Paris in World War II - Knowledge (XXG)

2078:, pretended to be the head of a Resistance network that smuggled Jews from France to Argentina. He collected a large advance from his clients and then instructed them to come to his house, bringing their gold, silver and other valuables with them. After they arrived, he brought them to his consulting room, and, convincing them vaccination was required in order to enter Argentina, gave them a lethal intravenous injection, then watched their slow death in an adjacent room through a spyhole in the door. Afterwards, he cut up their bodies, put the pieces in the well, and dissolved them with quicklime. His activities attracted the attention of the Gestapo, which arrested him in 1943, thus allowing him to claim later that he had been a real member of the Resistance. His crimes were discovered after the Liberation in 1944, and he was charged with the murders of twenty-seven persons, tried in 1946, and sentenced to death. He went to the guillotine on May 25, 1946. The gold, silver and other valuables were not found when he was arrested. In search of the treasure, the house was carefully demolished in 1966, but no trace of it was ever found. 1300: 1795: 2691: 1759: 1219: 2703: 1907: 1231: 2276:. The Germans had routinely taken hostages among the French civilian population to deter attacks. They responded to the Barbés-Rochechouart metro attack by executing three hostages in Paris, and another twenty the following month. Hitler was furious at the leniency of the German commander, and demanded that in case of future assassinations, there must be one hundred hostages executed for every German killed. After the next killing of a German, forty-eight hostages were immediately shot by firing squad. From London, General de Gaulle condemned the Communist policy of random assassinations, saying the cost in innocent civilian lives was too high, and it had no impact on the war, but the random shooting of Germans continued. In retaliation, an estimated 1,400 hostages from the Paris region were taken and 981 executed by the German military at Fort Mont Valérien. 828: 1195: 1783: 1268: 2462: 1771: 790: 2372: 2352: 1747: 414: 1207: 323: 1110: 1102: 1895: 816: 456: 778: 2673: 1288: 398: 1875: 1348: 430: 1332: 1176:, who lived in Paris throughout the war, described his experience: "The great restaurants were only allowed to serve, under the fierce eye of a frequent control, noodles with water, turnips and beets, in exchange for certain number of tickets, but the hunt for a good meal continued for many food-lovers. For five hundred francs one could conquer a good pork chop, hidden under cabbage and served without the necessary tickets, along with a liter of Beaujolais and a real coffee; sometimes it was on the first floor at rue Dauphine, where you could listen to the BBC while sitting next to Picasso." 346:, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda. 1135:, eggs, oil; in July 1941: and as the war went on: chocolate, fish, dried vegetables, (like peas and beans), potatoes, fresh vegetables, wine, tobacco... Products could be bought only upon presentation of coupons attributed to specific items and on the specific week in which they could be used. Parisians (and all the population of France) were divided into seven categories depending upon their age, and allotted a certain amount of each product each month. A new bureaucracy, employing more than nine thousand city employees, with offices at all schools and the city hall of each 2114: 2090: 2102: 2244:. The first issue of the newspaper, proclaimed: "We are independent, simply French, chosen for the action we wish to carry out. We have only one ambition, one passion, one desire: to recreate France, pure and free." They collected information and established a network to help escaped French POWs to flee the country. They were not experienced conspirators, and they were discovered and arrested in January 1941. Vildé and the six other leaders were sentenced to death and executed by firing squad at 1382:

France before leaving the country, but others had left their art collections behind. A new law decreed that those who had left France just before the war were no longer French citizens, and their property could be seized. The Gestapo began visiting bank vaults and empty residences, and collecting the works of art. The pieces left behind in the fifteen largest Jewish-owned art galleries in Paris were also collected, and transported in French police vans. In September, a new organization, the

1032:(May 12th– May 15th 1940). Once the Occupation had begun, they started to return. By July 7th, the city government estimated the population had risen again to 1.5 million; it climbed to two million by October 22nd, and 2.5 million by January 1st 1941. At the beginning of 1943, it fell again, because of air raids by the Allies, the arrest and deportation of Jews and foreigners, and the forced departure to factories in Germany of many young Frenchmen, as part of the 1906: 2425:. Chaban-Delmas reluctantly agreed to participate. Liberation Committees in each neighborhood occupied the government buildings and headquarters of collaborationist newspapers, and put up barricades in the northern and eastern neighborhoods, where the Resistance was the strongest. To the surprise of Henri Rol-Tanguy, the Paris police also joined in the uprising; a thousand policemen occupied the Prefecture of Police, the police headquarters on the 1299: 147: 1183:. Producers and distributors of food and other scarce products set aside a portion of their goods for the black market, and used middle-men to sell them to customers. The bars of the Champs-Élysées, and other parts of Paris, became common meeting places between the middle-men and clients. Parisians bought cigarettes, meat, coffee, wine and other products which frequently neither the middle-man nor the customer had ever seen. 2136:) to continue the resistance against the Germans. Very few heard the broadcast at the time, but it was widely printed and circulated afterwards. On 23 June, the German occupation authorities ordered all French persons to turn in any weapons and short-wave receivers they possessed, or face severe measures. Within Paris, opposition was isolated and slow to build. On 2 August, de Gaulle was condemned to death for treason, 1520:'s. German treasurer officials opened Picasso's bank vault, where he stored his private art collection, searching for Jewish-owned art they could seize. Picasso so confused them with his descriptions of ownership of the paintings that they left without taking anything. He also persuaded them that the paintings in the adjoining vault, owned by Braque, were actually his own. Other "degenerate" artists, including 2548:, the headquarters of General Leclerc, where, at about 3:00 in the billiards room of the station staff, he and Leclerc signed a surrender. Chaban-Delmas and Rol-Tanguy, leader of the FFI, were also present, and it was suggested that Rol-Tanguy should also sign the surrender. Leclerc dictated a new version, and put the name of the FFI leader ahead of his own. The occupation of Paris was officially over. 2718:, who had been living with a German officer, quietly left the country, and did not return for many years. 9,969 persons were arrested. A military tribunal was established for those who had collaborated with the German army and police, and a separate judicial tribunal was set up for economic and political collaborators. Of those arrested, 1,616 were acquitted, and 8,335 were found guilty. In the 25: 1825:. In July, Jews were banned from all main streets, movie theaters, libraries, parks, gardens, restaurants, cafés and other public places, and were required to ride on the last car of metro trains. On 16–17 July 1942, on Germans' orders, 13,152 Jews (4,115 children, 5.919 women and 3,118 men) were rounded up by the French police. Unmarried persons and couples without children were taken to 1946:(MBF). It stated: "The government of France will immediately invite all the French authorities and administrative services in the occupied territories to conform with the regulations of the German military authorities, and to collaborate with those in a correct manner." The prefect of the police and prefect of the Seine, reported to him, and only secondarily to the government of the 281: 2215:

refused to give the names of his friends to the Germans. He was held in jail for nineteen days, taken to court, charged with "an act of violence against a member of the German Army", and sentenced to death. Bonsergent was executed by firing squad on 23 December, the first civilian in France executed for resistance against the Occupation. In 1946, the metro station

1863:. The roundup was considered a failure by the Germans, since they had prepared trains for 32,000 persons. Arrests continued in 1943 and 1944. By the time of the Liberation, it was estimated that 43,000 Jews from the Paris region, or about half the total population of the community, had been sent to the concentration camps, and that 34,000 were murdered there. 2185:, a fascist youth group, and scuffling with police. At 6:00 pm, German soldiers arrived, surrounded the students, and closed the entrance of the metro stations. They charged the students with fixed bayonets, firing shots in the air. The Vichy government announced 123 arrests and one student wounded. The students arrested were taken to the prisons of 1056:, which had been closed down by the French government, asked the Germans for permission to resume publishing, and it was granted. The Party also asked that workers resume work in the armaments factories, which were now producing for the Germans. Many individual communists opposed the Nazis, but the ambivalent official attitude of the Party lasted until 2597: 2371: 506:, were seized by the police and their publication suspended. On August 31st, anticipating bombardment, the French government began to evacuate 30,000 children out of the city to the countryside. That night, street lights were turned off as a measure against German air raids. On 1 September, news reached Paris that Germany had 2351: 1809:, that Jews would have a special status and be barred from liberal professions, such as commerce, industry, thus affecting lawyers, doctors, professors, shop owners, and also be barred from certain restaurants and public places, and that their property was seized. On May 23rd, 1942, the head of the Anti-Jewish section of the 2336: 498:(PCF), welcomed the pact, writing: "At the moment when the Soviet Union makes a new and appreciable contribution to safeguard the peace, constantly threatened by the fascist instigators of war, the French Communist Party addresses its warmest greetings to the country of socialism, to its party and to its great leader 1139:, was put into place to administer the program. The system resulted in long lines and frustrated hopes, since promised products often never appeared. Thousands of Parisians regularly made the long journey by bicycle to the countryside, hoping to come back, with vegetables, fruit, eggs and other farm products. 1218: 2214:

