
348:
are the farthest inhabited villages, the Hauran borders upon the desert. Its western limits are the chain of villages on the Hajj road, from
2408:
When Classical-era sites were largely resettled in the late Ottoman era, many of the Hauran's ancient monuments were converted into houses.
1715:, 1906. Grain was the chief crop of the Hauran, the cultivation of which led to the region's revival in the second half of the 19th century.
1118:(Naveh). The inhabitants were generally wealthy landowners whose large dwellings housed their extended families. Among the inhabitants were
4862:
The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilād al-Shām during the Umayyad Period: Proceedings of the Third Symposium, Volume 2
2013:
1981:
1329:
of eastern Arabia in the 10th century. After 939, the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts came under the direct rule of the Egyptian-based
1668:
between the Druze and Christians and the resulting French military intervention caused another large exodus of Druze to Jabal Hauran.
940:, a prince entrusted with the Hauran districts' security, collaborated with the nomads, the Romans transferred the districts to their
5150:
4996:
4963:
4843:
4738:
4628:
4594:
4523:
3984:
1866:. Its total population was 83,000 and included 110 villages. Its principal population centers were the small towns of Daraa, Bosra,
1093:
that internal and external commerce could flow freely. The wine and grain of the Hawran were marketed, we may assume, far and wide.
1754:
1738:; and the chiefs of the Bedouin tribes of Rwala, Wuld Ali, Sirhan and Sardiyah, whose herds seasonally grazed the Hauran plains.
1984:, which claimed it had the allegiance of some fifty armed groups with a collective strength of 30,000 fighters. Anti-government
1068:
During the late 2nd century, imperial order gradually weakened and political instability ensued. In 244 a native of the Hauran,
867:
and the area remained largely undeveloped. The Seleucids conquered the Hauran following their victory over the Ptolemies in the
2440:
in 1886 and 1888. The most thorough and abundant documentation was recorded in surveys carried out by Butler and his team from
2314:
1973:
189:
and Auranitis. Medieval Muslim geographers variously described these districts as prosperous, well-watered and well-populated.
4860:
King, G.R.D. (1989). "The Umayyad Qusur and Related Settlements in Jordan". In Bakhit, Muhammad Adnan; Schick, Robert (eds.).
1035:
5181:
5039:
4907:
4766:
4704:
4571:
1695:, though the precise dates of their settlement are uncertain. Economic migration from Hauran to Palestine continued into the
185:
rule (1517–1917), the Hauran was divided into the districts of al-Bathaniyya and Ḥawrān, which corresponded to the Classical
1205:
2349:
1449:, which corresponded with the Lajat. Under the Mamluks, the region's strategic importance stemmed from its position on the
2492:
city, Damascus or outside of Syria. Localities in the Hauran with Christian pluralities or majorities include the city of
2461:
2077:
2008:
1934:, parts of the Hauran, such as the area within and around Bosra, were practically self-governing during the presidency of
1290:’ toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Arab tribes of Hauran rose in a rebellion that was put down by the Abbasid general
178:
134:
2391:
there are some 300 towns and villages in the Hauran containing ancient structures, almost as high a concentration as the
1357:
conquered southern Syria in 970 and the Uqayl were consequently chased out of the Hauran by the Fatimid-allied tribes of
482:
Rainfall above the 200 millimetres (7.9 in) mark is characteristic throughout the Hauran, but otherwise climate and
5297:
5272:
5262:
1707:
1665:
1201:
5049:
Schilcher, L. Schatkowski (1981). "The Hauran Conflicts of the 1860s: A Chapter in the Rural History of Modern Syria".
1588:
220:, which was sparked in the Hauran in 2011, it became a major conflict zone between rebels and government forces in the
5267:
1995:
Until 2018, rebel groups controlled large areas on either side of the main north-south Damascus-Daraa highway and the
1585:. The Sulut, which was based in the Lajat wilderness, was the only Bedouin tribe that remained relatively stationary.
937:
816:
2432:
The earliest surveys of the Hauran's archaeological sites were taken in the 19th century by the French archaeologist
1024:
823:, which held onto it from 732 to 610 BC. The area is mentioned in the description of the future borders of Israel in
2668:
1930:
government in 1963, which effected land redistribution and mostly targeted large landowners. According to historian
1851:
rule in Syria. A revolt broke out in the Hauran in response to the French occupation. Following the crushing of the
5093:
Schilcher, L. Schatkowski (Fall 1991). "The Great Depression (1873-1896) and the Rise of Syrian Arab Nationalism".
4879:
4796:
4647:"The Druze Experience at Umm al-Jimal: Remarks on the History and Archaeology of the Early 20th Century Settlement"
1954:
414:
The plain of Hauran stretches between the Marj plain of Damascus southward into modern-day Jordan where it borders
221:
5085:
4972:
4775:
1895:
1353:(chieftains) Salih ibn Umayr and Zalim ibn Mawhub with keeping order in the Hauran districts. This ended when the
213:
5282:
4827:
4722:
4612:
2323:
2177:
tribesmen who made Daraa their home alongside the city's established agrarian clans. In addition, members of the
1783:
1491:
1155:
period. During the 4th and 5th centuries, when direct imperial rule was weakened and nomadic groups overran the
491:
supports more orchard and tree-based cultivation. Jabal Hauran is frequently covered by snow during the winter.
216:. Nonetheless, it persisted as an important agricultural and commercial transit area into the 2000s. During the
5292:
4823:
4815:
4718:
4714:
4608:
4604:
4216:
2362:
2277:
2073:
2033:
2007:
largely stayed out of the fighting and secured Jabal al-Druze. In June 2018, the Syrian government launched an
1573:, who arrived in the late 18th century. Both were part of the Anaza confederation. Smaller tribes included the
1484:
1422:
1378:
325:
236:
1758:
granting the leaders of the plainsmen and the Druze certain privileges and state functions; and replacing the
5226:
5167:
2433:
2299:
1848:
1467:
tribe in the 14th century caused instability in the region, but they eventually became settled inhabitants.
1283:
1204:
was arrested and exiled. This led to a rebellion in the Hauran and a siege on Bosra led by al-Mundhir's son
232:
1171:
for much of the 5th century. These groups protected the population in return for payment in gold and corn.
39:
5287:
5159:
5130:
4939:
4852:
4747:
4637:
2485:
2358:
2065:
1829:
1688:
1661:
1524:
Instead of their direct involvement in the Hauran, the authorities entrusted its affairs to the Damascene
1337:, formerly allies of the Qarmatians, migrated to the Syrian steppe extending from the Hauran northward to
925:
887:
emerged to the Hauran's south. The Arab Nabateans expanded their presence to the southern Hauran towns of
61:
3583:
3450:
3437:
3425:
2373:-style architecture is dated to at least the 1st century AD, when the Nabateans moved their capital from
3976:
2069:
1996:
1992:, also gained increasing influence, at times either challenging or cooperating with the Southern Front.
1684:
1526:
1411:
1193:
169:
era (395–634), during which different Arab tribes ruled the Hauran on Byzantium's behalf, including the
130:
3977:
The "business" of settlement: private entrepreneurship in the Jewish settlement of Palestine, 1900–1914
2306:
style, which is characterized by a number of distinctive factors. One of these is the exclusive use of
4646:
2525:
2444:
in 1903 and 1909 and then published periodically between 1909 and 1929. In 1913, Butler also surveyed
1771:, was formed, which included Jabal Hauran, the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the Golan plateau, the hilly
1624:
family first arrived in 1685. A much larger wave arrived in the region as a result of the intra-Druze
1551:
plain and between town and countryside appear to have contributed to this relatively stable situation.
1480:
5235:
4672:
3149:
3124:
2750:
2441:
2396:
2159:
2155:
2054:
2004:
2003:(SAA) and its affiliates controlled the highway corridor itself. Meanwhile, the pro-government Druze
1923:
1800:
1763:
1762:
as the state's intermediaries with the locals, whilst still utilizing them for military campaigns in
953:
5228:
Society and Economy in Marginal Zones: A Study of the Levantine Agricultural Economy (1st-8th c. AD)
4800:
2541:
2346:' architectural style that is peculiar to the black basalt areas of the Hauran", according to Ball.
