Haussmann's renovation of Paris

2286: 2621: 2474: 2298: 1874:, rather than as the "deferred payments" which Haussmann argued they were. This made the voucher scheme illegal, since the City of Paris had not obtained the permission of the Legislative Assembly before borrowing. The City was forced to enter into renegotiations with the Crédit Foncier to convert the vouchers into regular debt. Two separate agreements were made with the Crédit Foncier; the city agreed to repay 465 million francs in total over 40 years and 39 years respectively. The debates in the Legislative Assembly surrounding the authorization of these new agreements lasted 11 sessions, with critics attacking Haussmann's borrowing, his questionable funding mechanisms, and the City of Paris's governing structure. The result was a new law, passed on April 18, 1868, which gave the Legislative Assembly oversight of the city's finances. 1648: 378: 2398: 2084: 2382: 2366: 394: 2738:

good reason." Héron de Villefosse denounced Haussmann's central market, Les Halles, as "a hideous eruption" of cast iron. Describing Haussmann's renovation of the Île de la Cité, he wrote: "the old ship of Paris was torpedoed by Baron Haussmann and sunk during his reign. It was perhaps the greatest crime of the megalomaniac prefect and also his biggest mistake...His work caused more damage than a hundred bombings. It was in part necessary, and one should give him credit for his self-confidence, but he was certainly lacking culture and good taste...In the United States, it would be wonderful, but in our capital, which he covered with barriers, scaffolds, gravel, and dust for twenty years, he committed crimes, errors, and showed bad taste."

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fire at strategic points, such as the meeting point of the Rue de Rivoli and Place de la Concorde. But when the newly organized army arrived at the end of May, it avoided the main boulevards, advanced slowly and methodically to avoid casualties, worked its way around the barricades, and took them from behind. The Communards were defeated in one week not because of Haussmann's boulevards, but because they were outnumbered by five to one, they had fewer weapons and fewer people trained to use them, they had no hope of getting support from outside Paris, they had no plan for the defense of the city; they had very few experienced officers; there was no single commander; and each neighborhood was left to defend itself.

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increased by three hundred percent during the Second Empire, while wages, except for those of construction workers, remained flat, and blamed for the enormous amount of speculation in the real estate market. He was also blamed for reducing the amount of housing available for low income families, forcing low-income Parisians to move from the center to the outer neighborhoods of the city, where rents were lower. Statistics showed that the population of the first and sixth arrondissements, where some of the most densely populated neighborhoods were located, dropped, while the population of the new 17th and 20th arrondissements, on the edges of the city, grew rapidly.

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Parisians, as they have done in London, places for relaxation and recreation for all the families and all the children, rich and poor." In response Haussmann created twenty-four new squares; seventeen in the older part of the city, eleven in the new arrondissements, adding 15 hectares (37 acres) of green space. Alphand termed these small parks "green and flowering salons." Haussmann's goal was to have one park in each of the eighty neighborhoods of Paris, so that no one was more than ten minutes' walk from such a park. The parks and squares were an immediate success with all classes of Parisians.

49: 2065: 2119: 1634:, decreed by Napoléon III on 14 November 1858. Ostensibly it was intended to give the city greater freedom in executing the grand projects. Revenue from the sale of materials salvaged from the demolitions and the sale of lots left over from the expropriations went into this fund, amounting to some 365 million francs between 1859 and 1869. The fund expended much more than it took in, some 1.2 billion francs towards the grand projects during the ten years it existed. To offset some of the deficit, which the City of Paris was responsible for, Haussmann issued 100 million francs in 2517:

families; the top floor, under the roof, was originally a storage place, but under the pressure of the growing population, was usually turned into a low-cost residence. In the early 19th century, before Haussmann, the height of buildings was strictly limited to 22.41 meters (73 ft 6 in), or four floors above the ground floor. The city also began to see a demographic shift; wealthier families began moving to the western neighborhoods, partly because there was more space, and partly because the prevailing winds carried the smoke from the new factories in Paris toward the east.

2410: 1699:, along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries as he wished. Haussmann was keen to expand the boundaries as well, since the enlarged tax base would provide vital funding for the public works then underway. Numerous factories and workshops had been established in the suburbs, some to specifically avoid paying the 900: 2804:

of his projects, arguing that they were for national defense and should be paid for, at least partially, by the state. He wrote: "But, as for me, I who was the promoter of these additions made to the original project, I declare that I never thought in the least, in adding them, of their greater or lesser strategic value." The Paris urban historian Patrice de Moncan wrote: "To see the works created by Haussmann and Napoleon III only from the perspective of their strategic value is very reductive. The Emperor was a convinced follower of

2683:) were cramped and narrow, just 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) high and 75 to 80 centimeters (2 ft 6 in) wide. The new tunnels were 2.3 meters (7 ft 6 in) high and 1.3 meters (4 ft 3 in) wide, large enough for men to work standing up. These flowed into larger tunnels that carried the waste water to even larger collector tunnels, which were 4.4 m (14 ft) high and 5.6 m (18 ft) wide. A channel down the center of the tunnel carried away the waste water, with sidewalks on either side for the 2187:. In addition, Haussmann built a new market in the neighborhood of the Temple, the Marché Saint-Honoré; the Marché de l'Europe in the 8th arrondissement; the Marché Saint-Quentin in the 10th arrondissement; the Marché de Belleville in the 20th; the Marché des Batignolles in the 17th; the Marché Saint-Didier and Marché d'Auteuil in the 16th; the Marché de Necker in the 15th; the Marché de Montrouge in the 14th; the Marché de Place d'Italie in the 13th; the Marché Saint-Maur-Popincourt in the 11th. 2915:

prosperous Parisians moved to the western neighborhoods, where there was more open space, and where residents benefited from the prevailing winds, which carried the smoke from Paris's new industries toward the east. His defenders also noted that Napoleon III and Haussmann made a special point to build an equal number of new boulevards, new sewers, water supplies, hospitals, schools, squares, parks and gardens in the working class eastern arrondissements as they did in the western neighborhoods.

634:, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city. Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidized housing project for workers in Paris, the Cité-Napoléon, on the 694: 454: 101: 2502: 610: 916: 2922:), while middle class and lower-income tenants occupied the top floors. Under Haussmann, with the increase in rents and greater demand for housing, low-income people were unable to afford the rents for the upper floors; the top floors were increasingly occupied by concierges and the servants of those in the floors below. Lower-income tenants were forced to the outer neighborhoods, where rents were lower. 2494: 2911:

the population, did not pay taxes due to their low income. Another 330,000 Parisians or 17 percent, paid less than 250 francs a month rent. Thirty-two percent of the Paris housing was occupied by middle-class families, paying rent between 250 and 1500 francs. Fifty thousand Parisians were classified as rich, with rents over 1500 francs a month, and occupied just three percent of the residences.

2695:, with rights to provide gas to Parisians for fifty years. Consumption of gas tripled between 1855 and 1859. In 1850 there were only 9000 gaslights in Paris; by 1867, the Paris Opera and four other major theaters alone had fifteen thousand gas lights. Almost all the new residential buildings of Paris had gaslights in the courtyards and stairways; the monuments and public buildings of Paris, the 3627: 2936: 1947: 932:

blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious. He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by

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Haussmann to enlarge his plans, and to construct new boulevards to connect the new arrondissements with the center. In order to connect Auteuil and Passy to the center of Paris, he built rues Michel-Ange, Molitor and Mirabeau. To connect the plain of Monceau, he built avenues Villers, Wagram, and boulevard Malesherbes. To reach the northern arrondissements he extended

2729:, the most vocal critic of Haussmann in the French parliament, wrote: "We weep with our eyes full of tears for the old Paris, the Paris of Voltaire, of Desmoulins, the Paris of 1830 and 1848, when we see the grand and intolerable new buildings, the costly confusion, the triumphant vulgarity, the awful materialism, that we are going to pass on to our descendants." 2297: 2083: 2002:, also from Bordeaux, laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city. Thousands of workers and gardeners began to dig lakes, build cascades, plant lawns, flowerbeds and trees. construct chalets and grottoes. Haussmann and Alphand created the Bois de Boulogne (1852–1858) to the west of Paris: the 2629:

like an organ of the human body, without seeing the light of day; clean and fresh water, light and heat circulate like the various fluids whose movement and maintenance serves the life of the body; the secretions are taken away mysteriously and don't disturb the good functioning of the city and without spoiling its beautiful exterior."

1705:, a tax on goods and materials paid at entry points into Paris. With the annexation, these facilities now had to pay tax on the raw materials and fuel they used. This was a deliberate way of discouraging the development of heavy industry in the environs of Paris, which neither Haussmann nor the city council wished to take root. 2365: 2397: 303:, and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870. Work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the centre of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation. 377: 1722:

in Paris than in the rest of the country, and the republican opposition in parliament focused its attacks on Haussmann. Haussmann ignored the attacks and went ahead with the third phase, which planned the construction of twenty-eight kilometers (17 miles) of new boulevards at an estimated cost of 280 million francs.

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410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won a legal case entitling them to larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue.