Another incident took place on 10 November; a 28-year-old French engineer named Jacques Bonsergent and his friends, coming home from a wedding, ran into a group of German soldiers in the blackout and got into a brawl. A German soldier was punched. Bonsergent's friends escaped, but he was arrested and

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factory went directly to Germany. (Later many of these trucks were cleverly sabotaged by the French workers, who recalibrated the dip sticks so that the trucks would run out of oil without warning). Most shipments of meat, wheat, milk produce and other agricultural products also went to Germany. What

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on August 26th, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On April 29th and May 13th 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French

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making getting food into Paris a problem, especially since the Germans had stripped Paris of its resources for themselves. Many Parisians were desperate, and Allied soldiers even used their own meagre rations to help. The Allies realised the necessity to get Paris back on its feet, and pushed a plan

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The metro ran, but service was frequently interrupted and the cars were overcrowded. Three thousand five hundred buses had run on the Paris streets in 1939, but only five hundred were still running in the autumn of 1940. Bicycle-taxis became popular, and their drivers charged a high tariff. Bicycles

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The British General Staff urged the French to defend Paris street-by-street, but Pétain dismissed the idea: "To make Paris into a city of ruins will not affect the issue." On June 12th, the French government, in Tours, declared Paris to be an open city, that there would be no resistance. At 5:30 in

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At the time of the uprising, most of elite German units had left the city, but twenty-thousand German soldiers remained, armed with about eighty tanks and sixty artillery pieces. While the Resistance had about twenty-thousand fighters, they had only sixty hand guns, a few machine guns, and no heavy

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For the Parisians, the Occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was initiated in September 1940. Every year the supplies

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In the spring of 1939, war with Germany already seemed inevitable. In Paris, the first defense exercise took place on February 2nd 1939 and city workers began digging twenty kilometers of trenches in city squares and parks to be used for bomb shelters. On 10th of March, the city began to distribute

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and refused to transfer the works in French museums out of the country, but the Nazi leaders were not so scrupulous. On 30 June 1940, Hitler ordered that all art works in France, public and private, should be "safeguarded". Many of the French wealthy Jewish families had sent their art works out of

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Finding food soon became the first preoccupation of the Parisians. The authorities of the German occupation transformed French industry and agriculture into a machine for serving Germany. Shipments to Germany had first priority; what was left went to Paris and the rest of France. All of the trucks

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The beginning of the STO, the program that required large number of young Frenchmen to work in factories for the German war industry, in exchange for the return of older and sick French prisoners of war in Germany, greatly increased the resentment of the French population against the Germans. Most

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The attitude of the Parisians toward the occupiers varied greatly. Some saw the Germans as an easy source of money; others, as the Prefect of the Seine, Roger Langeron (arrested on June 23rd 1940), commented, "looked at them as if they were invisible or transparent." The attitude of members of the

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On the evening of June 16th, Prime Minister Reynaud resigned. On the morning of June 17th, General de Gaulle left Bordeaux by plane for London. At midday, Parisians gathered around radios heard Pétain, the new head of the French government, announce: "It is with a heavy heart that I tell you today

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Immediately following the liberation of the city, Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were punished. Women who had been accused of allegedly sleeping with German soldiers had their heads shaved and were humiliated. Most of the accusers were men, and many of these women were targets of

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to support them. The 2nd Armored Division set out early in the morning of 23 August with 16,000 men, 4,200 vehicles and 200 tanks. By the afternoon of the 24th, they were in the western and southern Paris suburbs. On 23 August, Leclerc had sent a small column of three tanks and eleven halftracks,

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Finding coal for heat in winter was another preoccupation. The Germans had transferred the authority over the coal mines of northern France from Paris to their military headquarters in Brussels. The priority for the coal that did arrive in Paris was for use in factories. Even with ration cards,

2414:. Only twenty-seven returned. On the same day, the Paris police learned that policemen in the suburbs were being disarmed by the Germans; they immediately went on strike. In Paris, most of the electricity and gas were cut off, there was little food available, and the metro had stopped running. 1164:

Paris restaurants were open but had to deal with strict regulations and shortages. Meat could only be served on certain days, and certain products, such as cream, coffee and fresh produce were extremely rare. Nonetheless, the restaurants found ways to serve their regular clients. The historian

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toward the center. They were followed by several German columns, which, following an established plan, moved to the principal intersections. German military vehicles with loudspeakers circulated, instructing Parisians not to leave their buildings. At eight in the morning, delegations of German

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Many Parisians collaborated with the Government of Marshal Pétain and with the Germans, assisting them with city administration, the police, and other government functions. French government officials were given the choice of collaborating or losing their jobs. On September 2, 1941, all Paris

2268:, the German attack on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, they became among the most active and best-organized forces against the Germans. They remained hostile to de Gaulle, whom they denounced as a reactionary British puppet. On 21st of August 1941, a 21-year-old veteran communist named 1758: 2285:

decided to protest the arrest of one of their teachers. About one hundred students took part, chanting the teacher's name and throwing leaflets. The demonstrators escaped, but the police tracked down and arrested the five student leaders, who were tried and executed on February 8, 1943.

2560:"Paris! Paris humiliated! Paris broken! Paris martyred! But now Paris liberated! Liberated by herself, by her own people with the help of the armies of France, with the support and aid of France as a whole, of fighting France, of the only France, of the true France, of eternal France." 789: 397: 2690: 429: 2518:). Then he went to the Prefecture of Police for a meeting with de Gaulle's representative, Chaban-Delmas. The main force of Leclerc's 2nd Armored Division and the U.S. 4th Infantry Division entered the city on the morning of the 25th. There was fierce resistance near the 674:. Thousands of Parisians followed their example, filling the roads out of the city with automobiles, tourist buses, trucks, wagons, carts, bicycles, and on foot. The slow-moving river of refugees took ten hours to cover thirty kilometers. Within a few days, the wealthier 2533:

General von Choltitz was an unrepentant Nazi, and had been ordered by Hitler to leave the city a "heap of burning ruins", but he also realized the battle was lost, and he did not want to be captured by the Resistance. Through the offices of the Swedish Consul-General,

2335: 1874: 338:, but the war seemed far away until May 10th 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on June 10th, and the Germans occupied the city on June 14th. During the occupation, the French government 2289:

As the war continued, the Resistance was divided largely between the groups, followers of General de Gaulle in London, and those organized by the Communists. Thanks to pressure from the British, who supplied the weapons, and the diplomacy of one Resistance leader,

1267: 1230: 1794: 1782: 2402:. German soldiers fired into the air, but the French police did nothing. On 10 August, half of the eighty thousand railroad workers in the Paris region went on strike, stopping all railroad traffic. On 15 August, the new German commander of Paris, General 1194: 1746: 2660:

Airport before being convoyed in. At least 500 tons were delivered a day by the British and another 500 tons by the Americans. Along with French civilians outside Paris bringing in indigenous resources, within ten days the food crisis was overcome.