2238:
2198:
1578:
4415:
2684:
2437:
1852:
1825:
1788:
1768:
1696:
1582:
1500:
1426:
1234:
1119:
962:
800:
2733:
2713:
2705:
2501:
2353:
An example of Hauran architecture's 'slab and lintel' technique used for a ceiling in Umm al-Jamal
2186:
5110:
5074:
5066:
2660:
2648:
2366:
1907:
1844:
1625:
966:
487:
427:, being bound to the east by the Lajat and Jabal Hauran. It forms the heart of the Hauran plain.
240:
157:
4955:
Patterns of Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture: Local Traditions versus Migrating Artists
2737:
2729:
2644:
2521:
5031:
A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187
2717:
2590:
2247:
5177:
5146:
5122:
5035:
4992:
4959:
4924:
4903:
4839:
4762:
4734:
4700:
4624:
4590:
4567:
4543:
4519:
4278:
3980:
3838:
2640:
2598:
2513:
2481:
2457:
2425:
2124:
2017:
1915:
1887:
1863:
1859:
1731:
1657:
1574:
1566:
1354:
1346:
1338:
1330:
1315:
1291:
1287:
1255:
1251:
1127:
900:
852:
832:
4984:
4819:
4513:
4428:
4348:
4258:
4072:
4045:
4028:
3964:
3867:
3791:
3778:
3766:
3754:
3741:
3724:
3709:
3673:
3490:
2949:
2709:
2676:
2194:
5204:
5102:
5058:
4949:
3052:
2725:
2566:
2497:
2269:
2139:
2112:
2099:
1977:
1968:
1840:
1746:
1221:
1189:
1152:
1077:
978:
884:
868:
856:
217:
166:
161:
109:. Traditionally, the Hauran consists of three subregions: the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the
4875:
Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500
3835:
Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה
3099:
2326:
of basalt enabled the "development of unusual building techniques", according to historian
2181:
Arab tribe from northeastern Syria have migrated to the city, mainly for economic reasons.
1608:
In addition to the Bedouin, the 18th and 19th centuries also witnessed large migrations of
1200:
of all Arabs' in the empire, but by 582 his son (and the last powerful Ghassanid phylarch)
5025:
2416:
1942:
1804:
1437:(died 1229) described the Hauran as "a large district full of villages and very fertile".
1434:
1418:
1247:
1160:
1156:
1069:
1051:
1042:
989:
945:
876:
820:
486:
levels vary between its subregions. The relatively frequent rainfall and the abundance of
337:
321:
98:
52:
4873:
4676:
1927:
1898:, which have separated it from previously interdependent areas that are located today in
859:
Damascus. Its sparse population consisted of semi-nomadic and nomadic groups such as the
137:
minority inhabit the western foothills of Jabal al-Druze. The region's largest towns are
2111:
The social structure of the Hauran plain is characterized by networks of large extended
5138:
5134:
4869:
4831:
4726:
4616:
4515:
Urban Autonomy in Medieval Islam: Damascus, Aleppo, Cordoba, Toledo, Valencia and Tunis
2615:
2562:
2143:
2116:
2104:
2045:
The population of the Hauran region is religiously heterogeneous. The largely agrarian
1935:
1858:
Under French Mandatory rule, the Hauran plains formed an eponymous district within the
1836:
1835:
At the end of World War I, the Hauran was captured and held for about two years by the
1772:
1617:
1517:
Mecca and Medina; In the 18th century, the Hajj route was moved westward from Bosra to
1508:
1496:
1403:
1271:
1027:
emperors who ruled until 180 AD, saw consistent stability, development and prosperity.
1012:
936:
nearby settlements as far as Damascus, and robbed pilgrims traversing the region. When
796:
297:
285:
276:
182:
110:
5256:
5126:
5114:
5078:
4896:"The Syrian Steppe during the Last Century of Ottoman Rule: Hawran and the Palmyrena"
2754:
2570:
2554:
2163:
2120:
1809:
1634:
1613:
1399:
1302:
1230:
1217:
1135:
819:
during the 9th and 8th centuries BC. It was ultimately conquered and pillaged by the
812:
483:
399:
The land of the Hauran plain is arable, consisting of basalt-derived soil, while the
384:
313:
292:
volcanic field to the north of Jabal Hauran. The region is bound to the north by the
205:
106:
2227:
235:
characterized by the exclusive use of basalt as a building material and a fusion of
4980:
4563:
Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics
4557:
4533:
2688:
2586:
2578:
2445:
2327:
2285:
2273:
2190:
2167:
2046:
1931:
1891:
1653:
1645:
1630:
1513:
1298:
1297:
During the early Muslim period (7th-10th centuries), the Hauran formed part of the
1225:
1148:
932:
872:
804:
495:
Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°C) for largest localities in the Hauran
467:
432:
380:
260:
153:
122:
4761:. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1555. Oxford: Archaeopress.
1270:
and were supported by the people of Hauran. After the death of the Umayyad caliph
5242:
5217:
5171:
5029:
4953:
4918:
4886:
4694:
4685:
4664:
4561:
4537:
4504:
1878:(subdistricts), the southern one centered in Daraa and the northern one in Izra.
1824:
Druze rebels celebrating the release of their prisoners in the Hauran during the
1333:, nominal governors of the Abbasids. During this period, the large Arab tribe of
851:
beginning in the mid-4th century BC, the Hauran was at first a possession of the
2656:
2421:
2392:
2151:
2084:
2016:(ISIL). Although some rebels and their families opted to relocate to rebel-held
2000:
1989:
1871:
1621:
1358:
1168:
1115:
1111:
1016:
848:
645:
471:
424:
373:
353:
209:
170:
5106:
4985:"Bringing the State Back: The Limits of Ottoman Rule in Transjordan, 1840–1910"
1820:
920:
288:(also known as 'Jabal al-Druze' or 'Jabal al-Arab') east of the plain; and the
5062:
2721:
2672:
2664:
2632:
2529:
2489:
2480:
In the censuses of 1927, 1943 and 1956 Christians accounted for 9%–10% of the
2339:
1828:
against French rule. The revolt began in Jabal Hauran under the leadership of
1362:
1334:
1326:
1180:
1103:
824:
741:
463:
174:
146:
3842:
3077:
4583:
3831:"Rural Settlement in the Southern Coastal Plain and the Shefelah, 1835-1945"
2619:
2582:
2218:
1735:
1692:
1677:
1638:
1456:
1394:
1385:
in Jabal Hauran was an administrative unit and its ruler was a high-ranking
1325:
The Abbasid period in Hauran was marked by numerous damaging raids from the
1259:
1213:
896:
864:
693:
349:
345:
333:
142:
4215:. International Crisis Group. 2015-09-02. p. 7, n. 33. Archived from
2766:
Examples of photographs of the Hauran taken by Burchardt in 1895 include:
2452:
for new buildings, a process which continuously increased in later years.
2260:
is characteristic of the Hauran's architecture. Examples shown above are (
2170:, while the Masalma, Mahamid and Abu Zeid are concentrated in Daraa city.
1664:. By then, their numbers in the region had been swollen by migration. The
1569:(also known as Awlad Ali), who arrived in the early 18th century, and the
423:
in Arabic). The much larger Nuqrah extends northward to the approaches of
4500:(PhD). Copenhagen: The Royal Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture.
2574:
2558:
2123:
districts. They also have an extensive presence across the border in the
2088:
1985:
1726:
1518:
1417:
The last recorded appearance of the Crusaders in Hauran was in 1217. The
1311:
1275:
1267:
1197:
1164:
977:
By the early 2nd century AD, the last vassal kings of the Hauran region,
836:
383:
volcanic cone in the Jaydur region of the Hauran plain, as seen from the
301:
3830:
1633:. The paramount leaders of the community between 1711 and 1860 were the
5193:"Urban And Rural Militia Organizations In Syria's Less Governed Spaces"
2636:
2537:
2517:
2449:
2289:
2202:
2178:
2081:
1903:
1796:
1649:
1593:
1570:
1561:
1543:
1464:
1442:
1382:
1131:
1099:
1081:
892:
795:
There are records of settlements in the Hauran in the Ancient Egyptian
361:
256:
248:
186:
5209:
5192:
5070:
4920:
Geography, Urbanisation and Settlement Patterns in the Roman Near East
855:, which saw the region as a buffer zone separating their kingdom from
447:
17:
4864:. Amman: University of Jordan Press, Bilad al-Sham History Committee.