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elaborate stonework would not become widespread until the end of the century. Before Haussmann, most buildings in Paris were made of brick or wood and covered with plaster. Haussmann required that the buildings along the new boulevards be either built or faced with cut stone, usually the local cream-colored

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The end of "pure Haussmannism" can be traced to urban legislation of 1882 and 1884 that ended the uniformity of the classical street, by permitting staggered façades and the first creativity for roof-level architecture. A 1902 law further liberalized restrictions. All the same, this period was merely

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Some real-estate owners demanded large, straight avenues to help troops manoeuvre. The argument that the boulevards were designed for troop movements was repeated by 20th century critics, including the French historian, René Hérron de Villefosse, who wrote, "the larger part of the piercing of avenues

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Haussmann and Belgrand built new sewer tunnels under each sidewalk of the new boulevards. The sewers were designed to be large enough to evacuate rain water immediately; the large amount of water used to wash the city streets; waste water from both industries and individual households; and water that

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In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes. In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of the nine seats of Paris deputies. At

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The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give a greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular

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in abandoning unbroken street-side façades, limitations of building size and dimension, and even closing the street itself to automobiles with the creation of separated, car-free spaces between the buildings for pedestrians. This new model was brought into question by the 1970s, a period featuring a

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Recent studies have also shown that the proportion of Paris housing occupied by low-income Parisians did not decrease under Haussmann, and that the poor were not driven out of Paris by Haussmann's renovation. In 1865 a survey by the prefecture of Paris showed that 780,000 Parisians, or 42 percent of

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Haussmann's defenders noted that he built far more buildings than he tore down: he demolished 19,730 buildings, containing 120,000 lodgings or apartments, while building 34,000 new buildings, with 215,300 new apartments and lodgings. French historian Michel Cremona wrote that, even with the increase

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Haussmann himself did not deny the military value of the wider streets. In his memoires, he wrote that his new boulevard Sebastopol resulted in the "gutting of old Paris, of the quarter of riots and barricades." He admitted he sometimes used this argument with the Parliament to justify the high cost

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Some of Haussmann's critics said that the real purpose of Haussmann's boulevards was to make it easier for the army to manoeuver and suppress armed uprisings; Paris had experienced six such uprisings between 1830 and 1848, all in the narrow, crowded streets in the center and east of Paris and on the

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First class buildings generally count four floors above ground level and the apartments had high ceilings. A servants' stairway leads to the fifth floor maids' rooms and service areas, while the richly decorated main staircases leads to the spacious apartments of the affluent residents. At the time,

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With the annexation Paris was enlarged from twelve to twenty arrondissements, the number today. The annexation more than doubled the area of the city from 3,300 hectares to 7,100 hectares, and the population of Paris instantly grew by 400,000 to 1,600,000 people. The annexation made it necessary for

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In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed 9,467 metres (6 miles) of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly

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Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851, the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the

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for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoléon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park and designed two lakes connected by a stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself

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ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the

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renovations left such a mark on Paris' urban history that all subsequent trends and influences were forced to refer to, adapt to, or reject, or to reuse some of its elements. By intervening only once in Paris's ancient districts, pockets of insalubrity remained, which explain the resurgence of both

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Other critics blamed Haussmann for the division of Paris into rich and poor neighborhoods, with the poor concentrated in the east and the middle class and wealthy in the west. Haussmann's defenders noted that this shift in population had been underway since the 1830s, long before Haussmann, as more

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Under Louis Philippe, a single public square had been created, at the tip of the Ile-de-la-Cité. Haussmann wrote in his memoirs that Napoleon III instructed him: "do not miss an opportunity to build, in all the arrondissements of Paris, the greatest possible number of squares, in order to offer the

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had to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water. Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the 26,290 metres (86,250 ft) of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to

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As Paris historian Patrice de Moncan observed, most of Haussmann's projects had little or no strategic or military value; the purpose of building new sewers, aqueducts, parks, hospitals, schools, city halls, theaters, churches, markets and other public buildings was, as Haussmann stated, to employ

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A 20th-century historian of Paris, René Héron de Villefosse, shared: "in less than twenty years, Paris lost its ancestral appearance, its character which passed from generation to generation... the picturesque and charming ambiance which our fathers had passed onto us was demolished, often without

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While he was rebuilding the boulevards of Paris, Haussmann simultaneously rebuilt the dense labyrinth of pipes, sewers and tunnels under the streets which provided Parisians with basic services. Haussmann wrote in his mémoires: "The underground galleries are an organ of the great city, functioning

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At the end of 1851, shortly before Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's term expired, neither the rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far. He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by the new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to

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from March through May 1871, and the boulevards played no important role. The Communards seized power easily, because the French Army was absent, defeated and captured by the Prussians. The Communards took advantage of the boulevards to build a few large forts of paving stones with wide fields of

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served as a model for the entire network of new Parisian boulevards. Although Haussmann enforced strict rules for design and construction, he also allowed some variation to account for neighbourhoods and for the budgets of building developers. As a result, the apartment buildings fall into three

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In his memoirs, written many years later, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs: Over the course of seventeen years, I disturbed their daily habits by turning

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Haussmann was also blamed for the social disruption caused by his gigantic building projects. Thousands of families and businesses had to relocate when their buildings were demolished for the construction of the new boulevards. Haussmann was also blamed for the dramatic increase in rents, which

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In 18th-century Paris, buildings were usually narrow (often only six meters wide ); deep (sometimes forty meters; 130 feet) and tall—as many as five or six stories. The ground floor usually contained a shop, and the shopkeeper lived in the rooms above the shop. The upper floors were occupied by

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Haussmann found creative ways to raise more money for the grand projects while circumventing the Legislative Assembly, whose approval was otherwise needed for direct borrowing increases. The City of Paris began paying its contractors on the new works projects with vouchers instead of money; the

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To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours a day. The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the

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For the building façades, the technological progress of stone sawing and (steam) transportation allowed the use of massive stone blocks instead of simple stone facing. The street-side result was a "monumental" effect that exempted buildings from a dependence on decoration; sculpture and other

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Besides building churches, theaters and other public buildings, Haussmann paid attention to the details of the architecture along the street; his city architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed garden fences, kiosks, shelters for visitors to the parks, public toilets, and dozens of other small but

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Paris historian Patrice de Moncan, in general an admirer of Haussmann's work, faulted Haussmann for not preserving more of the historic streets on the Île de la Cité, and for clearing a large open space in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame, while hiding another major historical monument,

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Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and the first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April 1850, under Louis-Napoléon

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wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year."

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wrote in 1867, "the work of Monsieur Haussmann is incomparable. Everyone agrees. Paris is a marvel, and M. Haussmann has done in fifteen years what a century could not have done. But that's enough for the moment. There will be a 20th century. Let's leave something for them to do."

2425: 2675:, who carried it to waste dumps on the outskirts of the city. The tunnels he designed were intended to be clean, easily accessible, and substantially larger than the previous Parisian underground. Under his guidance, Paris's sewer system expanded fourfold between 1852 and 1869. 797:

and Hôtel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from the map.

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In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sébastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and

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during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct 26,294 metres (16 miles) of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following:

777:. The Péreire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards. 2612:, which gave more harmony to the appearance of the boulevards. He also required, using a decree from 1852, that the façades of all buildings be regularly maintained, repainted, or cleaned, at least every ten years. under the threat of a fine of one hundred francs. 2690:

The underground labyrinth built by Haussmann also provided gas for heat and for lights to illuminate Paris. At the beginning of the Second Empire, gas was provided by six different private companies. Haussmann forced them to consolidate into a single company, the

2437: 2285: 2032: 1905:, the head of Haussmann's department of parks and plantations, as the director of works of Paris. Alphand respected the basic concepts of his plan. Despite their intense criticism of Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire, the leaders of the new 1986:, and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially 682: 3045:

reemphasis of the Haussmann heritage: a new promotion of the multifunctional street was accompanied by limitations of the building model and, in certain quarters, by an attempt to rediscover the architectural homogeneity of the Second Empire street-block.

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Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only five metres (16 feet) wide; the narrowest were one or two meters (3–7 feet) wide. Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets.

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complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the

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left bank around the Panthéon. These critics argued that a small number of large, open intersections allowed easy control by a small force. In addition, buildings set back from the center of the street could not be used so easily as fortifications.

2409: 2391:, the oldest hospital in Paris, next to the Cathedral of Notre Dame on the Île de la Cité, was enlarged and rebuilt by Haussmann beginning in 1864, and finished in 1876. It replaced several of the narrow, winding streets of the old medieval city. 729:, who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to 393: 1630:. In this way Haussmann indirectly raised 463 million francs by 1867; 86% of this debt was owned by Crédit Foncier. This debt conveniently did not have to be included on the city's balance sheets. Another method was the creation of a fund, the 299:, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time, the building of wide avenues, new parks and squares, the annexation of the suburbs surrounding 351:

In 1840, a doctor described one building in the Île de la Cité where a single 5-square-metre room (54 sq ft) on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three people, both adults and children. In these conditions, disease spread very quickly.

1890:, as his new prime minister. Napoleon gave in to the opposition demands in January 1870 and asked Haussmann to resign. Haussmann refused to resign, and the Emperor reluctantly dismissed him on 5 January 1870. Eight months later, during the 2655:

that nearly doubled the amount of water available per person per day and quadrupled the number of homes with running water. These aqueducts discharged their water in reservoirs situated within the city. Inside the city limits and opposite

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The interiors of the buildings were left to the owners of the buildings, but the façades were strictly regulated, to ensure that they were the same height, color, material, and general design, and were harmonious when all seen together.

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to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper.