708:, and at the Prefecture of Police, where the Prefect, Roger Langeron, was waiting. The Germans politely invited the French officials to put themselves at the disposition of the German occupiers. By the end of the afternoon, the Germans had hung a 413: 2551:

De Gaulle arrived in Paris two hours later. He met first with Leclerc, complaining to him that Rol-Tanguy had signed the surrender. He then went to the Ministry of War, and insisted that the FFI leaders come to him, but in the end he went to the

2051: 1770: 1622:, next to the gardens of the Palais-Royal. Her husband, Maurice Goudeket, a Jew, was arrested by the Gestapo in December 1941, and although he was released after a few months through the intervention of the French wife of the German ambassador 2263:

in August 1939, until June 1941, the Communists played no active part in the Resistance. The Vichy government and Germans allowed their newspapers to publish, and they made no mention of the patriotic demonstrations on November 11. But after

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in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on August 25th; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the

1347: 827: 2101: 2177:, the symbol of de Gaulle's Free France. They were chased away by the police. At nightfall, the event became more provocative; some three thousand students gathered, chanting "Vive La France" and "Vive l'Angleterre", and invading 2010:. Its particular function was to help the Germans in their battle against the Resistance, which they qualified as being a "terrorist" organization. It established its headquarters in the former Communist Party building at 44 815: 2255:

on walls, blackboards, tables, and on the side of cars. The Germans tried to co-opt the 'V' campaign, placing huge Vs. symbolizing their own victories, on the Eiffel Tower and the National Assembly, but with little effect.

1287: 2302:(CNR)), the different factions began to coordinate their actions. In early 1944, as the Normandy invasion approached, the Communists and their allies controlled the largest and best-armed resistance groups in Paris: the 2439:, walked into the City Hall of Paris and demanded a transfer of operations. The building was then occupied by the resistance. Rol-Tanguy commanded the uprising from a bunker twenty-six meters beneath the statue of the 1087:

Parisians, however, only expressed their anger and frustrations in private, while the police of Paris, under German control, received every day hundreds of anonymous denunciations by Parisians against other Parisians.

2768: 1331: 849: 2147:, a day that usually featured patriotic ceremonies of remembrance. Anticipating trouble, the German authorities banned any commemoration and made it a regular school and work day. Nonetheless, the students of Paris 2655:

of SHAEF authorised the import of up to 2,400 tons of food per day at the expense of the military effort. A British food convoy labelled 'Vivres Pour Paris' entered on August 29, and US supplies were flown in via

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and the Resistance; prisoners were executed on both sides. The Resistance took weapons from fallen Germans, and even captured trucks and even tanks, but neither side had enough military power to defeat the other.

2203:, where they were beaten, slapped, stripped, and made to stand all night in the pouring rain. Some students were threatened by soldiers pretending to be a firing squad. As a consequence of the demonstration, the 1894: 455: 1374: 1206: 777: 1467:

cataloged 218 major collections. Between April 1941 and July 1944, 4,174 cases of art works filling 138 boxcars, were shipped from Paris to Germany. Much of the art, but not all, was recovered after the war.

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The rationing system also applied to clothing: leather was reserved exclusively for German army boots, and vanished completely from the market. Leather shoes were replaced by shoes made of rubber or canvas

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By the time that the Germans arrived in Paris, two-thirds of the Parisians, particularly those in the wealthier neighborhoods, had fled to the countryside and the south of France, in what is known as the

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About 2,000 Parisians were killed in the liberation of their capital, along with about 800 Resistance fighters from the FFI and policemen, and over 100 soldiers from the Free France and U.S. forces.

581:, while in Paris ration cards for gasoline were issued, restrictions were put on the sale of meat and, in February 1940, ration cards for food were issued; however, cafés and theatres remained open. 361:. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on November 11 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the 2421:, the National Council of the Resistance and the Parisian Committee on Liberation jointly called for an immediate uprising. It was commanded by the regional leader of the Communist-led FFI, Colonel 2113: 1249:

came back into service. Trucks and automobiles that did circulate often used gazogene, a poor-quality fuel carried in a tank on the roof, or coal gas or methane, extracted from the Paris sewers.

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The Allies had originally planned to bypass Paris, to avoid street fighting and the necessity of feeding a huge population. However, when news of the uprising in Paris reached them, Generals

927:("everyone once in Paris"), each German soldier was promised one visit to Paris. One month after the beginning of the Occupation, a bi-monthly magazine and guide for visiting German soldiers 1725:

The French film industry, based in suburbs of Paris, had a very difficult existence due to shortages of personnel, film and food, but it produced several genuine masterpieces, among which:

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and began to advance toward and around Paris. German control over Paris was already breaking down. One hundred thousand Parisians had turned out on 14 July for a prohibited celebration of

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From the very beginning of the Occupation, Jews in Paris were treated with particular harshness. On October 18th, 1940, the German occupation authorities decreed, in what is known as the

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Due to the shortage of fuel, the number of automobiles on the Paris streets dropped from 350,000 before the war to just under 4,500. One customer, sitting on the terrace of a café on the

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gas masks to civilians, and on March 19th, signs were posted guiding Parisians to the nearest shelters. On August 23rd, Parisians were surprised to read that the German foreign minister,

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One of the greatest art thefts in history took place in Paris during the Occupation, as the Nazis looted the art of Jewish collectors on a grand scale. Great masterpieces in the Louvre

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The Liberation did not immediately bring peace to Paris; a thousand persons were killed and injured by a German bombing raid on August 26, the city and region suffered from attacks by

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and other exclusive restaurants, as the exchange rate was fixed to favor the German occupiers. Many houses of prostitution existed in Paris and they began to cater to German clients.

1075:, was living semi-secretly in Paris, and was astonished by the level of ignorance shown by Marxist members of the resistance that he met, and in consequence he introduced the term " 2461: 2526:, in which some French soldiers were killed and tanks destroyed. By the end of the morning, the Germans had been overcome and a large French tricolor flag was hoisted on the 2754:, a new ordinance set the date for the first municipal elections since the war began. They were held on 29 April, and for the first time French women were allowed to vote. 2651:

for food convoys to get through to the capital as soon as possible. In addition, surrounding towns and villages were requested to supply as much of Paris as possible. The

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on November 3 and returned on the 5th, spending the entire day there, picking out works for his private collection. He selected twenty-seven paintings, including works by

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The political life of the city was gradually renewed, under the close watch of General de Gaulle. On August 27, the Council of Ministers held its first meeting at the

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since 1940. In October, a provisional municipal council was established, but it did not formally meet until March and April 1945. The first issue of a new newspaper,

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flew over all the French government buildings. Signs in German were placed on the main boulevards, and the clocks of all France were reset to the German time. The

4216: 2161:. The event was also announced on the 10th on the BBC. The day began quietly, as some 20,000 students laid wreaths and bouquets at the tomb and at the statue of 538:

department stores, began cataloging and packing the major works of art, which were put into crates and labeled only with numbers to disguise their contents. The

2273: 2173:. This part of the day was tolerated by the French and German authorities. At midday, the demonstration became more provocative; some students carried a floral 3836: 1528:, who sent drawings up to Paris from his residence in Nice, were officially condemned but continued to sell their works in the back rooms of Paris galleries. 369:

in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

322: 2034:. At the time of the Liberation of Paris in August 1944, most of its members chose to fight alongside the Germans and many of them made their way to Germany ( 1494:. He frequently received visitors at his studio, including Germans, some admiring and some suspicious. He had postcards made of his famous anti-fascist work, 1920:, a French fascist paramilitary organization created on 28 February 1943 to fight the French Resistance. Its active collaborationist police was known as the 1028:, the massive exodus of millions of people from the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the north and east of France, fleeing after the German victory of the 4030: 1109: 1101: 309: 1539:

chose, for political or personal reasons, to leave Paris, but many others remained, avoided politics and focused on their art. These included the actor

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beginning on September 3; food rationing and other restrictions remained in force through the end of the war, but the climate of fear had disappeared.

2240:, a four-page newspaper which gave its name to the movement that followed. The group was led by the Russian-born (French naturalized) anthropologist 1626:, Colette lived through the rest of the war years with the anxiety of a possible second arrest. In 1944, she published one of her most famous works, 1256:

Transportation problems did not end with the liberation of Paris; the shortage of gasoline and lack of transport continued until well after the war.