4755:
Hartal, Moshe (2006). Dar, Shimon; Hartal, Moshe; Ayalon, E. (eds.).
2749:
The Halabiya predominate in the Wadi al-Liwa area, including al-Hit,
2701:
2652:
2631:
The localities inhabited by the Bani al-Atrash include the cities of
2533:
2505:
2343:
2335:
2307:
2257:
2174:
1899:
1782:
Rashid Pasha also pressed wealthier Syrians to take advantage of the
1776:
1350:
1263:
1107:
1073:
1058:
1000:
907:
principality based in the northern Golan and southern Mount Lebanon.
904:
860:
460:
357:
309:
305:
293:
252:
228:
193:
102:
94:
90:
82:
31:
5008:
1445:, a fortress town typically held by a high-ranking Mamluk emir, and
999:
70–106 AD) of the Nabatean Kingdom, had died and Rome under Emperor
129:
form the majority in the eponymous Jabal al-Druze and a significant
121:, but religiously heterogeneous; most inhabitants of the plains are
4758:
Rafid on the Golan: A Profile of a Late Roman and Byzantine Village
4756:
2057:
who arrived over fifty years prior to the end of the 19th century.
1373:
1192:
and the Persians' Lakhmid vassals. In 531, the Ghassanid chieftain
2680:
2611:
2594:
2509:
2415:
2395:
of northwestern Syria. In the words of 20th-century archaeologist
2374:
2348:
2313:
2281:
2147:
2135:
2128:
2098:
2061:
2032:
1958:
1911:
1819:
1730:
centralization reforms. In January 1861, the provincial governor,
1712:
1706:
1673:
1609:
1587:
1560:
As state authority receded in the Hauran, Bedouin tribes from the
1490:
1479:
1459:
and Damascus and Bosra's role as a major marshaling point for the
1451:
1433:
the inhabitants were Christians. A contemporary Syrian geographer
1372:
1319:
1306:
1279:
1085:
1020:
1019:. The provincial boundary followed the boundary just north of the
941:
919:
888:
880:
597:
549:
446:
415:
400:
341:
289:
244:
201:
138:
126:
114:
86:
38:
1745:, faced stiff resistance. They were opposed by both the Druze of
5234:(Thesis). Department of Classics and Philosophy Royal Holloway,
4623:. Vol. VI: Mahk-Mid. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 621–623.
2493:
2331:
2265:
2049:
2038:
1867:
1660:
against the authorities, in response to a conscription order by
1460:
1446:
1407:
1386:
1134:
and an early form of Arabic at the colloquial level, though the
957:
393:
197:
118:
5145:. Vol. III: H–Iram. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 292–293.
4182:"Syrian government forces seal victory in southern territories"
2146:(or Na'imeh) are predominant in the towns of al-Shaykh Maskin,
1463:
caravans going to Mecca. The arrival of nomadic clans from the
4989:
Village, Steppe and State: The Social Origins of Modern Jordan
1184:
352:
as far south as Ramtha ... Hauran comprises therefore part of
4210:"Middle East Report, No. 163: New Approach in Southern Syria"
1521:, which became the caravan's marshaling point in the Hauran.
1250:
by them in May. Following the decisive Muslim victory in the
835:
rule; its settlements became better developed and culturally
4838:. Vol. VIII: Ned-Sam. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 114.
3833:[היישוב הכפרי במישור-פלשת ובשפלה הנמוכה 1835-1945].
1656:
administration of Syria, the Druze of Jabal Hauran launched
1179:
In the early 6th century, the Salihids were replaced by the
152:
From the mid-1st century BC, the region was governed by the
30:
This article is about the region. For the ancient god, see
4733:. Vol. V: Khe–Mahi. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 593.
4494:
Vernacular Tradition and the Islamic Architecture of Bosra
2369:
styles also characterizes the architecture of the region.
2064:
form a majority in the Jabal Hauran, which is part of the
1398:
early 12th century, the entire Hauran was assigned by the
4902:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–43.
3815:
3813:
1616:
to the Jabal Hauran, which gradually became known as the
1429:
and Syria, including the Hauran, came under Mamluk rule.
1233:
Christianity in Syria which was viewed as heretic by the
1538:
was resistance from the Hauran's inhabitants. Thus, the
360:, the whole of Auranitis, and the northern districts of
117:
volcanic field. The population of the Hauran is largely
2162:. Smaller clans such as the Rifa'i are concentrated in
2087:
community, whose origins are from the Lebanese city of
320:
in Arabic). It is eastwardly bound by the al-Hamad and
4900:
The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East
1278:
to be the next caliph, in opposition to the ascendant
1254:
in 636, all of the Hauran came under Muslim rule. The
2154:
in the Izra District, the villages of north-central
1741:
The centralization efforts, backed by the Damascene
1565:
largest tribes that encamped in the Hauran were the
66:
4941:
The Ghassānids and the Fall of the Golan Synagogues
3605:
3603:
2700:The localities inhabited by the Bani ‘Amer include
1644:Persistent migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon,
1151:, continued to migrate to the Hauran well into the
231:in the Hauran led to the development of a distinct
181:in the mid-630s. For much of the Islamic era until
5007:
4582:
4175:
4173:
4171:
4169:
2318:A window built of basalt in a structure in Qanawat
4539:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire
1918:, have also contributed to its economic decline.
1720:scarcity of grazing lands for Bedouin livestock.
224:until the government reasserted control in 2018.
4654:Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan
3979:, Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1994. p. 20.
952:Trachonitis and Auranitis with the Nabateans in
4785:"A Profile of Syria's Strategic Dar'a Province"
4007:
4005:
4003:
4001:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3684:
3682:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3644:
3642:
3632:
3630:
3628:
3626:
3624:
419:latter is identified with the ancient Batanea (
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
2778:, 400 metres (1,300 ft) west of Suwayda;
2436:between 1865 and 1877, S. Merrill in 1881 and
2127:, particularly in the cities of al-Ramtha and
2041:, which has a significant Christian community.
1683:Haurani migrants established villages such as
459:A common feature throughout the Hauran is the
4343:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4331:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3507:
3485:
3483:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3305:
3303:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
1910:as an alternative market to Damascus, and of
8:
5051:International Journal of Middle East Studies
5034:. Cambridge: Cambridge University of Press.
5018:Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities
4898:. In Mundy, Martha; Musallam, Basim (eds.).
4385:
4383:
4297:
4295:
4273:
4271:
4269:
4267:
3393:
3391:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3345:
3343:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3236:
3234:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2812:
1914:as the Hauran's main economic outlet to the
1906:and Jordan. In particular, the dual loss of
1556:Increased Bedouin pressures and Druze influx
1139:traditions and worshiped their native gods.
1072:, became emperor and turned his hometown of
4987:. In Rogan, Eugene L.; Tell, Tariq (eds.).
4450:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4401:
4399:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4067:
4065:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4017:
3593:
3591:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3018:
2091:, make up about 40% of Bosra's population.
811:. Control of it was contested between the
4466:"SMB-digital: Online collections database"
4373:
4371:
4369:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4098:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4080:
3959:
3957:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3719:
3717:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3694:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2998:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2610:The localities of the Miqdad clan include
2095:Clan structure and geographic distribution
1972:clan networks that extended to Jordan and
1963:An anti-government protest in Daraa, 2013.
1476:Grain cultivation and Hajj caravan transit
1301:, itself a part of the larger province of
328:, writing in 1812, defined it as follows:
5208:
4159:
4157:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4118:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2553:The localities of the Zu'bi clan include
988:53–100 AD) of the Herodian Tetrarchy and
807:, when the region was generally known as
304:and to the south by the desert steppe of
125:belonging to large agrarian clans, while
3038:
3036:
2959:
2957:
2037:The Church of St. George in the city of
1406:general Amin al-Dawla Kumushtakin as an
831:later saw security and prosperity under
493:
407:) has stony ground and scarce vegetation
308:. Its western boundary is marked by the
280:The approximate boundaries of the Hauran
275:
5143:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition
4958:. New York: New York University Press.