2048: 565:; and cleared an open space around the Hôtel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the Île de la Cité and three additional streets across it: rue d'Arcole, rue de la Cité and rue Constantine. To access the central market at 3822: 2754:

to the Pereire brothers for building lots, in order to reduce costs; and for destroying several historic residences along the route of the Boulevard Saint-Germain, because of his unwavering determination to have straight streets.

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in population, from 949,000 Parisians in 1850 to 1,130,500 in 1856, to two million in 1870, including those in the newly annexed eight arrondissements around the city, the number of housing units grew faster than the population.

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the courtyards had stables for horses and storage areas. The exterior of these buildings is often elaborately decorated, especially in the later post-Haussmann period when buildings were still being built in the Haussmann style.

2261: 2064: 2640:. The quantity of water was insufficient for the fast-growing city, and, since the sewers also emptied into the Seine near the intakes for drinking water, it was also notoriously unhealthy. In March 1855 Haussmann appointed 752:

during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it. Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the

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Others regretted that he had destroyed a historic part of the city. The brothers Goncourt condemned the avenues that cut at right angles through the center of the old city, where "one could no longer feel in the world of

2808:. His desire to make Paris, the economic capital of France, a more open, more healthy city, not only for the upper classes but also for the workers, cannot be denied, and should be recognised as the primary motivation." 478:: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks." 3848: 2792:; "Paris sliced by strokes of a saber: the veins opened, nourishing one hundred thousand earth movers and stone masons; criss-crossed by admirable strategic routes, placing forts in the heart of the old neighborhoods." 2687:, or sewer workers. Specially designed wagons and boats moved on rails up and down the channels, cleaning them. Belgrand proudly invited tourists to visit his sewers and ride in the boats under the streets of the city. 2022:. Altogether, in seventeen years, they planted six hundred thousand trees and added two thousand hectares of parks and green space to Paris. Never before had a city built so many parks and gardens in such a short time. 2573:

windows. Originally this floor was to be occupied by lower-income tenants, but with time and with higher rents it came to be occupied almost exclusively by the concierges and servants of the people in the apartments

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in London but much larger, on the west side of the city. He wanted both these projects to be completed before the end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine,

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from the fund guaranteed by the city. He only needed the approval of the city council to raise this new sum, and, like the voucher scheme, the securities were not included in the city's official debt obligations.

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In Haussmann's Paris, the streets became much wider, growing from an average of twelve meters (39 ft) wide to twenty-four meters (79 ft), and in the new arrondissements, often to eighteen meters (59 ft) wide.

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age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe. He had been especially impressed by

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Second class buildings generally have five floors as well as a servants' stairway leading to the sixth floor where the servants' rooms are located. The exterior decoration of these buildings tends to be

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Five lycées were renovated, and in each of the eighty neighborhoods Haussmann established one municipal school for boys and one for girls, in addition to the large network of schools run by the Catholic

2247:. He bought six churches which had been purchased by private individuals during the French Revolution. Haussmann built or renovated five temples and built two new synagogues, on rue des Tournelles and 2620: 2092:, formerly the property of the family of King Louis-Philippe, was redesigned and replanted by Haussmann. A corner of the park was taken for a new residential quarter (Painting by Gustave Caillebotte). 638:. He proposed the completion of the rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hôtel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoléon Bonaparte, and he began a project which would transform the 2235:

Since 1801, under Napoleon I, the French government was responsible for the building and maintenance of churches. Haussmann built, renovated or purchased nineteen churches. New churches included the

740:, a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, 2918:

A form of vertical stratification did take place in the Paris population due to Haussmann's renovations. Prior to Haussmann, Paris buildings usually had wealthier people on the second floor (the

2796:

had for its reason the desire to avoid popular insurrections and barricades. They were strategic from their conception." This argument was also popularized by the American architectural critic,

2632:

Haussmann began with the water supply. Before Haussmann, drinking water in Paris was either lifted by steam engines from the Seine, or brought by a canal, started by Napoleon I, from the River

363:

The centre of the city was also a cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the

3642: 2403:

The Prefecture de Police (shown here), the new Palais de Justice and the Tribunal de Commerce took the place of a dense web of medieval streets on the western part of the Île de la Cité.

558:, made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into the Seine, and a better water supply system. 668:

on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on 2 December 1852, he declared himself Emperor, adopting the throne name Napoléon III.

2671:

under the streets. In 1852 Paris had 142 kilometres (88 mi) of sewers, which could carry only liquid waste. Containers of solid waste were picked up each night by people called

1647: 651:. The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect, 527:, but was able to extend it only to the Louvre before his downfall. "If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure," he wrote while in exile on 2195: 2957: 371:

on the left bank. The residents of these neighbourhoods had taken up pavement stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, which had to be dislodged by the army.

2431:

The new mairie, or town hall, of the 12th arrondissement. Haussmann built new city halls for six of the original twelve arrondissements, and enlarged the other six.

1655:

On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes;

2134:

Napoleon III and Haussmann commissioned a wide variety of architecture, some of it traditional, some of it very innovative, like the glass and iron pavilions of

1593:

The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of the

1003:. Boulevard Voltaire became one of the longest streets in the city, and became the central axis of the eastern neighborhoods of the city. It would end at the 2509:

The most famous and recognizable feature of Haussmann's renovation of Paris are the Haussmann apartment buildings which line the boulevards of Paris. Street

3647: 2126:

or Paris Opera (1875), then the largest theater in the world, begun by Napoleon III but not finished until 1875. The style was described by its architect,

785:, opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois facing the colonnade of the Louvre, and reorganized the space between the Hôtel de Ville and the 2014:(1865–1878) to the south. In addition to building the four large parks, Haussmann and Alphand redesigned and replanted the city's older parks, including 1514:

The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods. Two new government buildings, the

263: 2699:

of the Rue de Rivoli, and the squares, boulevards and streets were illuminated at night by gaslights. For the first time, Paris was the City of Light.

1437: 344:, population density was estimated at 5,380 per square kilometre (22 per acre); in the neighbourhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, located in the present 4501: 316:

In the middle of the 19th century, the centre of Paris was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer

3096: 2763: 2513:

were designed as homogeneous architectural wholes. He treated buildings not as independent structures, but as pieces of a unified urban landscape.

2996: 2712:

Haussmann's renovation of Paris had many critics during his own time. Some were simply tired of the continuous construction. The French historian

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floor with a balcony. This floor, in the days before elevators were common, was the most desirable floor, and had the largest and best apartments.

555: 167: 818:, was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by the 4496: 664:

change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required. Prevented from running again, Napoléon, with the help of the army, staged a

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began a new era of Parisian urbanism. The new era rejected Haussmannian ideas as a whole to embrace those represented by architects such as

2419:

railway station (1861–64). Napoleon III and Haussmann saw the railway stations as the new gates of Paris, and built monumental new stations.

1990:, where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, 4302: 4288: 635: 135: 63: 28: 3060:

followed suit in the late 1800s, and conducted an extensive demolition and renovation, but on a smaller scale compared to Paris. Brussels

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Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful.

2603:

Third class buildings usually have five floors and no servants' stairway. The facades often had no balconies and no exterior decoration.

1898:

Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hôtel de Ville. These were two unforgivable complaints."

849: 356:

epidemics ravaged the city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighbourhoods died.

754: 485:

had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front the

2042:(1860–1865) was (and is today) the largest park in Paris, designed to give green space to the working-class population of east Paris. 4536: 4352: 3988: 3963: 3938: 3909: 2983: 626: 2176:

Six new mairies, or town halls, for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 7th and 12th arrondissements, and the enlargement of the other mairies.

1570:

were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of the

833:, built by Napoléon I, to the center and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Impérial (now the 177: 829:

The two axes crossed at the Place du Châtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved the

519:

also had ambitious plans for rebuilding the city. He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the

474:." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the young 1730: 1057:

neighborhood. The construction of this street obliterated one of the most sordid and dangerous neighborhoods in the city, called

3033:"post-Haussmann", rejecting only the austerity of the Napoleon-era architecture, without questioning the urban planning itself. 1846:

Haussmann did not have time to finish the third phase, as he soon came under intense attack from the opponents of Napoleon III.

3161: 1855: 1747:(now Place de la Nation) and opening three new boulevards: avenue Philippe-Auguste, avenue Taillebourg, and avenue de Bouvines. 48: 697:

The boulevards and streets built by Napoléon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire are shown in red. They also built the

383:

The Rue des Marmousets, one of the narrow and dark medieval streets on the Île de la Cité, in the 1850s. The site is near the

340:. The population density in these neighbourhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighbourhood of 3061: 2961: 1999: 741: 717:

Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior,

256: 145: 2750:

from thirty to twenty-six hectares in order to build the rues Medici, Guynemer and Auguste-Comte; for giving away a half of

2679:

collected in basements when the level of the Seine was high. Before Haussmann, the sewer tunnels (featured in Victor Hugo's

2556:

third and fourth floors in the same style but with less elaborate stonework around the windows, sometimes lacking balconies.