1245:, counted the number of cars which passed between noon and twelve-thirty: only three came by. Older means of transportation, such as the horse-drawn 1843:, where they were crowded together in the heat of summer, with hardly any food, water and no hygienic facilities for five days before being sent to 2453:. Parisians cut down trees and tore up paving stones to build barricades. Scattered sniping and street fighting broke out between the Germans, the 1452:, was reserved for Hitler himself. Fifteen railroad boxcars full of artworks were sent to Germany with Göring's personal train. Göring visited the 1942:, governed by Marshal Pétain and his ministers, the document of surrender placed Paris in the occupied zone, directly under German authority, the 1431: 213: 2341:

The uprising against the Germans in Paris began on 19 August 1944, with the takeover of the police headquarters and other government buildings (

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Confiscations continued at banks, warehouses and private residences, with paintings, furniture, statues, clocks and jewelry accumulating at the

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in Paris, these units operated in accordance with the RHSA and the SS capturing resistance fighters and Allied agents, as well as rounding up

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was arrested and deported, most likely because of his relationship with a German officer whom he did not want to name. He was murdered at the

3815: 3750: 3727: 3627: 2722:, the two tribunals sentenced 598 collaborators to death, of whom 116 were executed; the others, who had escaped from France, were condemned 2647: 2107:

Poster announcing that the Germans will take hostages in retaliation for attacks on German soldiers, 21 August 1941 (Gallica Digital Library)

1607:. He refused but did perform for French prisoners of war in Germany, and succeeded in obtaining the liberation of ten prisoners in exchange. 264: 652:, as deputy prime minister. Neither Weygand nor Pétain felt the Germans could be defeated, and they began looking for a way out of the war. 3797: 2486: 1439: 181: 2615: 2607: 4020: 2708:

Musicians perform in the streets of Paris in the spring of 1945. The crowd includes several allied soldiers (Imperial War Museums, U.K.)

2216: 3542:. United States Army in World War II: Special Studies. Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. pp. 774–75 1704:

The Germans made a continual effort to seduce the Parisians through culture: in 1941, they organized a festival of German music by the

3769: 2503: 2295: 2272:, who used the clandestine name "Fabien", shot a German naval officer, Alfons Moser, in the back, as he was boarding the metro at the 1978: 1378: 196: 3701: 3682: 3265: 2633: 1856: 1392: 1338: 735:

that we must cease hostilities. The fighting must stop." Though no armistice had yet been signed, the French army stopped fighting.

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On June 18th 1940, Parisians listening to the BBC heard an obscure French brigadier General, Charles de Gaulle, in London, make an

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The French defense plan was purely passive, waiting for the Germans to attack. After eight months of relative calm (known as the

1500:, to hand out as souvenirs to visitors, and had serious discussions of art and politics with visiting Germans, including writer 3863: 2058:

pretended to run a Resistance network, and killed, for their treasure, Jews and others trying to escape to Argentina. (Unknown)

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Horse-drawn coaches in front of the National Assembly, decorated with slogan: "Germany is winning on all fronts" (Bundesarchiv)

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The first significant Resistance organization in Paris was formed in September 1940 by a group of scholars connected with the

534: 353:, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On July 16–17 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were 4211: 3661: 3281: 2318:(D-Day), the FFI prepared to launch an uprising to liberate the city before the Allied Armies and General de Gaulle arrived. 1180: 1096: 1034: 302: 191: 68: 46: 2646:

During the liberation, food in Paris was getting scarcer by the day. The French rail network had largely been destroyed by

4148: 2751: 2478: 2407: 2358: 2309: 2144: 1676: 403:

In 1940, the French army built barricades of sandbags on some Paris streets, but they were never used (Frank Capra's film

2881: 2538:, he ignored Hitler's orders and arranged a truce. In the afternoon of the 25th he traveled from his headquarters in the 1161:

adequate coal for heating was almost impossible to find. Supplies for normal heating needs were not restored until 1949.

1079:" to refer to a systematic scholarly approach to the understanding of Marx and Marxism, which he perceived to be needed. 4143: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3940: 2071: 1860: 1848: 1840: 989: 679: 598: 577:

The architectural landmarks of the city were protected by sandbags. The French Army waited in the fortifications of the

539: 358: 201: 2260: 2000:

The Germans supported the creation by Vichy France, on February 28th 1943, of a fascist paramilitary organization, the

1047: 75: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 2304: 2251:

Most of the resistance by ordinary Parisians was symbolic: encouraged by the BBC, students scribbled the letter V for

1127:(Ministry of Agriculture and Supply), which began to impose a system of rationing as early as August 2nd 1940, as per 2684:, the German military headquarters, shortly after the Liberation. (National Archives and Records Administration, USA) 566:. The art works were carried in slow convoys of trucks, convoys, with headlights off to observe the blackout, to the 935:. Certain hotels and movie theaters were reserved exclusively for German soldiers. A German-language newspaper, the 1985:. Many of its member were captured at the end of the war and executed. The Nazi security agencies also established 1954: 1852: 1171: 660:

On 8 June, the sound of distant artillery fire could be heard in the capital. Trains filled with refugees departed

542:

statue was carefully wheeled down the long stairway on a wooden ramp to be put on a truck for its departure to the

186: 57: 35: 4008: 1253:

became the means of transport for many Parisians, and their price soared; a used bicycle cost a month's salary.

617:. On May 28th, the British realized the battle was lost and began withdrawing their soldiers from the beaches of 295: 249: 171: 166: 161: 126: 4064: 543: 4111: 4042: 3883: 1490: 1444: 1358: 156: 1830: 1764:

A German sign outside a Paris restaurant announces that Jews are not admitted (Bundesarchiv, 1 September 1940)

1166: 557: 354: 518:

On August 27th, in anticipation of air raids, workmen had begun taking down the stained glass windows of the

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parades on the Champs-Élysées on 26 August 1944. (Kodachrome by Jack Downey, U.S. Office of War Information)

2019: 1517: 742:

arrived on June 24th for a rapid tour by car, his only visit to Paris. He was guided by the German sculptor

552: 259: 2714:

revenge, or a way that actual collaborators could take the focus off themselves. Some Parisians, including

2564:

The following day, de Gaulle, on foot, towering over everyone in the crowd, led a triumphal march from the

2679: 1844: 1826: 1661: 1400:

used by the Louvre for temporary exhibits. More than four hundred crates of art works were brought to the

1068: 1043: 1029: 853: 495: 477: 362: 2226: 2151:(high schools) circulated handbills and leaflets calling for students to boycott classes and meet at the 1829:, some 20 kilometers north of Paris, while 8,160 men, women and children comprising families went to the 4025: 2975: 2418: 2403: 1694: 1685:

Some places in Paris were frequented by homosexual actors and artists; notably the swimming pool in the

1513: 254: 244: 3183: 2245: 888: 3017:"Décret du 30 juillet 1940 RATIONNEMENT DE CERTAINES DENREES : SUCRE, PATES, RIZ, SAVON, GRAISSE" 2143:

The first illegal demonstration in Paris against the Occupation took place on November 11th 1940, the

1888:, the German police commander in Paris, responsible for the Gestapo and SS, May 1, 1943 (Bundesarchiv) 923:

Paris became the primary destination for the rest and recreation of German soldiers. Under the slogan

2470: 2427: 2265: 1990: 1730: 1083:

grew more scarce and the prices higher. The French press and radio broadcast only German propaganda.

1057: 961: 845: 662: 382: 208: 176: 1046:

was more complicated; the Party had long denounced Nazism and Fascism, but after the signing of the

4123: 3856: 2773: 2327: 2231: 2204: 2192: 1705: 1496: 1131:: bread, fat, flour products, rice, sugar; then, on 23 October 1940: butter, cheese, meat, coffee, 981: 877: 759: 82: 1788:

The Synagogue of Montmartre and several others were attacked and vandalized in 1941.(Bundesarchiv)

1236:

The pedi-cab, or bicycle taxi, was still in use in the spring of 1945 (Imperial War Museums, U.K.)