4836:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition
4731:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition
4621:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition
4204:
4202:
2808:
2473:
1926:period (1958–1961) and enforced by the
1874:. The district was subdivided into two
1487:'s map of the Hauran, published in 1822
1061:(Philippopolis) built by Emperor Philip
451:The highest point of the Jabal Hauran (
101:field, to the south by Jordan's desert
1258:took control of the expanding Islamic
455:) is over 1,800 meters above sea level
5191:Wege, Carl Anthony (September 2015).
4542:(2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge.
1803:, acquired 100,000 dunams of land in
1507:The Hauran was incorporated into the
1237:embraced by most Byzantine emperors.
1106:(Dionysias), Shahba (Philippopolis),
875:in 200 BC. During the decline of the
7:
5176:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4589:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2014:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
1862:, while the Jabal Hauran formed the
4607:(1991). "Marwān I b. al-Ḥakam". In
3080:. World Meteorological Organization
2173:Among the settled Bedouin are many
1703:Regional revival and centralization
1499:, the administrative center of the
56:
4991:. London: British Academic Press.
2300:vernacular architectural tradition
1123:were important to imperial trade.
93:. It is bound in the north by the
25:
5014:Bollettino di Archeologia on Line
5006:Rohmer, Jérôme (September 2008).
2334:was devised to support the roof.
5241:
5216:
5158:
4923:. Abingdon: Ashgate Publishing.
4885:
4851:
4783:Heras, Nicholas A. (June 2014).
4746:
4684:
4663:
4636:
4503:
4239:Betts 1988, p. 60; p. 80, n. 38.
2246:
2237:
2226:
2217:
1050:
1034:
470:. In terms of its landscape and
392:
372:
2791:The citadel: decorated lintel,
2768:the castle (citadel) of Salkhad
1974:Arab states of the Persian Gulf
1882:Post-Syrian independence period
1845:French forces occupied Damascus
1799:organisations, helped by Baron
1262:and relocated its capital from
1005:
994:
983:
4581:Betts, Robert Brenton (1988).
4566:. Princeton University Press.
4180:Shaheen, Kareem (2018-07-31).
2544:in the as-Suwayda Governorate.
2264:): (1) A traditional house in
312:, which separates it from the
208:. The Hauran remained Syria's
1:
5197:Journal of Terrorism Research
4917:MacAdam, Henry Innes (2002).
4468:. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
2462:Ethnological Museum of Berlin
1753:Not until the appointment of
1299:military district of Damascus
85:that spans parts of southern
5278:Historical regions of Jordan
3896:Schilcher 1981, pp. 168–169.
3609:Schilcher 1981, pp. 159–160.
2780:Qasr (fortress) al-Mushannaf
1666:1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
1246:the Hauran in April 634 and
1147:Arab groups, including from
5173:Roman Imperial Architecture
4678:Architecture and other Arts
2939:Brown 2009, p. 377, note 1.
2262:clockwise from the top left
2103:A Bedouin tribesman of the
1183:. A major component of the
926:Roman amphitheater of Bosra
813:Aramean kingdom of Damascus
324:desert steppes. Geographer
67:
5314:
5107:10.15184/S089663460000039X
5095:New Perspectives on Turkey
4880:Palestine Exploration Fund
4797:Combating Terrorism Center
4377:Ward-Perkins 1994, p. 339.
3837:(in Hebrew) (45): 64, 67.
3297:MacAdam 2002, pp. 644–645.
1988:armed groups, such as the
1955:Daraa Governorate campaign
1952:
222:Daraa Governorate campaign
29:
27:Region in Syria and Jordan
5063:10.1017/S0020743800055276
4491:Aalund, Flemming (1992).
4248:Betts 1988, p. 60, n. 11.
2288:-era Temple of Rabbos in
2068:. There is a significant
1941:During the presidency of
1629:Damascus countryside and
1057:The Philippeion forum in
1015:and its northern part in
956:, which defeated Herod's
538:
499:
227:The wide availability of
5225:Zerbini, Andrea (2013).
4645:Brown, Robin M. (2009).
3829:Grossman, David (1987).
2772:Melach Es-Sarrar (Malah)
2107:clan in the Hauran, 1895
1847:in July 1920 to enforce
1711:Grain being threshed in
1485:Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
1402:emir of Damascus to the
1045:, a native of the Hauran
543:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
502:
177:(6th century) until the
97:oasis, eastwards by the
43:Map of the Hauran region
4938:Ma'oz, Zvi Uri (2008).
4799:: 20–23. Archived from
4696:A History of the Druzes
4681:. New York: Century Co.
4289:Batatu 1999, pp. 26–27.
4011:Schilcher 1981, p. 176.
3951:Schilcher 1981, p. 175.
3942:Schilcher 1981, p. 174.
3933:Schilcher 1981, p. 173.
3919:Schilcher 1981, p. 171.
3910:Schilcher 1981, p. 170.
3887:Schilcher 1981, p. 163.
3878:Schilcher 1981, p. 162.
3819:Schilcher 1991, p. 168.
3807:Schilcher 1981, p. 161.
3688:Schilcher 1981, p. 165.
3654:Schilcher 1981, p. 164.
3636:Schilcher 1981, p. 160.
3618:Schilcher 1981, p. 159.
2298:The Hauran has its own
1816:French Mandatory period
1455:(postal route) between
1284:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
967:successor in the Hauran
233:vernacular architecture
105:and to the west by the
4894:Lewis, Norman (2000).
4699:. Vol. 1. BRILL.
4512:Amabe, Fukuzo (2016).
4151:Heras 2014, pp. 22–23.
3501:Runciman 1951, p. 241.
3468:Amabe 2016, pp. 31–32.
2992:Honigman 1995, p. 114.
2639:, and the villages of
2486:as-Suwayda Governorate
2460:, are now held at the
2429:
2406:
2354:
2319:
2280:-era Fatima Mosque in
2108:
2066:al-Suwayda Governorate
2042:
1964:
1832:
1830:Sultan Pasha al-Atrash
1716:
1689:al-Masmiyya al-Saghira
1676:(Adhri'at), Bosra and
1597:
1553:
1504:
1488:
1390:
1381:rule, the fortress of
1095:
928:
456:
366:
281:
44:
5125:(1971). "Ḥawrān". In
5086:registration required
4973:registration required
4776:registration required
4717:(1986). "Ladjāʾ". In
3573:Sourdel 1971, p. 293.
3436:Le Strange 1890, pp.
3415:Bosworth 1991, p. 622
3309:MacAdam 2002, p. 645.
3189:Rohmer 2008, pp. 1–2.
2874:Sourdel 1971, p. 292.
2419:
2401:
2352:
2317:
2256:The exclusive use of
2102:
2036:
1997:Nasib border crossing
1962:
1896:Arab–Israeli conflict
1823:
1710:
1685:al-Masmiyya al-Kabira
1591:
1548:
1494:
1483:
1376:
1349:assigned the Uqaylid
1194:al-Harith ibn Jabalah
1090:
923:
450:
330:
326:John Lewis Burckhardt
279:
272:Geographic definition
214:Arab–Israeli conflict
42:
5236:University of London
4693:Firro, Kais (1992).
4301:Zerbini 2013, p. 52.
3582:Le Strange 1890, p.
3449:Le Strange 1890, p.
3424:Le Strange 1890, p.
3406:Hartal 2006, p. 285.
3397:Hartal 2006, p. 289.
3379:Hartal 2006, p. 288.
3363:Hartal 2006, p. 287.
3335:Hartal 2006, p. 284.
3288:Hartal 2006, p. 281.
3279:Hartal 2006, p. 279.
3261:Hartal 2006, p. 280.
3249:Hartal 2006, p. 277.
3240:Hartal 2006, p. 274.
3228:Hartal 2006, p. 272.
3219:Hartal 2006, p. 273.
3203:Hartal 2006, p. 271.
3180:Hartal 2006, p. 269.
3150:"Climate As Suwayda"
2930:Zerbini 2013, p. 56.
2496:and the villages of
2442:Princeton University
2397:Howard Crosby Butler
2197:and Bani Abu Ras of
2160:Quneitra Governorate
2156:al-Sanamayn District
1924:United Arab Republic
1801:Edmond de Rothschild
1691:, both located near
1080:road connecting the
5298:Philip the Tetrarch
5273:Hebrew Bible places
5263:Landforms of Jordan
4878:. Committee of the
4464:Hermann Burchardt.