32:

Napoleon III instructed Haussmann to bring air and light to the centre of Paris, to unify the different neighbourhoods with

2371:

The Théâtre de la Ville, one of two matching theaters, designed by Gabriel Davioud, which Haussmann had constructed at the

2227:

The building of the first railroad bridge across the Seine; originally called the Pont Napoleon III, now called simply the

3056:, have built new quarters that by their name "Quartier Haussmannien", cite the Haussmannian heritage. The Belgian capital 810:, "of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to the other." The Boulevard Sébastopol ended at the new 769:, controlled by Napoléon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough. Napoléon III appealed to the 508:, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the 3021:, ceased, traffic circulation improved, and new buildings were better-built and more functional than their predecessors. 4531: 2240: 2118: 1991: 1902: 1754: 1454: 494: 368: 155: 2191: 834: 826:, and then, as the rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to the rue d'Orléans. The north-south axis was completed in 1859. 3017:

The Baron Haussmann's transformations of Paris improved the quality of life in the capital. Disease epidemics, except

2143: 2127: 1832: 490: 345: 2946: 2463:

The first railroad bridge across the Seine (1852–53), originally called the Pont Napoleon III, now called simply the

2199: 1815:

Finishing the Rond-Point of the Champs-Élysées, with the construction of avenue d'Antin (now Franklin Roosevelt) and

1627: 296: 52: 534:

The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during the restoration of the monarchy through the reign of King

1515: 1249: 745: 140: 2965: 2950: 4526: 4521: 1338: 953: 618: 249: 203: 125: 120: 115: 80: 2532:

was the model for the rest of the Paris boulevards. The new apartment buildings followed the same general plan:

2190:

The Paris Opera (now Palais Garnier), begun under Napoleon III and finished in 1875; and five new theaters; the

838: 736:

Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the

2578:

The Haussmann façade was organized around horizontal lines that often continued from one building to the next:

2055: 2007: 1777: 1557: 899: 706: 443:. There were seven armed uprisings in Paris between 1830 and 1848, with barricades built in the narrow streets. 337: 110: 2244: 1994:, the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from 758: 333: 4458:

Walker, Nathaniel Robert. "Lost in the City of Light: Dystopia and Utopia in the Wake of Haussmann's Paris".

927:

transformed by Haussmann: new transverse streets (red), public spaces (light blue) and buildings (dark blue).

4516: 4511: 4506: 3001: 2652: 1917: 1871: 1828: 1668: 1521: 1412: 1167: 906: 803: 689:, shown here in 1855, was the first boulevard built by Haussmann, and it served as the model for the others. 652: 400: 213: 37: 1870:

operetta popular at the time. In the autumn of 1867, the voucher program was ruled as official debt by the

1798:

from the Place Saint-Augustin to rue Taitbout, connecting the new quarter of the Opera with that of Etoile.

1713:

with boulevard d'Ornano as far as the Porte de la Chapelle, and in the east extended the rue des Pyrénées.

1069: 538:(1830–1848). It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels of 2645: 2356: 2210: 2183:, the central market, replacing the old market buildings with large glass and iron pavilions, designed by 2105: 1737: 1612: 970: 819: 598: 586: 384: 364: 21:

This article is about the nineteenth-century renovation of Paris. For the modern renovation of Paris, see

4140:

Letter written by owners from the neighbourhood of the Panthéon to prefect Berger in 1850, quoted in the

1791:

had been created during the first and second phases; the opera itself was to be built in the third phase.

1788: 648: 4546: 4099: 3073: 3037: 2746:, out of sight within the walls of the Palais de Justice, He also criticized Haussmann for reducing the 2696: 2348: 2328: 2236: 1906: 1863: 1801:

Creating the Place du Trocadéro, the starting point of two new avenues, the modern President-Wilson and

1150: 1040: 574: 208: 198: 172: 22: 2221: 693: 1882:

which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the

561:

He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, the

4407:

Pinkney, David H. "Napoleon III's Transformation of Paris: The Origins and Development of the Idea",

3558: 3025: 2805: 2776: 2747: 2019: 1967: 1963: 1680: 1596: 1506: 992: 922: 811: 790: 786: 656: 590: 524: 482: 341: 325: 162: 130: 2483:, or public toilet, with a façade sculpted by Emile Guadrier, built near the Champs Elysees. (1865). 1958:

in London, and was designed to provide rest and relaxation for families of all classes of Parisians.

4541: 3049: 3006: 2722: 2388: 2147: 1935: 1891: 1883: 1802: 1795: 1571: 1276: 830: 770: 766: 749: 562: 486: 475: 1982:, the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the 1626:

vouchers were then purchased from the contractors by the city's lenders, mainly the mortgage bank

4471: 4427: 4412: 2609: 2268: 2248: 2074: 1987: 1979: 1809: 1744: 1676: 1574:

was widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, whilst

1395: 1012: 984: 962: 782: 718: 516: 509: 317: 292: 4475: 2641: 774: 453: 1111: 493:, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. 4363: 4348: 4333: 4312: 4298: 4284: 4270: 3984: 3959: 3934: 3905: 2713: 2537: 2444: 2372: 2039: 2003: 1955: 1867: 1836: 1758: 1710: 1651:

Haussmann presents Emperor Napoleon III the documents for the annexation of the Paris suburbs.

1604: 1541: 1429: 1284: 1265: 1077: 823: 794: 702: 665: 643: 531:, "one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges." 505: 416: 193: 3458: 2820:

thousands of workers, and to make the city more healthy, less congested, and more beautiful.

501:, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. 4463: 2312: 2166: 2139: 2108:, one of the new squares that Haussmann built in the neighborhoods annexed to Paris in 1860. 1983: 1951: 1816: 1766: 1684: 1203: 1195: 1091: 868: 761:, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition. 698: 639: 547: 288: 223: 89: 41: 2660:, Belgrand built the largest water reservoir in the world to hold the water from the River 1886:. In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, 3036:

A century after Napoleon III's reign, new housing needs and the rise of a new voluntarist

2743: 2657: 2352: 2272: 2151: 2070: 2011: 1618: 1577: 1296: 1175: 710: 497:, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the 440: 2616:

Underneath the streets of Haussmann's Paris – the renovation of the city's infrastructure

1526:, were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built, the 2501: 4400:

Paccoud, Antoine. "Planning law, power, and practice: Haussmann in Paris (1853–1870)".

2546:

or entresol intermediate level, with low ceilings; often also used by shops or offices.

2332: 2308: 2184: 2123: 1887: 1781: 1656: 1565: 1549: 1468: 1217: 1132:

was redesigned and replanted, and part of the old park made into a residential quarter.

815: 605:

Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte comes to power, and the rebuilding of Paris begins (1848–1852)

551: 535: 100: 609: 16:

Vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoléon III between 1853 and 1870

4490: 4467: 3638: 3633: 3078: 3010: 2812: 2797: 2772: 2768: 2637: 2587: 2540:, fronts usually parallel to the street. This was often occupied by shops or offices. 2529: 2464: 2335:, looked traditional on the outside but had a revolutionary iron frame on the inside. 2228: 721:, interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of 686: 570: 520: 239: 915: 3041: 3018: 2919: 2751: 2668: 2550: 2493: 2416: 2311:(1870). The market was demolished in the 1970s, but one original hall was moved to 2170: 2162: 2154:, who designed everything from city halls and theaters to park benches and kiosks. 2089: 2015: 1975: 1971: 1762: 1585: 1488: 1127: 1029: 622: 578: 528: 436: 399:

The Rue du Jardinet on the Left Bank, demolished by Haussmann to make room for the

284: 280: 68: 56: 681: 4330:

Paris Reborn: Napoléon III, Baron Haussmann, and the Quest to Build a Modern City

3927: 1772:

Finishing the place in front of the Gare du Nord. Rue Maubeuge was extended from

457:

The second-hand clothing market, the Marché du Temple, in 1840, before Haussmann.

4453:

The Fragility of Modernity: Infrastructure and Everyday Life in Paris, 1870–1914

3081:, a similar 1850s urban planning approach in Berlin, conducted by James Hobrecht 2935: 2726: 2651:

Belgrand first addressed the city's fresh water needs, constructing a system of

1946: 1660: 1346: 933: 890: 877: 582: 543: 3786:

Jarrasse, Dominque (2007), Grammmaire des jardins Parisiens, Parigramme. p. 134

1978:, the former property of the family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the 1254:), forming with Champs-Elysées and other existing avenues a star of 12 avenues. 4422:

Pinkney, David H. "Money and Politics in the Rebuilding of Paris, 1860–1870",

2785: 2510: 2304: 2180: 2135: 2073:(1865–1869) was built at the southern edge of the city, where some of the old 1862:("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on the " 1773: 1664: 1635: 806:. "It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in his 566: 4381:

The Man Who Made Paris: The Illustrated Biography of Georges-Eugène Haussmann

3902:

The European Cities and Technology Reader: Industrial to Post-industrial City

2146:

but not finished until 1875, is difficult to classify, coming to be known as

1753:

Building a new rue de Châteaudon and clearing the space around the church of

757:, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the 3064:

that were straight lined and flanked by Haussmann style rows of apartments.

2779:. The army used side streets to move around it, and captured it from behind. 2579: 2543: 1879: 1696: 419:

was used to dump the waste from the tanneries of Paris; it emptied into the

33: 2447:

connecting the Île-de-la-Cité to the left bank. It still bears the initial

1894:, Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown. 2586:

were perfectly aligned without any noticeable alcoves or projections. The

2058:

on the site of a former limestone quarry at the northern edge of the city.

3057: 1995: 1854:

In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon,

1692: 462: 1750:

Extending the rue Caulaincourt and preparing a future Pont Caulaincourt.