4128: 4096: 4091: 4076: 2719: 2450: 2391: 2162: 1935: 1821:. On May 29th, 1942, all Jews in the Occupied Zone over the age of six were required to wear the 1640: 1274: 562: 507: 485: 481: 437: 335: 3534: 2523: 2435:

weapons. Nonetheless, on the morning of 20 August, a small group of Resistance fighters, led by

2186: 1123:

remained for the Parisians was strictly rationed, following the creation on 16 June 1940 of the

645: 3694:

The Rape of Europa - the fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War

3459: 2279:

Acts of resistance in Paris became more dangerous. In the spring of 1942, five students of the

4085: 4003: 3811: 3793: 3765: 3746: 3723: 3697: 3678: 3657: 3645: 3623: 3261: 3257: 3016: 2740: 2724: 2545: 2378: 2315: 2174: 2129: 1974: 1962: 1652: 1648: 1574: 1521: 1411: 1397: 1050:

on August 23rd 1939, had to reverse direction. The editors of the Communist Party newspaper,

1023: 977: 957: 377: 373: 366: 239: 3649: 3640:(2015), examines lives of ordinary Parisians as well as collaborationists and the Resistance. 1735:("Children of Paradise") which was filmed during the Occupation but not released until 1945. 1679:

interrogating her after the Liberation: "My heart is French, but my a-- is international." '

4185: 4155: 4118: 4106: 4081: 4071: 4059: 4047: 2540: 2422: 1986: 1709: 1686: 1667: 1644: 1636: 1564: 1293:

The Paris Opera decorated with swastikas for a festival of German music, 1941 (Bundesarchiv)

1072: 911: 867: 857: 269: 135: 2696:

Women accused of sleeping with Germans had their heads shaved (Bundesarchiv, June 21, 1944)

1052: 490: 2732: 2499: 2395: 2157: 2152: 1752:

Poster for an official anti-semitic exposition, "The Jew and France", (Bundesarchiv, 1941)

1579: 1318: 1200:

A car converted to run on coal gas instead of gasoline (1945) (Imperial War Museums, U.K.)

1105:

Line outside a Paris bakery in spring 1945. The liberation did not end the food shortages.

1065: 1008:, two professional criminals who had been active in the French underworld before the war. 713: 649: 637: 622: 614: 519: 2511: 2281: 2207:

University was closed, students were required to regularly report to the police, and the

1726: 1509: 1501: 1973:(or French Gestapo) which was used to conduct counter-insurgency operations against the 666:

with no announced destination. On June 10th, the French government fled Paris, first to

4160: 4133: 4052: 3849: 2763: 2535: 2491: 2436: 2382: 2269: 2241: 2198: 2038:) when Paris fell to the Allies. Those who did not leave were the target of the purge ( 2023: 1814: 1628: 1556: 1505: 1477: 1113:

Potatoes and leeks on sale in a Paris market. There was little else to buy. Spring 1945

1005: 969: 751: 641: 528: 146: 3739: 1375:

had already been evacuated to the châteaux of the Loire Valley and the unoccupied zone

4205: 3250: 2652: 2519: 2208: 2063: 2055: 1994: 1817:, gave secret orders for the deportation of French Jews to the concentration camp of 1776:

Jewish women were required to wear a yellow Star of David (Bundesarchiv, 1 June 1942)

1548: 1525: 1481: 916: 726:, primarily for the benefit of the German army photographers and newsreel cameramen. 701: 499: 285: 2308:(FTP). In February 1944, the FTP became part of a larger umbrella organization, the 996:(or French Gestapo) and were active between 1941 and 1944. The group was founded by 4013: 3888: 3562:"Writer: "This Picture Tells a Tragic Story of What Happened to Women After D-Day"" 3315: 2527: 2474: 2399: 2095:

First issue of the underground newspaper 'Résistance', 15 December 1940 (SiefkinDR)

1947: 1939: 1881: 1822: 1560: 1544: 1368: 1322: 1061: 1001: 997: 882: 835: 755: 747: 739: 709: 633: 602: 578: 571: 446: 350: 339: 1934:

magistrates were asked to take an oath of allegiance to Marshal Petain. Only one,

939:(1941–1944), was also published for the soldiers. The German officers enjoyed the 3672: 2022:

was occupied as barracks, and an officer candidate school was established in the

4175: 2715: 2291: 2035: 1969:, worked closely with the French Police and its auxiliaries. It established the 1719: 1690: 1536: 1152: 1144: 743: 722: 705: 442: 24: 1604: 1488:, north of Bordeaux. He returned to Paris and resumed working in his studio on 1151:

or substitute products appeared, which were not exactly what they were called:

821:

New signs show way to German headquarters of Greater Paris, 1940 (Bundesarchiv)

502:". In Paris, the copies of the newspaper and of the other Communist newspaper, 4138: 3831: 3561: 2889: 2657: 1885: 1623: 1552: 1532: 1314: 945: 796: 763: 626: 621:. Paris was soon flooded with refugees from the battle zone. On June 3rd, the 590: 2556:, where he gave a memorable speech to a huge crowd of Parisians, concluding: 2417:

On 19 August, against the opposition of de Gaulle's representative in Paris,

1456:

twelve more times in 1941, and five times in 1942, adding to his collection.

691:

the morning of June 14th, the first German advance guard entered the city at

2050: 1970: 1818: 1540: 1435: 1423: 1406: 1362:

was stolen from the Rothschild family by the Nazis and given to Adolf Hitler

1076: 993: 898: 872: 618: 1643:

produced a broadcast on the history of the music hall for Radio Paris; and

526:, summoned back from summer vacation, and aided by packers from the nearby 326:

German soldiers parade on the Champs Élysées on 14 June 1940 (Bundesarchiv)

2494:, to enter the heart of the city. By 9:00 pm. Dronne had reached the 1179:

The restrictions and shortage of goods led to the existence of a thriving

678:

of the city were nearly deserted, and the population of the working-class

2750:, was published on December 18, 1944. On April 13, 1945, just before the 2746: 1427: 671: 606: 2236:. On December 15th, using the museum mimeograph machine, they published 2577: 2381:

leads the parade celebrating the liberation of Paris the previous day.

1966: 1810: 1656: 1611: 1449: 1353: 1119: 973: 903: 1924:, whose members, above, swear allegiance to the organization. (Photo: 1651:

made a tour to Berlin, in exchange for the liberation of her husband,

762:, paid homage at Napoleon's tomb, and visited the artist's quarter of 629:

automobile factory. 254 persons were killed, including 195 civilians.

4190: 2769:

German military administration in occupied France during World War II

2006: 1800:

A Jewish-owned shop in the Marais, wrecked in May 1941 (Bundesarchiv)

1600: 1476:

While some painters left Paris, many remained and continued working.

1278: 862: 844:

During the Occupation, the French Government moved to Vichy, and the

523: 3837:'Paris Underground: Subterranean Resistance and the Nazi Occupation' 609:. By May 15th, German panzer divisions were only 35 kilometers from 1341:

became a storehouse for art stolen from Jewish families (TCY, 2007)

3872: 2460: 2049: 1485: 1108: 1100: 910:; and the German commandant of Paris and his staff moved into the 667: 613:, in the rear of the French and British armies, racing toward the 547: 343: 331: 1596: 1480:

returned to Paris in autumn 1940 and quietly continued working.

1390:) was created to catalog and store the art. It was moved to the 625:

and its suburbs for the first time, targeting in particular the

610: 3845: 2925:"Le Guide du soldat allemand à Paris, ou comment occuper Fritz" 2576:, then to the cathedral of Notre-Dame, where he took part in a 2385:

is second from the right. (Unknown, Imperial War Museums, U.K.)