3597:Brown 2009, p. 379.
3125:"Climate Al Ramtha"
3042:Gaube 1982, p. 593.
2921:Brown 2009, p. 377.
2438:Gottlieb Schumacher
2284:; (4) Ruins of the
2268:; (2) Remains of a
1853:Great Syrian Revolt
1826:Great Syrian Revolt
1789:Gottlieb Schumacher
1427:Battle of Ain Jalut
1393:The arrival of the
1248:Bosra was conquered
1235:Chalcedonian Church
1110:(Maxmimianopolis),
801:Book of Deuteronomy
496:
5268:Landforms of Syria
5168:Ward-Perkins, J.B.
4454:Hartal 2006, p. 7.
4427:Meinecke 1996, p.
4405:Ball 2016, p. 241.
4347:Meinecke 1996, p.
4142:Heras 2014, p. 22.
4112:Heras 2014, p. 21.
3489:Meinecke 1996, p.
3477:Amabe 2016, p. 47.
3030:Ball 2016, p. 238.
2983:Hartal 2006, p. 4.
2963:Ma'oz 2008, p. 35.
2912:Rohmer 2008, p. 1.
2430:
2424:, photographed by
2355:
2320:
2272:-era structure in
2109:
2043:
1965:
1833:
1717:
1658:their first revolt
1626:Battle of Ain Dara
1598:
1505:
1495:An 1886 sketch of
1489:
1391:
1369:Middle Islamic era
929:
849:Hellenistic period
843:Hellenistic period
494:
457:
282:
173:(5th century) and
45:
5210:10.15664/jtr.1123
4930:978-1-138-74056-3
4549:978-0-415-72078-6
4518:. Leiden: Brill.
4414:Butler 1903, pp.
4257:Batatu 1999, pp.
4163:Wege 2015, p. 42.
4128:Wege 2015, p. 36.
2514:Daraa Governorate
2482:Jabal Druze State
2458:Hermann Burchardt
2434:Melchior de Vogüé
2426:Hermann Burchardt
2125:Irbid Governorate
2072:population, both
1916:Mediterranean Sea
1888:Dominique Sourdel
1864:Jabal Druze State
1860:State of Damascus
1347:Abu al-Misk Kafur
1341:. After 945, the
1339:Upper Mesopotamia
1331:Ikhshidid dynasty
1292:Abd Allah ibn Ali
1252:Battle of Yarmouk
1241:Early Islamic era
1128:Semitic languages
901:Hasmonean dynasty
853:Ptolemaic dynasty
817:Kingdom of Israel
788:
787:
200:caravan route to
65:
16:(Redirected from
5305:
5283:Regions of Syria
5246:
5245:
5239:
5233:
5221:
5220:
5214:
5212:
5187:
5163:
5162:
5156:
5118:
5089:
5082:
5045:
5021:
5011:
5002:
4976:
4969:
4945:
4934:
4913:
4890:
4889:
4883:
4865:
4856:
4855:
4849:
4811:
4809:
4808:
4779:
4772:
4751:
4750:
4744:
4710:
4689:
4688:
4682:
4668:
4667:
4661:
4651:
4641:
4640:
4634:
4600:
4588:
4577:
4553:
4529:
4508:
4507:
4501:
4499:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4461:
4455:
4452:
4431:
4425:
4419:
4412:
4406:
4403:
4394:
4389:Aalund 1992, p.
4387:
4378:
4375:
4364:
4359:Aalund 1992, p.
4357:
4351:
4345:
4326:
4321:Aalund 1992, p.
4319:
4302:
4299:
4290:
4287:
4281:
4277:Batatu 1999, p.
4275:
4262:
4255:
4249:
4246:
4240:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4227:
4221:
4214:
4206:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4177:
4164:
4161:
4152:
4149:
4143:
4140:
4129:
4126:
4113:
4110:
4075:
4071:Batatu 1999, p.
4069:
4048:
4044:Batatu 1999, p.
4042:
4031:
4027:Batatu 1999, p.
4025:
4012:
4009:
3996:
3993:
3987:
3973:
3967:
3961:
3952:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3934:
3931:
3920:
3917:
3911:
3908:
3897:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3870:
3864:
3847:
3846:
3826:
3820:
3817:
3808:
3805:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3777:Firro 1992, pp.
3775:
3769:
3763:
3757:
3751:
3745:
3740:Firro 1992, pp.
3738:
3727:
3721:
3712:
3706:
3689:
3686:
3677:
3672:Lewis 2000, pp.
3670:
3655:
3652:
3637:
3634:
3619:
3616:
3610:
3607:
3598:
3595:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3502:
3499:
3493:
3487:
3478:
3475:
3469:
3466:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3413:
3407:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3380:
3377:
3364:
3361:
3336:
3333:
3310:
3307:
3298:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3262:
3259:
3250:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3229:
3226:
3220:
3217:
3204:
3201:
3190:
3187:
3181:
3178:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3154:Climate-Data.org
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3129:Climate-Data.org
3121:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3104:Climate-Data.org
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3057:Climate-Data.org
3049:
3043:
3040:
3031:
3028:
2993:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2964:
2961:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2922:
2919:
2913:
2910:
2875:
2872:
2797:
2793:Khirbat al-Bayda
2786:Khirbet al-Bayda
2764:
2758:
2747:
2741:
2698:
2692:
2629:
2623:
2608:
2602:
2567:Khirbet Ghazaleh
2551:
2545:
2478:
2420:Ancient temple,
2324:tensile strength
2250:
2241:
2230:
2221:
2140:al-Shaykh Maskin
1978:Free Syrian Army
1969:Syrian Civil War
1949:Syrian Civil War
1849:French Mandatory
1747:Ismail al-Atrash
1697:Mandatory period
1286:. Following the
1226:Harith al-Jawlan
1190:Sassanian Persia
1175:Ghassanid period
1161:Euphrates valley
1078:Via Nova Traiana
1054:
1041:Bust of Emperor
1038:
1009:
1007:
998:
996:
987:
985:
885:Nabatean Kingdom
869:Battle of Panium
497:
396:
376:
332:To the south of
310:Ruqqad tributary
218:Syrian Civil War
113:massif, and the
72:
60:
58:
21:
5313:
5312:
5308:
5307:
5306:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5293:Herod the Great
5253:
5252:
5249:
5240:
5231:
5224:
5215:
5190:
5184:
5166:
5157:
5153:
5121:
5092:
5083:
5048:
5042:
5024:
5005:
4999:
4979:
4970:
4966:
4948:
4937:
4931:
4916:
4910:
4893:
4884:
4868:
4859:
4850:
4846:
4814:
4806:
4804:
4782:
4773:
4769:
4754:
4745:
4741:
4713:
4707:
4692:
4683:
4671:
4662:
4649:
4644:
4635:
4631:
4603:
4597:
4580:
4574:
4556:
4550:
4532:
4526:
4511:
4502:
4497:
4490:
4486:
4481:
4471:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4458:
4453:
4434:
4426:
4422:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4397:
4388:
4381:
4376:
4367:
4358:
4354:
4346:
4329:
4320:
4305:
4300:
4293:
4288:
4284:
4276:
4265:
4256:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4225:
4223:
4219:
4212:
4208:
4207:
4200:
4190:
4188:
4179:
4178:
4167:
4162:
4155:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4132:
4127:
4116:
4111:
4078:
4070:
4051:
4043:
4034:
4026:
4015:
4010:
3999:
3994:
3990:
3974:
3970:
3963:Lewis 2000, p.
3962:
3955:
3950:
3946:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3873:
3866:Lewis 2000, p.
3865:
3850:
3828:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3811:
3806:
3797:
3790:Firro 1992, p.
3789:
3785:
3776:
3772:
3765:Firro 1992, p.
3764:
3760:
3753:Firro 1992, p.
3752:
3748:
3739:
3730:
3723:Firro 1992, p.
3722:
3715:
3708:Lewis 2000, p.