793:, he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historic 4431: 4416: 3651:. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 71. 3053: 2583: 2562: 2331:(1860–1871), built by the same architect as the markets of Les Halles, 2224:

and the Place du Palais-Royal by the demolition of several old streets.

1740:), creating a new avenue des Amandiers and extending avenue Parmentier. 726: 471: 353: 3029:

hygienic ideals and radicalness of some planners of the 20th century.

2667:

At the same time Belgrand began rebuilding the water distribution and

2209:

The reconstruction and enlargement of the city's oldest hospital, the

1850:

The downfall of Haussmann (1870) and the completion of his work (1927)

773:, Émile and Isaac, two bankers who had created a new investment bank, 348:, there was one inhabitant for every three square metres (32 sq ft). 328:

and in the neighbourhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the

312:

Overcrowding, disease, crime and unrest in the centre of the old Paris

3956:

Building New York's Sewers: Developing Mechanisms of Urban Management

2570: 2566: 2217: 1701: 1180:, was completely redesigned. A star of new avenues radiated from the 722: 631: 539: 461:

The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century;

329: 2624:

The new water pipes and sewers built under the Boulevard Sebastopol.

3929:

Walks Through Lost Paris: A Journey into the Hear of Historic Paris

2615: 2291:

A kiosk for a street merchant on Square des Arts et Metiers (1865).

1554:

were completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them. The

4437:

Richardson, Joanna. "Emperor of Paris Baron Haussmann 1809–1891",

3632:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

2995: 2762: 2661: 2633: 2619: 2500: 2492: 2117: 1945: 1688: 1672: 1646: 914: 898: 876: 848: 692: 680: 608: 498: 467: 452: 420: 300: 62: 47: 27: 1329:. In addition, four new streets were built in that neighborhood: 1270:, a huge new park being constructed on the east edge of the city. 958:). This involved demolishing the famous theater street known as " 2811:

There was only one armed uprising in Paris after Haussmann, the

2759:

The debate about the military purposes of Haussmann's boulevards

2375:, the meeting point of his north-south and east-west boulevards. 1878:

the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from

1082:

railway station. The station was served by two new boulevards,

642:(Boulogne Forest) into a large new public park, modelled after 2929: 1808:

Creating the Place Victor Hugo, the starting point of avenues

2150:. Many of the buildings were designed by the city architect, 4260:

Haussmann: His Life and Times and the Making of Modern Paris

3438: 3436: 67:

Windows and balconies of a typical Haussmannian building on

3730: 3728: 2693:

Compagnie parisienne d'éclairage et de chauffage par le gaz

2559:

fifth floor with a single, continuous, undecorated balcony.

1842:

Extending the rue de la Glacière and enlarging place Monge.

1725:

The third phase included these projects on the right bank:

2505:

Boulevard Haussmann, lined by typical Haussmann buildings.

1962:

Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the

845:

The second phase – a network of new boulevards (1859–1867)

3162:

Haussmann's Architectural Paris – The Art History Archive

3009:, depicts the wide boulevards of Haussmann's Paris in an 2591:

broad categories, from the most to the least luxurious:

911:

was designed as the main east-west axis of the left bank.

865:) was designed by Haussmann as the grand entrance to the 822:, which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the 625:, the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct 4345:

Paris Impérial. La vie quotidienne sous le Second Empire

2648:, to the post of Director of Water and Sewers of Paris. 1901:

Haussmann's successor as prefect of the Seine appointed

1289:. Three new boulevards were built in this neighborhood: 3115: 3113: 975:; and the construction of three new major streets: the 3615:

de Moncan, Patrice, "Le Paris d'Haussmann", pp. 63–64.

2307:, the great iron and glass central market designed by 677:

Haussmann begins work – the Croisée de Paris (1853–59)

481:

The 18th century architectural theorist and historian

3097:

its equivalent in the French language Knowledge (XXG)

1858:, ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as 1479:, was created on the east, while another new street, 705:

park containing a zoo (green area on the right), the

4395:

Planning the Greenspaces of Nineteenth-Century Paris

2771:, the Communards built an impressive fort where the 585:, and began work on the rue des Écoles, between the 3095:Portions of this article have been translated from 2161:The construction of two new railroad stations, the 3926: 1839:; building rue des Saints-Pères and rue de Rennes. 1063:, where Paris policemen rarely ventured at night. 4164: 4162: 1909:continued and finished his renovation projects. 1717:The third phase and mounting criticism (1869–70) 1026:to connect it with the new railway station, the 1928:1889: completion of the avenue de la République 1643:Paris doubles in size – the annexation of 1860 556:Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau 3048:Certain Parisian suburban towns, for example 1281:was leveled, and a new square created at the 257: 8: 3559:"Annexion des communes suburbaines, en 1860" 3525: 3510: 3495: 3480: 3443: 3425: 3307:, Paris (1891), cited in Patrice de Moncan, 3144: 3142: 2142:, commissioned by Napoleon III, designed by 1812:and Bugeaud and rues Boissière and Copernic. 1610: 1602: 1594: 1583: 1575: 1563: 1555: 1547: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1519: 1504: 1494: 1486: 1480: 1474: 1466: 1460: 1452: 1446: 1435: 1427: 1421: 1410: 1404: 1393: 1387: 1378: 1372: 1366: 1352: 1344: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1306: 1300: 1290: 1282: 1274: 1263: 1257: 1247: 1241: 1235: 1229: 1223: 1215: 1209: 1201: 1193: 1187: 1181: 1173: 1165: 1156: 1148: 1142: 1136: 1125: 1117: 1109: 1103: 1097: 1089: 1083: 1075: 1067: 1058: 1052: 1046: 1038: 1027: 1021: 1010: 1004: 998: 990: 982: 976: 968: 959: 951: 945: 920: 904: 888: 882: 866: 860: 854: 336:" (City Hall), had changed little since the 2964:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2788:repeated that argument in his early novel, 748:. The grand cross had been proposed by the 577:. On the Left Bank, he built a new street, 4246:Maneglier, Hervé, "Paris Impérial", p. 42. 1925:1879: completion of the boulevard Henri IV 1736:Finishing the place du Château d'Eau (now 617:King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the 264: 250: 74: 2984:Learn how and when to remove this message 1974:, all in the center of the city, and the 1931:1907: completion of the boulevard Raspail 1922:1877: completion of the avenue de l'Opéra 1757:, making room for connection between the 387:(General Hospital on the Île de la Cité). 283:programme commissioned by French Emperor 4374:Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris 2831: 1459:were extensively changed. A new street, 944:The construction of a large new square, 713:and dozens of smaller parks and squares. 367:, around the Hôtel de Ville, and around 36:, and to make Paris more beautiful. The 4258:Carmona, Michel, and Patrick Camiller. 3109: 2257: 2216:The completion of the last wing of the 2028: 1377:, were constructed, beginning from the 373: 185: 88: 77: 4033:, 1862–69. Cited in Maneglier, Hervé, 2536:ground floor and basement with thick, 887:on the left bank opened a view to the 569:, he built a wide new street (today's 449:Earlier attempts to modernize the city 2157:His architectural projects included: 2114:The architecture of Haussmann's Paris 789:. Between the Hôtel de Ville and the 7: 3933:. Shoemaker & Hoard Publishers. 2962:adding citations to reliable sources 1860:Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann 1784:was extended to the porte de Pantin. 1102:was extended and two other streets, 4076:, Bernard Grasset, 1959. pp. 339–55 1913:1875: completion of the Paris Opéra 1434:) was built up to the intersection 701:park (green area on the left), the 40:, created by Haussmann, painted by 4376:(Princeton University Press, 1958) 1609:, and for its connection with the 1473:was expanded. Another new street, 1228:(now avenues Mac-Mahon and Niel); 1122:, were built in this neighborhood. 755:Paris Universal Exposition of 1855 14: 3062:carved out new central boulevards 1601:to make room for the present-day 597:Bonaparte, then president of the 581:, which cleared space around the 4502:1870 disestablishments in France 4476:10.5325/utopianstudies.25.1.0023 4468:10.5325/utopianstudies.25.1.0023 4297:(Les Éditions du Mécène, 2007), 4283:(Les Éditions du Mécène, 2012), 4269:(Éditions du patrimoine, 2002), 4267:Le guide du patrimoine en France 4265:Centre des monuments nationaux. 3643:Haussmann, Georges Eugène, Baron 3625: 2934: 2472: 2456: 2436: 2424: 2408: 2396: 2380: 2364: 2340: 2320: 2296: 2284: 2260: 2097: 2082: 2063: 2047: 2031: 781:process, Haussmann restyled the 428: 408: 392: 376: 233: 99: 4309:Grammaire des jardins Parisiens 3736:Grammaire des jardins parisiens 1942:Green space – parks and gardens 837:) and the Théâtre Lyrique (now 277:Haussmann's renovation of Paris 4295:Les jardins du Baron Haussmann 3309:Les jardins de Baron Haussmann 2267:The hexagonal Parisian street 2194:on the Place du Châtelet; the 2138:; and some of it, such as the 2010:(1865–1867) to the north, and 2000:Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps 1998:, and his new chief gardener, 1409:, was constructed, to open up 1: 4497:1853 establishments in France 4347:(2009), Armand Colin, Paris ( 4332:(St. Martin's Press, 2013), ( 4059:cited in de Moncan, Patrice, 4046:cited in de Moncan, Patrice, 3954:Goldman, Joanne Abel (1997). 3705:, cited in Maneglier, Hervé, 3119:cited in de Moncan, Patrice, 2315:, where it can be seen today. 2006:(1860–1865) to the east; the 4446:Haussmann: Paris Transformed 3983:. Harvard University Press. 3734:Jarrasse, Dominique (2007), 2703:Critics of Haussmann's Paris 2443:Haussmann reconstructed The 2220:, and the opening up of the 2192:Châtelet and Théâtre Lyrique 2169:; and the rebuilding of the 1992:Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand 1954:(1852–1858) was inspired by 1903:Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand 1262:was built as far as the new 495:Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux 4424:Journal of Economic History 4152:Héron de Villefosse, René, 4142:Atlas du Paris Haussmannien 4072:Héron de Villefosse, René, 3958:. Purdue University Press. 3823:"Trois classes d'immeubles" 2636:, a tributary of the River 2279:), introduced by Haussmann. 2130:, simply as "Napoleon III." 1632:Caisse des Travaux de Paris 1465:, was created, and part of 1392:was extended as far as the 967:", made famous in the film 731:aérer, unifier, et embellir 619:February Revolution of 1848 4563: 4323:Paris: Biography of a City 3900:Goodman, David C. (1999). 3679:Kirkland, 2013; p. 264-265 3670:Kirkland, 2013; p. 263-264 3661:Kirkland, 2013; p. 263-264 3580:Kirkland, 2013; p. 178-179 3548:Kirkland, 2013; p. 156-157 3539:Kirkland, 2013; p. 157-158 3164:, checked 21 October 2007. 2758: 2565:roof, angled at 45°, with 2528:The reconstruction of the 2355:, marked the beginning of 1731:Jardins des Champs-Élysées 1389:avenue de la Tour Maubourg 1308:avenue du President-Wilson 978:boulevard du Prince Eugène 671: 20: 4441:(1975), 25#12 pp. 843–49. 4409:Journal of Modern History 3981:A History of Private Life 3979:Perrot, Michelle (1990). 3303:George-Eugène Haussmann, 2351:(1858–1860), designed by 1590:were saved and restored. 1455:Montagne Sainte-Geneviève 369:Montagne Sainte-Geneviève 55:, Prefect of Seine under 4537:Urban planning in France 4411:(1955) 27#2 pp. 125–34. 2329:Church of Saint Augustin 2056:Parc des Buttes Chaumont 2008:Parc des Buttes-Chaumont 1934:1927: completion of the 1916:1877: completion of the 1778:boulevard de la Chapelle 707:Parc des Buttes-Chaumont 623:Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte 573:) and began work on the 297:Georges-Eugène Haussmann 53:Georges-Eugène Haussmann 4426:(1957) 17#1 pp. 45–61. 3648:Encyclopædia Britannica 3002:Paris Street; Rainy Day 1918:boulevard Saint-Germain 1829:Boulevard Saint-Germain 1572:Cathedral of Notre Dame 1499:, was entirely rebuilt. 1445:The streets around the 1413:Place Denfert-Rochereau 1311:), which connected the 907:Boulevard Saint-Germain 856:avenue de l'Impératrice 738:grande croisée de Paris 655:, who had designed the 653:Jacques Ignace Hittorff 621:. On 10 December 1848, 491:church of Saint Gervais 487:Cathedral of Nôtre Dame 401:Boulevard Saint Germain 324:The street plan on the 3925:Pitt, Leonard (2006). 3571:Kirkland, 2013; p. 179 3526: 3511: 3496: 3481: 3459:"Champs-Elysées facts" 3444: 3426: 3014: 2780: 2625: 2506: 2498: 2489:The Haussmann building 2357:Boulevard Saint-Michel 2276: 2255:important structures. 2213:on the Île-de-la-Cité. 2179:The reconstruction of 2131: 2106:Square des Batignolles 1959: 1738:Place de la Republique 1729:The renovation of the 1652: 1613:boulevard Saint-Michel 1611: 1603: 1595: 1584: 1576: 1564: 1556: 1548: 1540: 1534: 1528: 1520: 1505: 1495: 1487: 1481: 1475: 1467: 1461: 1453: 1447: 1436: 1428: 1422: 1411: 1405: 1394: 1388: 1379: 1373: 1367: 1353: 1345: 1337: 1331: 1325: 1319: 1313: 1307: 1301: 1291: 1283: 1275: 1264: 1258: 1248: 1242: 1236: 1230: 1224: 1216: 1210: 1202: 1194: 1188: 1182: 1174: 1166: 1157: 1149: 1143: 1137: 1126: 1118: 1110: 1104: 1098: 1090: 1084: 1076: 1068: 1059: 1053: 1047: 1039: 1028: 1022: 1011: 1005: 999: 991: 983: 977: 971:Les Enfants du Paradis 969: 960: 954:Place de la République 952: 947:place du Chateau-d'Eau 946: 928: 921: 912: 905: 896: 889: 883: 874: 867: 861: 855: 820:Boulevard Saint-Michel 714: 690: 672:Haussmann's renovation 627:presidential elections 614: 599:French Second Republic 458: 365:Faubourg Saint-Antoine 72: 60: 45: 4448:(G. Braziller, 1971). 4402:Planning Perspectives 4307:Jarrassé, Dominique. 3527:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3512:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3497:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3482:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3445:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3427:Le Paris d'Haussmann, 3074:Demographics of Paris 3005:, painted in 1877 by 2999: 2766: 2702: 2623: 2504: 2496: 2349:Fontaine Saint-Michel 2241:Saint-Vincent de Paul 2121: 2113: 1949: 1755:Notre-Dame de Lorette 1650: 1243:avenue de Saint-Cloud 1144:rue de Constantinople 1048:place de la Madeleine 1041:boulevard Malesherbes 918: 902: 880: 852: 759:Grand Hôtel du Louvre 696: 684: 613:Napoléon III in 1865. 612: 575:Boulevard Malesherbes 456: 199:Architectural history 66: 59:from 1853 until 1870. 51: 31: 23:Grand Paris (project) 4462:25.1 (2014): 23–51. 4404:31.3 (2016): 341–61. 4393:Hopkins, Richard S. 4328:Kirkland, Stephane. 4311:(Parigramme, 2007), 4293:de Moncan, Patrice. 4281:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4279:de Moncan, Patrice. 