1900:

A Paris policeman salutes a German officer (Bundesarchiv, 1941)

2590: 1434:, as well as stained glass windows and furniture intended for 931:(The German Guide to Paris), was first published by the Paris 783:

German Luftwaffe soldiers at a Paris café, 1941 (Bundesarchiv)

18: 3188:"mon cœur est français mais mon cul est international !" 1997:. Prisoners were routinely tortured by the Special Brigades. 1693:

was officially harassed for his homosexuality, and the actor

3040: 3038: 2248:, in the western suburbs of the city, on February 22, 1942. 601:, the Germans struck France on May 10th 1940, bypassing the 3652:. In Sartori, Eva Martin; Zimmerman, Dorothy Wynne (eds.). 2820: 2818: 1958: 1655:, a Dominican diplomat suspected of espionage. The actress 965: 716:

and organized military parades with a marching band on the

510:, and France as expected promptly declared war on Germany. 3282:"Depth of French police collaboration with Nazis revealed" 3327: 3325: 2999: 2997: 3841: 3079: 3077: 1675:

officer, and gave the famous riposte to a member of the

2850: 2848: 1614:, who was 67 when the war began, worked quietly on her 1463:, and filling the whole ground floor. The staff at the 1377:, and were safe. The German Army was respectful of the 3790:

Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation

3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 2062:

The most notorious criminal of the period was Doctor

1000:, a corrupt ex-policeman. It was subsequently led by 2835: 2833: 1157:

wine, coffee (made with chicory), tobacco and soap.

3620:

The Resistance - the French fight against the Nazis

3068: 423:

march on Avenue Foch on 14 June 1940 (Bundesarchiv)