3707:
3692:
3687:
3680:
3671:
3658:
3653:
3640:
3635:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3608:
3601:
3596:
3589:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3488:
3481:
3476:
3472:
3467:
3456:
3448:
3444:
3435:
3431:
3423:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3383:
3378:
3367:
3362:
3339:
3334:
3313:
3308:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3265:
3260:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3239:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3207:
3202:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3168:
3158:
3156:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3133:
3131:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3108:
3106:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3083:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3061:
3059:
3053:"Climate Bosra"
3051:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3034:
3029:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2967:
2962:
2955:
2948:Rogan 1994, p.
2947:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2878:
2873:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2765:
2761:
2748:
2744:
2699:
2695:
2630:
2626:
2609:
2605:
2552:
2548:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2414:
2388:
2302:, known as the
2296:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2243:
2242:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2223:
2222:
2211:
2097:
2031:
2026:
2005:Muwahhidin Army
1957:
1951:
1943:Bashar al-Assad
1884:
1818:
1805:Saham al-Jawlan
1705:
1558:
1478:
1473:
1435:Yaqut al-Hamawi
1371:
1345:Ikshidid ruler
1256:Umayyad dynasty
1243:
1177:
1145:
1070:Philip the Arab
1066:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1046:
1043:Philip the Arab
1039:
1013:Arabia Province
1004:
993:
982:
975:
973:Post-annexation
946:Herod the Great
918:
916:Herodian period
913:
877:Seleucid Empire
845:
821:Assyrian Empire
793:
540:
480:
445:
437:Jabal al-Shaykh
412:
411:
410:
409:
408:
397:
389:
388:
377:
274:
269:
239:, Nabatean and
179:Muslim conquest
73:; also spelled
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5311:
5309:
5301:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5255:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5222:
5188:
5182:
5164:
5151:
5119:
5090:
5057:(2): 159–179.
5046:
5040:
5022:
5003:
4997:
4977:
4964:
4946:
4944:. Archaostyle.
4935:
4929:
4914:
4908:
4891:
4870:Le Strange, G.
4866:
4857:
4844:
4828:van Donzel, E.
4824:Bosworth, C.E.
4812:
4780:
4767:
4752:
4739:
4723:van Donzel, E.
4719:Bosworth, C.E.
4711:
4705:
4690:
4669:
4642:
4629:
4613:van Donzel, E.
4609:Bosworth, C.E.
4605:Bosworth, C.E.
4601:
4595:
4578:
4572:
4554:
4548:
4530:
4524:
4509:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4479:
4456:
4432:
4420:
4407:
4395:
4379:
4365:
4352:
4327:
4303:
4291:
4282:
4263:
4250:
4241:
4232:
4198:
4165:
4153:
4144:
4130:
4114:
4076:
4049:
4032:
4013:
3997:
3988:
3968:
3953:
3944:
3935:
3921:
3912:
3898:
3889:
3880:
3871:
3848:
3821:
3809:
3795:
3783:
3770:
3758:
3746:
3728:
3713:
3690:
3678:
3656:
3638:
3620:
3611:
3599:
3587:
3575:
3503:
3494:
3479:
3470:
3454:
3442:
3429:
3417:
3408:
3399:
3381:
3365:
3337:
3311:
3299:
3290:
3281:
3263:
3251:
3242:
3230:
3221:
3205:
3191:
3182:
3166:
3141:
3116:
3100:"Climate Nawa"
3091:
3069:
3044:
3032:
2994:
2985:
2965:
2953:
2941:
2932:
2923:
2914:
2876:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2759:
2742:
2693:
2624:
2603:
2546:
2542:Sama al-Bardan
2472:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2413:
2410:
2387:
2384:
2357:The fusion of
2255:
2254:
2245:
2244:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2225:
2224:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2096:
2093:
2078:Greek Catholic
2074:Greek Orthodox
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
1982:Southern Front
1950:
1947:
1936:Hafez al-Assad
1883:
1880:
1817:
1814:
1784:1858 Land Code
1736:Bani al-Atrash
1704:
1701:
1618:Jabal al-Druze
1557:
1554:
1509:Ottoman Empire
1497:al-Shaykh Saad
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1412:Greek Orthodox
1370:
1367:
1242:
1239:
1202:al-Mundhir III
1176:
1173:
1144:
1141:
1056:
1049:
1048:
1040:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1017:Syria Province
974:
971:
917:
914:
912:
909:
844:
841:
797:Amarna letters
792:
789:
786:
785:
783:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
744:
738:
737:
735:
732:
729:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
690:
689:
687:
684:
681:
678:
675:
672:
669:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
642:
641:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
594:
593:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
546:
545:
542:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
479:
476:
444:
441:
398:
391:
390:
378:
371:
370:
369:
368:
367:
300:plains around
273:
270:
268:
265:
204:and later the
135:Greek Catholic
131:Greek Orthodox
111:Jabal al-Druze
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5310:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5288:Lava plateaus
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5258:
5251:
5244:
5237:
5230:
5229:
5223:
5219:
5211:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5194:
5189:
5185:
5179:
5175:
5174:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5154:
5152:90-04-08118-6
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5091:
5087:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5043:
5037:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5010:
5004:
5000:
4998:1-85043-829-3
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4967:
4965:0-8147-5492-9
4961:
4957:
4956:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4942:
4936:
4932:
4926:
4922:
4921:
4915:
4911:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4892:
4888:
4881:
4877:
4876:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4854:
4847:
4845:90-04-07819-3
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4803:on 2021-12-05
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4770:
4764:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4749:
4742:
4740:90-04-07819-3
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4702:
4698:
4697:
4691:
4687:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4659:
4655:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4632:
4630:90-04-08112-7
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4596:0-300-04100-4
4592:
4587:
4586:
4579:
4575:
4569:
4565:
4564:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4545:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4525:9789004315983
4521:
4517:
4516:
4510:
4506:
4496:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4467:
4460:
4457:
4451:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4417:
4411:
4408:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4380:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4298:
4296:
4292:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4236:
4233:
4222:on 2021-01-04
4218:
4211:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4093:
4091:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4074:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4050:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4033:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4008:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3986:
3985:965-223-863-5
3982:
3978:
3975:Katz, Yosef.
3972:
3969:
3966:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3916:
3913:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3893:
3890:
3884:
3881:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3822:
3816:
3814:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3793:
3787:
3784:
3780:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3750:
3747:
3743:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3667:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3612:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3585:
3579:
3576:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3455:
3452:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3421:
3418:
3412:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3304:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3285:
3282:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3243:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3222:
3216:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3142:
3130:
3126:
3120:
3117:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3015:
3013:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2945:
2942:
2936:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2918:
2915:
2909:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2795:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2784:The ruins of
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:Umm al-Rumman
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2571:al-Musayfirah
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2351:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2240:
2229:
2220:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2138:, Da'el, and
2137:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2101:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2056:
2051:
2048:
2040:
2035:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1999:, though the
1998:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1961:
1956:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1810:Hejaz Railway
1806:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1769:Hauran Sanjak
1765:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1709:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1662:Ibrahim Pasha
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1614:Mount Lebanon
1611:
1606:
1604:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1502:
1501:Hauran Sanjak
1498:
1493:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1318:district and
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1303:Bilad al-Sham
1300:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1196:was decreed '
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1167:, and by the
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:Byzantine era
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:Hellenization
1133:
1129:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1114:(Phaina) and
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1060:
1053:
1044:
1037:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1002:
991:
980:
972:
970:
968:
964:
959:
955:
949:
947:
944:client king,
943:
939:
934:
931:By 63 BC the
927:
922:
915:
910:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
842:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
825:Ezekiel 47:16
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
790:
784:
781:
778:
775:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
751:
748:
745:
743:
740:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
695:
692:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
647:
644:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
599:
596:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
556:
553:
551:
548:
547:
498:
492:
489:
488:water springs
485:
484:precipitation
477:
475:
473:
469:
465:
462:
454:
449:
442:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
421:al-Bathaniyya
417:
406:
402:
395:
386:
385:Golan Heights
382:
375:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:Jabal Khiyara
335:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:Golan Heights
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
278:
271:
266:
264:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
206:Hejaz railway
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
159:
155:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
123:Sunni Muslims
120:
116:
112:
108:
107:Golan Heights
104:
100:
96:
92:
89:and northern
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
70:
63:
54:
50:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5250:
5227:
5200:
5196:
5172:
5142:
5131:Ménage, V.L.