4235:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4222:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4209:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4198:, (2014), pp. 115–17 4183:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4170:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4087:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4085:de Moncan, Patrice, 4061:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4048:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4018:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4016:de Moncan, Patrice, 4005:Le Paris d'Haussmann 4003:de Moncan, Patrice, 3888:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3886:de Moncan, Patrice, 3875:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3873:de Moncan, Patrice, 3810:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3808:de Moncan, Patrice, 3797:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3795:de Moncan, Patrice, 3775:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3762:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3749:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3720:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3718:de Moncan, Patrice, 3604:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3591:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3524:de Moncan, Patrice, 3509:de Moncan, Patrice, 3494:de Moncan, Patrice, 3479:de Moncan, Patrice, 3461:. Paris Digest. 2018 3442:de Moncan, Patrice, 3413:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3374:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3361:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3348:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3335:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3333:de Moncan, Patrice, 3292:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3290:de Moncan, Patrice, 3150:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3148:de Moncan, Patrice, 3134:Le Paris d'Haussmann 3132:de Moncan, Patrice, 3121:Le Paris d'Haussmann 2958:improve this section 2777:Place de la Concorde 2748:Jardin du Luxembourg 2644:, a graduate of the 2497:Place Saint-Georges. 2245:Eglise de la Trinité 2054:Haussmann built the 2020:Jardin du Luxembourg 1968:Jardin du Luxembourg 1964:Jardin des Tuileries 1864:Les Contes d'Hoffman 1597:Jardin du Luxembourg 1522:Prefecture de Police 1516:Tribunal de Commerce 1365:Two new boulevards, 1302:avenue de l'Empereur 1225:avenue Prince-Jerome 1147:, under a new name, 1037:The construction of 993:boulevard de Magenta 814:; a new bridge, the 657:Place de la Concorde 525:Place de la Concorde 504:In 1794, during the 483:Quatremere de Quincy 346:Third Arrondissement 287:and directed by his 141:Under Louis-Philippe 4532:Boulevards in Paris 4451:Soppelsa, Peter S. 4194:Rougerie, Jacques, 4100:"The Gate of Paris" 3105:Notes and citations 3050:Issy-les-Moulineaux 3007:Gustave Caillebotte 2646:École Polytechnique 2481:chalet de nécessité 2389:Hotel-Dieu de Paris 2211:Hôtel-Dieu de Paris 2148:Second Empire style 1936:boulevard Haussmann 1892:Franco-Prussian War 1884:Franco-Prussian War 1833:Pont de la Concorde 1796:Boulevard Haussmann 1538:. Two bridges, the 1529:boulevard du Palais 1462:avenue des Gobelins 1096:. In addition, the 940:On the right bank: 884:avenue des Gobelins 839:Théâtre de la Ville 835:Théâtre du Châtelet 831:Fontaine du Palmier 750:National Convention 725:and Prefect of the 649:Jean-Jacques Berger 587:École Polytechnique 563:Pont Louis-Philippe 550:of the Seine under 546:. In 1833, the new 523:, beginning at the 476:Frederick the Great 4397:(LSU Press, 2015). 4372:Pinkney, David H. 4343:Maneglier, Hervé. 4196:La Commune de 1871 4107:The New York Times 3398:Maneglier, Hervé, 3385:Maneglier, Hervé, 3264:Maneglier, Hervé, 3251:Maneglier, Hervé, 3238:Maneglier, Hervé, 3225:Maneglier, Hervé, 3212:Maneglier, Hervé, 3199:Maneglier, Hervé, 3186:Maneglier, Hervé, 3173:Maneglier, Hervé, 3015: 2781: 2626: 2610:Lutetian limestone 2538:load-bearing walls 2507: 2499: 2269:advertising column 2249:rue de la Victoire 2132: 2075:catacombs of Paris 1980:Jardin des Plantes 1960: 1823:On the left bank: 1653: 1482:rue Claude Bernard 1396:pont des Invalides 1361:On the left bank: 1339:rue Pierre Charron 1250:avenue Victor-Hugo 1155:, was extended to 1151:avenue de Villiers 1074:, in front of the 1013:Place de la Nation 985:boulevard Voltaire 963:boulevard du Crime 929: 913: 897: 875: 783:Place du Carrousel 719:Victor de Persigny 715: 691: 615: 517:Napoleon Bonaparte 510:Place de la Nation 459: 318:Victor Considerant 73: 61: 46: 4455:(ProQuest, 2009). 4444:Saalman, Howard. 4368:978-2-262-02607-3 4338:978-0-312-62689-1 4317:978-2-84096-476-6 4275:978-2-85822-760-0 4154:Histoire de Paris 4074:Histoire de Paris 2994: 2993: 2986: 2904: 2903: 2824:Social disruption 2445:Pont Saint-Michel 2373:Place du Chatelet 2303:The pavilions of 2222:Place du Carousel 2040:Bois de Vincennes 2004:Bois de Vincennes 1872:Court of Accounts 1759:Gare Saint-Lazare 1711:boulevard Magenta 1605:boulevard Raspail 1558:Palais de Justice 1542:pont Saint-Michel 1430:boulevard Raspail 1423:boulevard d'Enfer 1266:Bois de Vincennes 1078:Gare Saint-Lazare 1070:place de l'Europe 1060:la Petite Pologne 1045:, to connect the 1023:boulevard Magenta 1020:The extension of 812:Place du Châtelet 787:place du Châtelet 767:French parliament 703:Bois de Vincennes 591:Collège de France 506:French Revolution 274: 273: 240:France portal 38:Avenue de l'Opéra 4554: 4527:History of Paris 4522:Squares in Paris 4362:(Perrin, 2006), 4303:978-2-907970-914 4289:978-2-907970-983 4247: 4244: 4238: 4231: 4225: 4218: 4212: 4205: 4199: 4192: 4186: 4179: 4173: 4166: 4157: 4150: 4144: 4138: 4132: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4104: 4096: 4090: 4083: 4077: 4070: 4064: 4057: 4051: 4044: 4038: 4027: 4021: 4014: 4008: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3932: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3897: 3891: 3884: 3878: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3836: 3834: 3819: 3813: 3806: 3800: 3793: 3787: 3784: 3778: 3771: 3765: 3758: 3752: 3745: 3739: 3732: 3723: 3716: 3710: 3699: 3693: 3686: 3680: 3677: 3671: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3631: 3629: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3613: 3607: 3600: 3594: 3587: 3581: 3578: 3572: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3540: 3537: 3531: 3529: 3522: 3516: 3514: 3507: 3501: 3499: 3492: 3486: 3484: 3477: 3471: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3455: 3449: 3447: 3440: 3431: 3429: 3422: 3416: 3409: 3403: 3396: 3390: 3383: 3377: 3370: 3364: 3357: 3351: 3344: 3338: 3331: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3301: 3295: 3288: 3282: 3275: 3269: 3262: 3256: 3249: 3243: 3236: 3230: 3223: 3217: 3210: 3204: 3197: 3191: 3184: 3178: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3146: 3137: 3130: 3124: 3117: 2989: 2982: 2978: 2975: 2969: 2938: 2930: 2832: 2476: 2460: 2451:of Napoléon III. 2440: 2428: 2412: 2400: 2384: 2368: 2344: 2324: 2313:Nogent-sur-Marne 2300: 2288: 2264: 2101: 2086: 2067: 2051: 2035: 1984:Bois de Boulogne 1952:Bois de Boulogne 1789:Place de l'Opéra 1616: 1608: 1600: 1589: 1582:and the ancient 1581: 1569: 1561: 1553: 1545: 1537: 1531: 1525: 1510: 1498: 1492: 1485:, on the south. 1484: 1478: 1472: 1464: 1458: 1450: 1441: 1433: 1425: 1416: 1408: 1399: 1391: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1356: 1350: 1342: 1334: 1328: 1322: 1316: 1310: 1304: 1294: 1288: 1280: 1269: 1261: 1259:Avenue Daumesnil 1253: 1245: 1239: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1213: 1211:avenue Josephine 1207: 1199: 1196:avenue de Wagram 1191: 1189:avenue de Bezons 1185: 1179: 1171: 1160: 1158:porte Champerret 1154: 1146: 1140: 1131: 1121: 1115: 1107: 1101: 1095: 1092:rue Saint-Lazare 1087: 1081: 1073: 1062: 1056: 1050: 1044: 1033: 1025: 1016: 1008: 1002: 996: 988: 980: 974: 966: 957: 949: 926: 910: 894: 886: 872: 869:Bois de Boulogne 864: 858: 771:Péreire brothers 699:Bois de Boulogne 660:into the other. 640:Bois de Boulogne 636:rue Rochechouart 432: 412: 396: 380: 266: 259: 252: 238: 237: 236: 103: 93: 75: 42:Camille Pissarro 4562: 4561: 4557: 4556: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4551: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4460:Utopian Studies 4390: 4388:Further reading 4379:Weeks, Willet. 4358:Milza, Pierre. 4255: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4232: 4228: 4219: 4215: 4206: 4202: 4193: 4189: 4180: 4176: 4167: 4160: 4151: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4126: 4122: 4112: 4110: 4102: 4098: 4097: 4093: 4084: 4080: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4054: 4045: 4041: 4028: 4024: 4015: 4011: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3966: 3953: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3924: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3899: 3898: 3894: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3868: 3858: 3856: 3849:"La maçonnerie" 3847: 3846: 3842: 3832: 3830: 3821: 3820: 3816: 3807: 3803: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3755: 3746: 3742: 3733: 3726: 3717: 3713: 3700: 3696: 3688:Milza, Pierre, 3687: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3641:, ed. (1911). " 3637: 3626: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3601: 3597: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3557: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3523: 3519: 3508: 3504: 3493: 3489: 3478: 3474: 3464: 3462: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3441: 3434: 3423: 3419: 3410: 3406: 3397: 3393: 3384: 3380: 3371: 3367: 3358: 3354: 3345: 3341: 3332: 3328: 3320:Milza, Pierre, 3319: 3315: 3302: 3298: 3289: 3285: 3277:Milza, Pierre, 3276: 3272: 3263: 3259: 3250: 3246: 3237: 3233: 3224: 3220: 3211: 3207: 3198: 3194: 3185: 3181: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3147: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3118: 3111: 3107: 3088: 3070: 2990: 2979: 2973: 2970: 2955: 2939: 2928: 2826: 2761: 2744:Sainte-Chapelle 2735: 2710: 2708:Contemporaneous 2705: 2658:Parc Montsouris 2642:Eugène Belgrand 2618: 2491: 2484: 2477: 2468: 2461: 2452: 2441: 2432: 2429: 2420: 2413: 2404: 2401: 2392: 2385: 2376: 2369: 2360: 2353:Gabriel Davioud 2345: 2336: 2325: 2316: 2301: 2292: 2289: 2280: 2265: 2152:Gabriel Davioud 2144:Charles Garnier 2128:Charles Garnier 2116: 2109: 2102: 2093: 2087: 2078: 2071:Parc Montsouris 2068: 2059: 2052: 2043: 2036: 2012:Parc Montsouris 1944: 1852: 1719: 1645: 1619:Medici Fountain 1578:Sainte-Chapelle 1438:Sèvres–Babylone 1406:boulevard Arago 1354:rue de Marignan 1297:avenue George V 1240:); and a wider 1176:Arc de Triomphe 853:The tree-lined 847: 804:rue Saint-Denis 791:Bastille square 775:Crédit Mobilier 711:Parc Montsouris 679: 674: 607: 451: 444: 441:1848 Revolution 433: 424: 413: 404: 397: 388: 381: 314: 309: 270: 234: 232: 168:Interwar period 91: 84: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4560: 4558: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4517:1870s in Paris 4514: 4512:1860s in Paris 4509: 4507:1850s in Paris 4504: 4499: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4483:External links 4481: 4480: 4479: 4456: 4449: 4442: 4435: 4420: 4405: 4398: 4389: 4386: 4385: 4384: 4377: 4370: 4356: 4341: 4326: 4321:Jones, Colin. 