334:started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when 49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3832:Documentary footage of liberation of Paris in 1944 3738: 3533:Coles, Harry Lewis; Weinberg, Albert Katz (1964). 3249: 2882:"Deutsche Wehrmacht - Parade über die avenue foch" 2514:, commander of the Paris committee of liberation ( 1671:, had a relationship with Hans Jürgen Soehring, a 1438:, the luxurious hunting lodge he had built in the 704:, headquarters of the military governor of Paris, 556:were used to move the larger paintings, including 3144:With Love, the Autobiography of Maurice Chevalier 1321:, Schiller Theater Intendant; and German actress 357:, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the 336:Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland 550:department. Trucks used to move scenery for the 1442:in Germany. Another Rothschild-owned painting, 1125:Ministère de l'agriculture et du ravitaillement 2870:(1970), J. Tallandier, volume VII, pp. 260-265 2465:Memorial to those fallen during the liberation 1212:Luftwaffe officers on the Metro (Bundesarchiv) 866:(German military intelligence), took over the 750:, both of whom had lived in Paris. He saw the 3857: 3155: 2145:anniversary of the end of the First World War 2030:held a large rally on April 11th 1943 at the 1504:. While his work was officially condemned as 441:on 23 June 1940. To his left is the sculptor 303: 8: 2976:"Marx Myths & Legends: Maximilien Rubel" 2678:German officers and staff, prisoners at the 1508:, his paintings continued to be sold at the 2119:Resistance fighters in Paris, August 1944 ( 1682:Jewish actors were not allowed to perform. 902:, the French auxiliary organization of the 3864: 3850: 3842: 3226:, Éditeur Albin Michel (1981), pp. 310-313 1647:worked at a publishing house. The actress 636:dismissed his supreme military commander, 310: 296: 120: 3167: 2634:Learn how and when to remove this message 972:. French auxiliaries, who worked for the 109:Learn how and when to remove this message 3536:Civil Affairs: Soldiers Become Governors 3131: 3119: 3107: 3095: 2880:Deustche Volksunion (28 February 2012). 2809: 2392:Allies landed at Normandy on 6 June 1944 2004:, whose active police branch was called 1977:. Its cadre, which were mostly from the 1718:, and an exhibit by the German sculptor 640:, and replaced him with the 73-year-old 321: 3520: 3003: 2824: 2790: 2668: 2331: 2140:, by Marshal Pétain's new government. 2085: 1870: 1742: 1263: 1190: 773: 393: 231: 134: 123: 3596: 3584: 3422: 3386: 3235: 3083: 3056: 3044: 2962: 2854: 2797: 2230:, the ethnology museum located at the 349:Jews in Paris were forced to wear the 4217:French home front during World War II 3331: 1573:for German and French fans. In 1941, 833:German soldiers in Montmartre at the 7: 3745:. Presses Universitaires de France. 3508: 3496: 3484: 3446: 3434: 3410: 3398: 3374: 3362: 3343: 3299:Paris dans les pas des grands hommes 3198: 2839: 1708:at the Paris Opera, a play from the 47:adding citations to reliable sources 1938:, refused. Unlike the territory of 1543:, the film director and playwright 1410:personnel, unpacked and cataloged. 435:Adolf Hitler on the terrace of the 3779:Héron de Villefosse, René (1959). 3180:The Oxford History of World Cinema 2606:tone or style may not reflect the 2504:National Council of the Resistance 2296:National Council of the Resistance 1944:Militärbefehlshabers in Frankreich 1859:internment camps, preludes to the 1388:Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg 1379:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 1305:After a performance of Schiller's 1147:) with wooden soles. A variety of 1038:(STO), "Obligatory Work Service". 14: 3762:Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris 2508:Conseil national de la Résistance 2300:Conseil National de la Résistance 2066:. Petiot purchased a house at 21 1484:spent most of 1939 in a villa in 1393:Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume 1339:Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume 1281:, October 10, 1940 (Bundesarchiv) 682:dropped from 178,000 to 49,000. 3808:Dictionnaire Historique de Paris 3656:. University of Nebraska Press. 3211:Dictionnaire historique de Paris 2923:Hetch, Emmanuel (October 2013). 2911:Dictionnaire historique de Paris 2701: 2689: 2671: 2616:guide to writing better articles 2595: 2516:Comité parisien de la Libération 2485:to Paris, and sent the American 2370: 2363:Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque 2350: 2334: 2311:Forces françaises de l'intérieur 2112: 2100: 2088: 1905: 1893: 1873: 1793: 1781: 1769: 1757: 1745: 1639:continued to write and publish; 1384:Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce 1346: 1330: 1298: 1286: 1266: 1229: 1217: 1205: 1193: 929:Der Deutsche Wegleiter für Paris 876:(German Air Force) occupied the 826: 814: 801:at changing of the guard at the 788: 776: 644:. He also named the 84-year-old 574:and other designated locations. 522:. The same day, curators at the 454: 428: 412: 396: 386:women voted for the first time. 279: 145: 23: 3792:. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. 1570:Quintette du Hot Club de France 514:Safeguarding national treasures 355:rounded up by the French police 34:needs additional citations for 3305:, October–November 2015, p. 78 3146:, (Cassell, 1960), Chapter 22. 2449:, which communicated with the 2028:Front révolutionnaire national 2002:Front révolutionnaire national 1918:Front révolutionnaire national 1912:11 April 1943: Meeting at the 1699:Flossenbürg concentration camp 1599:asked Chevalier to perform in 1097:Black market in wartime France 1091:Rationing and the black market 1035:Service du travail obligatoire 906:, occupied the building at 93 449:, his architect (Bundesarchiv) 1: 1635:The philosopher and novelist 1577:performed a new revue in the 1317:, Reich organization leader; 1313:in 1941, from left to right: 809:, October 1940 (Bundesarchiv) 494:, the daily newspaper of the 1861:Auschwitz extermination camp 1835:("Vel' d'Hiv'") stadium, on 990:16th arrondissement of Paris 850:German military high command 746:and by his chief architect, 540:Winged Victory of Samothrace 359:Auschwitz concentration camp 3810:. Le Livre de Poche. 2013. 2888:(in German). Archived from 2377:On 26 August 1944, General 2343:La Libération de Paris 1944 2316:Normandy invasion on June 6 2305:Francs-Tireurs et Partisans 2153:Tomb of the Unknown Soldier 2121:La Libération de Paris 1944 1060:, the German attack on the 465:in Paris, 1940. (Agfacolor) 374:Allied invasion of Normandy 4233: 3671:Rosbottom, Ronald (2014). 3023:(in French). 2 August 1940 2982:. Marxist Internet Archive 2546:Montparnasse train station 2498:, where he was greeted by 2477:agreed to send the French 2325: 2274:Barbés-Rochecouart station 1955:Reich Security Main Office 1823:yellow Star of David badge 1715:Théâtre des Champs-Élysées 1366: 1311:Théâtre des Champs-Élysées 1094: 351:yellow Star of David badge 4171: 3999: 3879: 3788:Sarmant, Thierry (2012). 3156:Portuges & Jouve 1994 2868:Cent Ans de la République 2181:, a bar popular with the 1928:newspaper, 12 April 1943) 1807:Ordonnance d'Aryanisation 1512:auction house and at the 1129:Décret du 30 juillet 1940 992:. They were known as the 605:and slipping through the 535:Bazar de l'Hôtel de Ville 3069:Héron de Villefosse 1959 2259:From the signing of the 2074:, and under the name of 1589:Ça sent si bon la France 1491:rue des Grands Augustins 1167:René Héron de Villefosse 956:The headquarters of the 758:from the terrace of the 4181:Paris metropolitan area 3760:Fierro, Alfred (1996). 3692:Nicholas, Lynn (1994). 3638:Paris at War: 1939–1944 3460:"Flouret Marcel Pierre" 2610:used on Knowledge (XXG) 2446:Place Denfert-Rochereau 2394:, and two months later 2359:Second Armored Division 2261:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 1518:Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler 1277:is given a tour of the 1064:on June 22nd 1941. The 1048:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 925:"Jeder einmal in Paris" 480:, and Russian minister 421:30. Infanterie-Division 419:German soldiers of the 58:"Paris in World War II" 3737:Combeau, Yvan (2013). 3718:Belot, Robert (2006). 3618:Cobb, Matthew (2009). 3170:, p. unpaginated. 2614:See Knowledge (XXG)'s 2562: 2466: 2396:broke the German lines 2059: 1732:Les Enfants du Paradis 1662:Les Enfants du Paradis 1618:in her apartment at 9 1531:A few actors, such as 1114: 1106: 1044:French Communist Party 1012:Life in occupied Paris 632:French Prime Minister 496:French Communist Party 478:Joachim von Ribbentrop 461:German army parade on 407:, U.S. War Department) 363:French Communist Party 327: 4212:Paris in World War II 3644:Portuges, Catherine; 2665:Vengeance and renewal 2558: 2464: 2419:Jacques Chaban-Delmas 2404:Dietrich von Choltitz 2314:(FFI). Following the 2221:was named after him. 2211:was closely watched. 2053: 1981:, operated from 93, 1695:Robert-Hugues Lambert 1514:Galerie Louise Leiris 1432:Edouard de Rothschild 1273:German field marshal 1112: 1104: 1095:Further information: 325: 245:Architectural history 3674:When Paris Went Dark 3654:French Women Writers 3288:. 19 September 2018. 3248:King, David (2011). 2866:Chastenet, Jacques, 2574:Place de la Concorde 2487:4th Armored Division 2479:2nd Armored Division 2266:Operation Barbarossa 2020:Lycée Louis-Le-Grand 1995:Jews for deportation 1991:Prefecture of Police 1957:, which oversaw the 1563:. The jazz musician 1396:, a building in the 1260:Culture and the arts 1118:manufactured at the 1058:Operation Barbarossa 962:counter-intelligence 894:Place de la Concorde 846:flag of Nazi Germany 807:Place de la Concorde 700:officers arrived at 693:Porte de La Villette 623:Germans bombed Paris 471:Defense preparations 376:on June 6 1944, the 365:, others to General 187:Under Louis-Philippe 43:improve this article 3511:, pp. 268–270. 3499:, pp. 266–267. 3182:, p. 347. See also 3134:, pp. 180–181. 3122:, pp. 134–135. 3110:, pp. 128–133. 2785:Notes and citations 2774:Liberation of Paris 2328:Liberation of Paris 2072:16th arrondissement 1841:15th arrondissement 1706:Berlin Philharmonic 1593:La Chanson du maçon 1017:Civilian population 982:Geheime Feldpolizei 886:(German Navy), the 680:14th arrondissement 544:Château de Valençay 488:of non-aggression. 3783:. Bernard Grasset. 3764:. Robert Laffont. 3646:Jouve, Nicole Ward 3466:. Cour des Comptes 3449:, pp. 258–60. 3047:, p. 238-239. 2892:on 7 February 2017 2827:, pp. 99–100. 2733:German V-1 rockets 2502:, the head of the 2467: 2294:, who created the 2246:Fort Mont Valérien 2233:Palais de Chaillot 2218:Jacques Bonsergent 2163:Georges Clemenceau 2060: 1641:Simone de Beauvoir 1547:, and the singers 1535:and film director 1440:Schorfheide Forest 1414:, the head of the 1275:Gerd von Rundstedt 1243:Place de la Bourse 1115: 1107: 984:were based at 93, 889:Hôtel de la Marine 760:Palace of Chaillot 595:La drôle de guerre 563:Raft of the Medusa 486:Hitler-Stalin Pact 482:Vyacheslav Molotov 438:Palais de Chaillot 405:Divide and Conquer 328: 16:Surrender of Paris 4199: 4198: 4036:tallest buildings 4031:era of absolutism 4009:Charles de Gaulle 3817:978-2-253-13140-3 3781:Histoire de Paris 3752:978-2-13-060852-3 3741:Histoire de Paris 3729:978-2-03-582642-8 3629:978-1-84739-156-8 3377:, pp. 77–80. 3334:, pp. 15–30. 3256:. Crown. p. 3252:The City of Death 2812:, pp. 55–56. 2644: 2643: 2636: 2608:encyclopedic tone 2379:Charles de Gaulle 2175:Cross of Lorraine 2042:) that followed. 1979:French underworld 1857:Beaune-la-Rolande 1832:Vélodrome d'Hiver 1712:in Berlin at the 1701:on 7 March 1945. 