5098:
5094:
5054:
5050:
5030:
5026:Runciman, S.
5013:
4988:
4954:
4950:Meinecke, M.
4940:
4919:
4899:
4874:
4861:
4835:
4816:Honigman, E.
4805:. Retrieved
4801:the original
4792:
4789:CTC Sentinel
4788:
4757:
4730:
4695:
4677:
4673:Butler, H.C.
4657:
4653:
4620:
4584:
4562:
4538:
4514:
4493:
4484:Bibliography
4470:. Retrieved
4459:
4423:
4410:
4355:
4285:
4253:
4244:
4235:
4224:. Retrieved
4217:the original
4189:. Retrieved
4186:The Guardian
4185:
4147:
3991:
3971:
3947:
3938:
3915:
3892:
3883:
3874:
3834:
3824:
3786:
3773:
3761:
3749:
3614:
3578:
3497:
3473:
3445:
3432:
3420:
3411:
3402:
3293:
3284:
3245:
3224:
3185:
3157:. Retrieved
3153:
3144:
3132:. Retrieved
3128:
3119:
3107:. Retrieved
3103:
3094:
3082:. Retrieved
3072:
3060:. Retrieved
3056:
3047:
2988:
2944:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2792:
2785:
2762:
2745:
2734:al-Suwaymrah
2714:al-Buthainah
2696:
2627:
2606:
2549:
2476:
2454:
2446:Umm al-Jimal
2431:
2407:
2402:
2389:
2380:
2370:
2356:
2340:cantilevered
2328:Warwick Ball
2321:
2303:
2297:
2274:Umm al-Jimal
2261:
2209:Architecture
2183:
2172:
2133:
2110:
2059:
2047:Sunni Muslim
2044:
1994:
1980:-affiliated
1966:
1940:
1932:Hanna Batatu
1928:Ba'ath Party
1920:
1892:World War II
1885:
1875:
1857:
1834:
1793:
1781:
1759:
1755:Rashid Pasha
1752:
1742:
1740:
1725:
1722:
1718:
1682:
1670:
1646:Wadi al-Taym
1643:
1631:Mount Hermon
1607:
1602:
1599:
1559:
1549:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1523:
1506:
1450:
1439:
1431:
1416:
1392:
1342:
1324:
1296:
1244:
1210:
1206:al-Nu'man VI
1178:
1149:South Arabia
1146:
1125:
1096:
1091:
1067:
976:
950:
933:Roman Empire
930:
873:Mount Hermon
846:
828:
808:
805:Hebrew Bible
794:
481:
472:cinder cones
468:Tell al-Hara
458:
452:
439:in Arabic).
436:
433:Mount Hermon
428:
420:
413:
404:
381:Tell al-Hara
334:Jabal Kiswah
331:
317:
286:Jabal Hauran
283:
261:Umm al-Jimal
226:
191:
154:Roman Empire
151:
78:
74:
68:
48:
46:
36:
5139:Schacht, J.
5135:Pellat, Ch.
5123:Sourdel, D.
5101:: 167–189.
4832:Pellat, Ch.
4727:Pellat, Ch.
4617:Pellat, Ch.
4472:8 September
2661:al-Huwayyah
2657:al-Ghariyah
2422:al-Sanamayn
2393:Dead Cities
2386:Archaeology
2363:Hellenistic
2158:and in the
2085:Shia Muslim
2055:Circassians
2001:Syrian Army
1990:Nusra Front
1777:Jabal Ajlun
1764:Transjordan
1732:Fu'ad Pasha
1622:Alam al-Din
1592:A group of
1514:conscripted
1471:Ottoman era
1465:Banu Rabi'a
1359:Banu Fazara
1272:Mu'awiya II
1231:Monophysite
1216:, but also
1112:al-Masmiyah
1102:(Canatha),
954:Transjordan
847:During the
425:al-Sanamayn
416:Jabal Ajlun
387:to the west
354:Trachonitis
237:Hellenistic
210:breadbasket
5257:Categories
5183:0300052928
5041:0521061628
4909:0521770572
4820:"Al-Nukra"
4807:2018-11-05
4768:1841719846
4706:9004094377
4573:0691002541
4558:Batatu, H.
4226:2016-05-25
4191:3 November
3159:25 October
3134:25 October
3109:25 October
3084:25 October
3062:25 October
2804:References
2755:al-Tha'lah
2730:al-Matunah
2673:al-Qurayya
2633:al-Suwayda
2599:al-Yadudah
2490:as-Suwayda
2342:'slab and
2276:; (3) The
2024:Demography
1953:See also:
1775:plain and
1363:Banu Murra
1335:Banu Uqayl
1327:Qarmatians
1181:Ghassanids
1120:Roman army
1104:al-Suwayda
979:Agrippa II
965:, Herod's
948:in 23 BC.
833:Achaemenid
742:Al-Suwayda
464:topography
443:Topography
175:Ghassanids
147:al-Suwayda
5203:(3): 35.
5127:Lewis, B.
5115:146658083
5079:162263141
4981:Rogan, E.
4715:Gaube, H.
4585:The Druze
3843:0334-4657
2718:al-Hayyat
2620:Samaqiyat
2591:al-Ta'iba
2583:al-Na'ima
2070:Christian
2009:offensive
1908:Palestine
1837:Arab army
1678:al-Ramtha
1639:Al Hamdan
1395:Crusaders
1260:caliphate
1214:al-Jabiya
1153:Byzantine
1130:, mainly
1084:-port of
990:Rabbel II
938:Zenodorus
911:Roman era
897:Jerusalem
865:Nabateans
694:Al-Ramtha
544:Citation
350:Ghabaghib
318:al-Jawlān
267:Geography
167:Byzantine
143:al-Ramtha
62:romanized
5170:(1994).
5141:(eds.).
5028:(1951).
4983:(1994).
4952:(1996).
4872:(1890).
4834:(eds.).
4818:(1991).
4729:(eds.).
4675:(1903).
4660:. Amman.
4619:(eds.).
4560:(1999).
4536:(2016).
4534:Ball, W.
3078:"Dara'a"
2641:al-Annat
2616:Ma'araba
2575:Muzayrib
2359:Nabatean
2308:basaltic
2270:Nabatean
2113:agrarian
2089:Nabatieh
2029:Religion
1986:Salafist
1843:, until
1839:of Emir
1727:Tanzimat
1654:Egyptian
1648:and the
1641:family.
1581:and the
1575:Sardiyah
1567:Wuld Ali
1519:Muzayrib
1419:Ayyubids
1355:Fatimids
1312:Istakhri
1307:Adhri'at
1288:Abbasids
1276:Marwan I
1268:Damascus
1198:phylarch
1169:Salihids
1165:Lakhmids
1159:and the
1025:Antonine
903:and the
861:Itureans
857:Seleucid
837:Aramized
815:and the
799:and the
461:basaltic
453:pictured
429:Al-Nuqra
405:pictured
302:Damascus
171:Salihids
162:Nabatean
158:Herodian
57:حَوْرَان
2751:al-Sura
2710:Braykah
2677:Qaysama
2637:Salkhad
2563:al-Jiza
2555:'Ataman
2538:Kharaba
2518:Aslihah
2512:in the
2450:masonry
2428:in 1895
2412:Surveys
2371:Hawrani
2336:Corbels
2304:Hawrani
2290:Qanawat
2203:Qanawat
2199:al-Ruha
2195:Walghah
2179:Shammar
2105:Na'imeh
2082:Twelver
1904:Lebanon
1797:Zionist
1760:aghawat
1743:aghawat
1650:Galilee
1637:-based
1544:Bedouin
1540:aghawat
1536:aghawat
1532:aghawat
1527:aghawat
1443:Salkhad
1425:at the
1423:Mamluks
1404:Turkish
1383:Salkhad
1377:During
1351:sheikhs
1343:de jure
1282:-based
1132:Aramaic
1100:Qanawat
1082:Red Sea
1008:
997:
986:
958:Idumean
905:Iturean
899:-based
893:Salkhad
883:-based
803:of the
791:History
541:Max/Min
478:Climate
362:Batanea
322:al-Safa
257:Salkhad
249:Qanawat
187:Batanea
183:Ottoman
99:al-Safa
81:) is a
64::
5180:
5149:
5113:
5077:
5071:162818
5069:
5038:
4995:
4962:
4927:
4906:
4842:
4765:
4737:
4703:
4627:
4593:
4570:
4546:
4522:
3983:
3841:
2776:Dibese
2738:Ta'lah
2726:Mardak
2722:al-Hit
2702:Shahba
2689:'Urman
2653:Dhibin
2534:Khabab
2506:Bassir
2498:Jubayb
2344:lintel
2332:arches
2278:Mamluk
2258:basalt
2175:Anizah
2164:Ataman
2144:Nu'aym
1900:Israel
1876:qadaat
1841:Faisal
1635:Najran
1603:khuwwa
1579:Sirhan
1577:, the
1379:Mamluk
1264:Medina
1222:Jalliq
1218:Aqraba
1108:Shaqqa
1074:Shahba
1059:Shahba
1001:Trajan
963:Philip
942:Judean
879:, the
829:Bashān
809:Bashān
539:Annual
358:Iturea
346:Ramtha
306:Jordan
294:Ghouta
253:Shahba
229:basalt
194:Levant
103:steppe
95:Ghouta
91:Jordan
83:region
79:Houran
75:Hawran
69:Ḥawrān
53:Arabic
49:Hauran
32:Hauron
18:Hawran
5232:(PDF)
5111:S2CID
5075:S2CID
5067:JSTOR
4822:. In
4795:(6).