4319: 4305: 4291: 4277: 4263: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4248: 4239: 4226: 4213: 4200: 4187: 4174: 4158: 4145: 4133: 4120: 4091: 4078: 4065: 4052: 4039: 4035:Paris Impérial 4022: 4009: 3996: 3989: 3971: 3964: 3946: 3939: 3917: 3910: 3892: 3879: 3866: 3840: 3814: 3801: 3788: 3779: 3766: 3753: 3740: 3724: 3711: 3707:Paris Impérial 3694: 3681: 3672: 3663: 3654: 3639:Chisholm, Hugh 3617: 3608: 3595: 3582: 3573: 3564: 3550: 3541: 3532: 3517: 3502: 3487: 3472: 3450: 3432: 3417: 3404: 3400:Paris Impérial 3391: 3387:Paris Impérial 3378: 3365: 3352: 3339: 3326: 3313: 3296: 3283: 3270: 3266:Paris Impérial 3257: 3253:Paris Impérial 3244: 3240:Paris Impérial 3231: 3227:Paris Impérial 3218: 3214:Paris Impérial 3205: 3201:Paris Impérial 3192: 3188:Paris Impérial 3179: 3175:Paris Impérial 3166: 3154: 3138: 3125: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3102: 3101: 3092: 3087: 3084: 3083: 3082: 3076: 3069: 3066: 3038:Fifth Republic 2992: 2991: 2942: 2940: 2933: 2927: 2924: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2874: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2835:Arrondissement 2825: 2822: 2760: 2757: 2734: 2731: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2701: 2681:Les Miserables 2617: 2614: 2605: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2576: 2575: 2560: 2557: 2554: 2547: 2541: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2485: 2478: 2471: 2469: 2462: 2455: 2453: 2442: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2423: 2421: 2414: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2395: 2393: 2386: 2379: 2377: 2370: 2363: 2361: 2346: 2339: 2337: 2333:Victor Baltard 2326: 2319: 2317: 2309:Victor Baltard 2302: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2283: 2281: 2277:Colonne Morris 2266: 2259: 2237:Saint-Augustin 2233: 2232: 2225: 2214: 2207: 2203: 2188: 2185:Victor Baltard 2177: 2174: 2124:Palais Garnier 2115: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2103: 2096: 2094: 2088: 2081: 2079: 2069: 2062: 2060: 2053: 2046: 2044: 2037: 2030: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1938: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1914: 1907:Third Republic 1888:Emile Ollivier 1851: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1840: 1821: 1820: 1813: 1806: 1799: 1792: 1785: 1782:rue La Fayette 1770: 1751: 1748: 1745:place du Trône 1743:Finishing the 1741: 1734: 1718: 1715: 1644: 1641: 1628:Crédit Foncier 1566:Place Dauphine 1550:pont au Change 1507:Île de la Cité 1501: 1500: 1469:rue Mouffetard 1443: 1420:A new street, 1418: 1403:A new street, 1401: 1384: 1380:pont de l'Alma 1368:avenue Bosquet 1359: 1358: 1332:rue Francois-I 1285:Pont de l'Alma 1271: 1255: 1231:avenue Essling 1218:avenue Marceau 1162: 1138:rue de Londres 1133: 1123: 1066:A new square, 1064: 1035: 1018: 1006:place du Trône 923:Île de la Cité 846: 843: 816:Pont-au-Change 795:Hôtel de Sully 678: 675: 673: 670: 606: 603: 552:Louis-Philippe 536:Louis-Philippe 450: 447: 446: 445: 434: 427: 425: 414: 407: 405: 398: 391: 389: 382: 375: 342:Champs-Élysées 334:Hôtel de Ville 326:Île de la Cité 313: 310: 308: 305: 272: 271: 269: 268: 261: 254: 246: 243: 242: 229: 228: 227: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 188: 187: 183: 182: 181: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 131:Under Napoleon 128: 123: 118: 113: 105: 104: 96: 95: 86: 85: 78: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4559: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4454: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4439:History Today 4436: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4396: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4375: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4354: 4353:2-200-37226-4 4350: 4346: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4324: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4243: 4240: 4237:, pp. 172–73. 4236: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4214: 4211:, pp. 203–05. 4210: 4204: 4201: 4197: 4191: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4175: 4171: 4165: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4149: 4146: 4143: 4137: 4134: 4130: 4127:Zola, Emile, 4124: 4121: 4109:. 14 May 1871 4108: 4101: 4095: 4092: 4088: 4082: 4079: 4075: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4056: 4053: 4049: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4023: 4020:, pp. 156–57. 4019: 4013: 4010: 4007:, pp. 138–39. 4006: 4000: 3997: 3992: 3990:0-674-40003-8 3986: 3982: 3975: 3972: 3967: 3965:1-55753-095-5 3961: 3957: 3950: 3947: 3942: 3940:1-59376-103-1 3936: 3931: 3930: 3921: 3918: 3913: 3911:0-415-20079-2 3907: 3904:. Routledge. 3903: 3896: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3877:, pp. 144–45. 3876: 3870: 3867: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3841: 3828: 3824: 3818: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3792: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3767: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3744: 3741: 3738:, Parigramme. 3737: 3731: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3695: 3692:, pp. 669–70. 3691: 3685: 3682: 3676: 3673: 3667: 3664: 3658: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3634:public domain 3621: 3618: 3612: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3596: 3592: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3560: 3554: 3551: 3545: 3542: 3536: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3518: 3513: 3506: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3488: 3483: 3476: 3473: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3446: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3428: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3271: 3267: 3261: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3245: 3241: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3170: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3155: 3151: 3145: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3100: 3098: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3079:Hobrecht-Plan 3077: 3075: 3072: 3071: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3026:Second Empire 3022: 3020: 3012: 3011:Impressionist 3008: 3004: 3003: 2998: 2988: 2985: 2977: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2943:This section 2941: 2937: 2932: 2931: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2920:"etage noble" 2916: 2912: 2908: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2830: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2814: 2813:Paris Commune 2809: 2807: 2801: 2799: 2798:Lewis Mumford 2793: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2774: 2773:Rue de Rivoli 2770: 2769:Paris Commune 2765: 2756: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2707: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2622: 2613: 2611: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2589: 2588:rue de Rivoli 2585: 2581: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2531: 2530:rue de Rivoli 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2512: 2503: 2495: 2488: 2482: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2465:Pont National 2459: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2439: 2434: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2411: 2406: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2294: 2287: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2263: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2239:, the Eglise 2238: 2230: 2229:Pont National 2226: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2202:and Panorama. 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2167:Gare de l'Est 2164: 2160: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2140:Opéra Garnier 2137: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2107: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2085: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1847: 1841: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1827:Building the 1826: 1825: 1824: 1818: 1817:rue La Boétie 1814: 1811: 1807: 1804: 1800: 1797: 1793: 1790: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1768: 1767:Gare de l'Est 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1735: 1732: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1716: 1714: 1712: 1706: 1704: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1649: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1623: 1620: 1615: 1614: 1607: 1606: 1599: 1598: 1591: 1588: 1587: 1580: 1579: 1573: 1568: 1567: 1560: 1559: 1552: 1551: 1544: 1543: 1536: 1535:rue de Lutèce 1530: 1524: 1523: 1517: 1512: 1509: 1508: 1497: 1491: 1490: 1483: 1477: 1471: 1470: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1449: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1432: 1431: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1390: 1385: 1381: 1375: 1369: 1364: 1363: 1362: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1341: 1340: 1333: 1327: 1321: 1315: 1314:places d'Alma 1309: 1305:(the present 1303: 1298: 1295:(the present 1293: 1292:avenue d'Alma 1287: 1286: 1279: 1278: 1272: 1268: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1251: 1244: 1238: 1232: 1226: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1206: 1205: 1204:avenue Kléber 1198: 1197: 1190: 1184: 1178: 1177: 1172:, around the 1170: 1169: 1163: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1145: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1124: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1106: 1100: 1099:rue de Madrid 1094: 1093: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1071: 1065: 1061: 1055: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1024: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1007: 1001: 995: 994: 987: 986: 979: 973: 972: 965: 964: 956: 955: 948: 943: 942: 941: 938: 935: 925: 924: 917: 909: 908: 901: 893: 892: 885: 879: 871: 870: 863: 857: 851: 844: 842: 840: 836: 832: 827: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 799: 796: 792: 788: 784: 778: 776: 772: 768: 765:Emperor. The 762: 760: 756: 751: 747: 743: 739: 734: 732: 728: 724: 720: 712: 708: 704: 700: 695: 688: 687:Rue de Rivoli 683: 676: 669: 667: 661: 658: 654: 650: 645: 641: 637: 633: 628: 624: 620: 611: 604: 602: 600: 594: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 571:rue Rambuteau 568: 564: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 530: 526: 522: 521:Rue de Rivoli 518: 514: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 464: 455: 448: 442: 438: 435:Barricade on 431: 426: 422: 418: 411: 406: 402: 395: 390: 386: 379: 374: 372: 370: 366: 361: 357: 355: 349: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 322: 319: 311: 306: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 267: 262: 260: 255: 253: 248: 247: 245: 244: 241: 231: 230: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 191: 190: 189: 184: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 158: 154: 152: 149: 147: 146:Second Empire 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 107: 106: 102: 98: 97: 94: 87: 82: 76: 70: 65: 58: 54: 50: 43: 39: 35: 30: 24: 19: 4547:Napoleon III 4459: 4452: 4445: 4438: 4423: 4408: 4401: 4394: 4380: 4373: 4360:Napoleon III 4359: 4344: 4329: 4322: 4308: 4294: 4280: 4266: 4259: 4253:Bibliography 4242: 4234: 4229: 4221: 4216: 4208: 4203: 4195: 4190: 4182: 4181:'de Moncan, 4177: 4169: 4153: 4148: 4141: 4136: 4128: 4123: 4111:. 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