4650:(PDF)
4498:(PDF)
4220:(PDF)
4213:(PDF)
2706:Amrah
2681:Rasas
2669:Malah
2612:Ghasm
2595:Tafas
2587:Saida
2579:Nasib
2559:Da'el
2510:Tubna
2502:Namer
2468:Notes
2375:Petra
2367:Roman
2286:Roman
2282:Bosra
2191:Slaim
2187:Attil
2168:Nasib
2148:Jasim
2136:Abtaa
2129:Irbid
2117:Daraa
2062:Druze
2050:Arabs
2018:Idlib
1912:Haifa
1773:Balqa
1713:Daraa
1674:Daraa
1612:from
1610:Druze
1594:Anaza
1583:Sulut
1571:Rwala
1562:Anaza
1452:barid
1400:Burid
1320:Amman
1316:Balqa
1280:Mecca
1157:Sinai
1021:Adraa
889:Bosra
881:Petra
871:near
773:26/12
770:29/14
767:31/16
764:30/16
761:29/14
758:25/11
734:24/11
725:27/14
722:30/17
719:32/19
716:32/19
713:31/17
710:27/14
707:22/10
686:24/11
677:28/13
674:31/16
671:33/18
668:32/18
665:31/16
662:28/13
638:24/11
629:28/13
626:31/16
623:33/19
620:33/18
617:31/16
614:28/12
598:Daraa
590:23/10
581:27/12
578:31/15
575:32/16
572:32/16
569:31/15
566:27/12
550:Bosra
401:Lajat
342:Bosra
290:Lajat
245:Bosra
241:Roman
202:Mecca
139:Daraa
127:Druze
115:Lajat
87:Syria
5178:ISBN
5147:ISBN
5036:ISBN
4993:ISBN
4960:ISBN
4925:ISBN
4904:ISBN
4840:ISBN
4763:ISBN
4735:ISBN
4701:ISBN
4625:ISBN
4591:ISBN
4568:ISBN
4544:ISBN
4520:ISBN
4474:2019
4261:–26.
4193:2018
3981:ISBN
3839:ISSN
3744:–40.
3440:–34.
3161:2018
3136:2018
3111:2018
3086:2018
3064:2018
2753:and
2736:and
2687:and
2649:Awas
2635:and
2618:and
2597:and
2526:Dara
2516:and
2508:and
2494:Izra
2365:and
2322:The
2266:Izra
2193:and
2166:and
2152:Nawa
2150:and
2121:Izra
2119:and
2076:and
2060:The
2039:Izra
1967:The
1872:Nawa
1870:and
1868:Izra
1693:Gaza
1687:and
1461:Hajj
1457:Gaza
1447:Zur’
1408:iqta
1387:emir
1361:and
1116:Nawa
1086:Ayla
924:The
891:and
863:and
782:22/9
779:13/4
776:19/8
755:20/8
752:15/5
749:12/3
746:10/2
731:15/5
728:22/9
704:18/7
701:15/4
698:14/4
683:15/5
680:21/9
659:22/9
656:18/6
653:15/4
650:13/4
646:Nawa
635:15/5
632:21/8
611:24/9
608:18/6
605:15/4
602:13/3
587:14/3
584:20/8
563:22/8
560:17/5
557:13/3
554:12/2
500:City
379:The
356:and
344:and
336:and
298:Marj
296:and
198:Hajj
160:and
145:and
133:and
119:Arab
47:The
5205:doi
5103:doi
5059:doi
4418:–13
4279:357
3781:–69
3676:–35
2665:Ira
2645:Anz
2530:Hit
2522:Anz
1322:".
1266:to
1185:Azd
536:Dec
533:Nov
530:Oct
527:Sep
524:Aug
521:Jul
518:Jun
515:May
512:Apr
509:Mar
506:Feb
503:Jan
156:'s
77:or
5259::
5199:.
5195:.
5137:;
5133:;
5129:;
5109:.
5097:.
5073:.
5065:.
5055:13
5053:.
5016:.
5012:.
4830:;
4826:;
4791:.
4787:.
4725:;
4721:;
4656:.
4652:.
4615:;
4611:;
4435:^
4429:48
4416:12
4398:^
4391:18
4382:^
4368:^
4361:17
4349:33
4330:^
4323:35
4306:^
4294:^
4266:^
4259:25
4201:^
4184:.
4168:^
4156:^
4133:^
4117:^
4079:^
4073:26
4052:^
4046:25
4035:^
4029:24
4016:^
4000:^
3965:40
3956:^
3924:^
3901:^
3868:39
3851:^
3812:^
3798:^
3792:66
3779:68
3767:67
3755:53
3742:39
3731:^
3725:37
3716:^
3710:35
3693:^
3681:^
3674:34
3659:^
3641:^
3623:^
3602:^
3590:^
3584:34
3506:^
3491:35
3482:^
3457:^
3451:33
3438:33
3426:32
3384:^
3368:^
3340:^
3314:^
3302:^
3266:^
3254:^
3233:^
3208:^
3194:^
3169:^
3152:.
3127:.
3102:.
3055:.
3035:^
2997:^
2968:^
2956:^
2950:34
2879:^
2811:^
2789:;
2782:;
2774:;
2770:;
2732:,
2728:,
2724:,
2720:,
2716:,
2712:,
2708:,
2704:,
2683:,
2679:,
2675:,
2671:,
2667:,
2663:,
2659:,
2655:,
2651:,
2647:,
2643:,
2614:,
2593:,
2589:,
2585:,
2581:,
2577:,
2573:,
2569:,
2565:,
2561:,
2557:,
2540:,
2536:,
2532:,
2528:,
2524:,
2520:,
2504:,
2500:,
2464:.
2399:,
2361:,
2205:.
2189:,
1902:,
1812:.
1791:.
1779:.
1699:.
1680:.
1414:.
1294:.
1224:,
1220:,
1006:r.
995:r.
984:r.
969:.
839:.
827:.
259:,
255:,
251:,
247:,
149:.
141:,
59:,
55::
5238:.
5213:.
5207::
5201:6
5186:.
5155:.
5117:.
5105::
5099:6
5088:)
5084:(
5081:.
5061::
5044:.
5020:.
5001:.
4975:)
4971:(
4968:.
4933:.
4912:.
4882:.
4848:.
4810:.
4793:7
4778:)
4774:(
4771:.
4743:.
4709:.
4658:X
4633:.
4599:.
4576:.
4552:.
4528:.
4476:.
4393:.
4363:.
4325:.
4229:.
4195:.
3845:.
3163:.
3138:.
3113:.
3088:.
3066:.
2796:.
2757:.
2740:.
2691:.
2622:.
2601:.
2484:/
2292:.
1503:.
1389:.
1003:(
992:(
981:(
435:(
403:(
364:.
316:(
51:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.