1653:Porfirio Rubirosa 1649:Danielle Darrieux 1620:rue du Beaujolais 1595:became hits. The 1575:Maurice Chevalier 1398:Tuileries Gardens 1356:'s 1668 painting 1307:Intrigue and Love 1069:Marxist historian 978:Sicherheitsdienst 958:Sicherheitsdienst 663:Gare d'Austerlitz 553:Comédie Française 378:French Resistance 367:Charles de Gaulle 320: 319: 286:France portal 119: 118: 111: 93: 4224: 4065:Vélib' Métropole 3866: 3859: 3852: 3843: 3821: 3803: 3799:978-2-755-803303 3784: 3775: 3756: 3744: 3733: 3707: 3688: 3667: 3633: 3622:. Pocket Books. 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3572: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3541: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3414: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3360: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3320: 3319: 3312: 3306: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3286:www.france24.com 3278: 3272: 3271: 3255: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3158:, p. 80-81. 3153: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3087: 3081: 3072: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3013: 3007: 3001: 2992: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2980:www.marxists.org 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2951:Paris, juin 1940 2947: 2941: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2877: 2871: 2864: 2858: 2852: 2843: 2837: 2828: 2822: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2720:Seine department 2705: 2693: 2675: 2639: 2632: 2628: 2625: 2619: 2618:for suggestions. 2599: 2598: 2591: 2423:Henri Rol-Tanguy 2374: 2354: 2338: 2227:Musée de l'Homme 2167:Place Clemenceau 2134:Appel du 18 juin 2116: 2104: 2092: 1987:Special Brigades 1916:in Paris of the 1909: 1897: 1877: 1797: 1785: 1773: 1761: 1749: 1710:Schiller Theater 1687:Bois de Boulogne 1645:Marguerite Duras 1637:Jean-Paul Sartre 1567:played with the 1565:Django Reinhardt 1350: 1334: 1302: 1290: 1270: 1233: 1221: 1209: 1197: 1175: 1073:Maximilien Rubel 1066:Ukrainian-Jewish 830: 818: 795:German soldiers 792: 780: 648:, a hero of the 458: 445:, to his right, 432: 416: 400: 312: 305: 298: 284: 283: 282: 149: 139: 121: 114: 107: 103: 100: 94: 92: 51: 27: 19: 4232: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4221: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4195: 4167: 3995: 3884:Arrondissements 3875: 3870: 3828: 3818: 3806: 3800: 3787: 3778: 3772: 3759: 3753: 3736: 3730: 3717: 3714: 3704: 3691: 3685: 3670: 3664: 3643: 3630: 3617: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3570: 3568: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3532: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3469: 3467: 3458: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3361: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3323: 3316:"Marcel Petiot" 3314: 3313: 3309: 3303:L'Express Thema 3297: 3293: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3222:Michel, Henri, 3221: 3217: 3213:(2013), p. 637. 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3186:, allocine.fr: 3178: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3154: 3150: 3142: 3138: 3130: 3126: 3118: 3114: 3106: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3082: 3075: 3067: 3063: 3055: 3051: 3043: 3036: 3026: 3024: 3015: 3014: 3010: 3002: 2995: 2985: 2983: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2948: 2944: 2934: 2932: 2922: 2921: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2895: 2893: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2846: 2838: 2831: 2823: 2816: 2808: 2804: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2760: 2709: 2706: 2697: 2694: 2685: 2676: 2667: 2640: 2629: 2623: 2620: 2613: 2604:This section's 2600: 2596: 2589: 2566:Arc de Triomphe 2524:École Militaire 2500:Georges Bidault 2441:Lion de Belfort 2386: 2375: 2366: 2355: 2346: 2339: 2330: 2324: 2158:Arc de Triomphe 2124: 2117: 2108: 2105: 2096: 2093: 2084: 2048: 2026:synagogue. The 2012:rue Le Peletier 1929: 1910: 1901: 1898: 1889: 1880:French Premier 1878: 1869: 1801: 1798: 1789: 1786: 1777: 1774: 1765: 1762: 1753: 1750: 1741: 1580:Casino de Paris 1474: 1371: 1363: 1351: 1342: 1335: 1326: 1319:Heinrich George 1303: 1294: 1291: 1282: 1271: 1262: 1237: 1234: 1225: 1222: 1213: 1210: 1201: 1198: 1189: 1169: 1099: 1093: 1030:battle of Sedan 1019: 1014: 937:Pariser Zeitung 852:moved into the 840: 831: 822: 819: 810: 793: 784: 781: 772: 770:Axis occupation 754:and viewed the 732: 714:Arc de Triomphe 697:rue de Flandres 688: 676:arrondissements 658: 650:First World War 646:Philippe Pétain 638:Maurice Gamelin 615:English Channel 587: 585:German invasion 520:Sainte-Chapelle 516: 484:had signed the 473: 466: 459: 450: 433: 424: 417: 408: 401: 392: 316: 280: 278: 214:Interwar period 137: 130: 115: 104: 98: 95: 52: 50: 40: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4230: 4228: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4204: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4194: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4172: 4169: 4168: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4153: 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3224:Paris Allemand 3215: 3203: 3201:, p. 135. 3191: 3172: 3168:Rosbottom 2014 3160: 3148: 3136: 3124: 3112: 3100: 3098:, p. 128. 3088: 3086:, p. 239. 3073: 3071:, p. 411. 3061: 3059:, p. 238. 3049: 3034: 3008: 3006:, p. 102. 2993: 2967: 2965:, p. 277. 2955: 2942: 2915: 2903: 2872: 2859: 2857:, p. 236. 2844: 2829: 2814: 2802: 2800:, p. 234. 2789: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2764:Fall of France 2759: 2756: 2741:Hôtel Matignon 2711: 2710: 2707: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2688: 2686: 2681:Hôtel Majestic 2677: 2670: 2666: 2663: 2648:Allied bombing 2642: 2641: 2603: 2601: 2594: 2588: 2585: 2570:Champs-Élysées 2554:Hôtel de Ville 2536:Raoul Nordling 2496:Hôtel de Ville 2492:Captain Dronne 2437:Marcel Flouret 2428:Île de la Cité 2388: 2387: 2383:Marcel Flouret 2376: 2369: 2367: 2356: 2349: 2347: 2340: 2333: 2326:Main article: 2323: 2320: 2270:Pierre Georges 2171:Champs Élysées 2126: 2125: 2118: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2087: 2083: 2082:The Resistance 2080: 2076:Docteur Eugène 2047: 2044: 2016:rue de Monceau 1931: 1930: 1911: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1892: 1890: 1879: 1872: 1868: 1865: 1815:Adolf Eichmann 1803: 1802: 1799: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1768: 1766: 1763: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1744: 1740: 1737: 1659:, the star of 1557:Charles Trenet 1478:Georges Braque 1473: 1470: 1445:The Astronomer 1418:, visited the 1412:Hermann Göring 1365: 1364: 1359:The Astronomer 1352: 1345: 1343: 1336: 1329: 1327: 1325:(Bundesarchiv) 1304: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1285: 1283: 1272: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1192: 1188: 1185: 1137:arrondissement 1092: 1089: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1006:Pierre Loutrel 970:84 Avenue Foch 964:branch of the 854:Majestic Hotel 842: 841: 839:(Bundesarchiv) 832: 825: 823: 820: 813: 811: 798:goose stepping 794: 787: 785: 782: 775: 771: 768: 731: 728: 718:Champs Élysées 687: 684: 657: 654: 642:Maxime Weygand 586: 583: 529:La Samaritaine 515: 512: 508:invaded Poland 472: 469: 468: 467: 463:Champs Élysées 460: 453: 451: 434: 427: 425: 418: 411: 409: 402: 395: 391: 388: 383:Champs-Élysées 372:Following the 318: 317: 315: 314: 307: 300: 292: 289: 288: 275: 274: 273: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 234: 233: 229: 228: 227: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 177:Under Napoleon 174: 169: 164: 159: 151: 150: 142: 141: 132: 131: 124: 117: 116: 31: 29: 22: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4229: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4186:Île-de-France 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4162: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4051: 4050: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4006: 4005: 4002: 4001: 3998: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 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3353: 3349: 3346:, p. 46. 3345: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3269: 3267:9780307452894 3263: 3259: 3254: 3253: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3192: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3161: 3157: 3152: 3149: 3145: 3140: 3137: 3133: 3132:Nicholas 1994 3128: 3125: 3121: 3120:Nicholas 1994 3116: 3113: 3109: 3108:Nicholas 1994 3104: 3101: 3097: 3096:Nicholas 1994 3092: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2981: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2956: 2952: 2949:Langeron, R. 2946: 2943: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2916: 2912: 2907: 2904: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2876: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2842:, p. 18. 2841: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2810:Nicholas 1994 2806: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2791: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2748: 2743: 2742: 2736: 2734: 2729: 2727: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2704: 2699: 2692: 2687: 2683: 2682: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2654: 2653:Civil Affairs 2649: 2638: 2635: 2627: 2617: 2611: 2609: 2602: 2593: 2592: 2586: 2584: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2542: 2541:Hôtel Meurice 2537: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2490:commanded by 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2438: 2432: 2430: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2337: 2332: 2329: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2312: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2277: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2222: 2220: 2219: 2212: 2210: 2209:Latin Quarter 2206: 2202: 2201: 2196: 2195: 2190: 2189: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2122: 2115: 2110: 2103: 2098: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2064:Marcel Petiot 2057: 2056:Marcel Petiot 2052: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1983:rue Lauriston 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1908: 1903: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1871: 1867:Collaboration 1866: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1796: 1791: 1784: 1779: 1772: 1767: 1760: 1755: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669: 1668:Hôtel du Nord 1664: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1603:and sing for 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1585:Bonjour Paris 1582: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1526:Henri Matisse 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1493: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1482:Pablo Picasso 1479: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1370: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1301: 1296: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1232: 1227: 1220: 1215: 1208: 1203: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1162: 1158: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1111: 1103: 1098: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1045: 1039: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1027: 1026: 1025:exode de 1940 1016: 1011: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 986:rue Lauriston 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 954: 952: 948: 947: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 921: 919: 918: 917:rue de Rivoli 913: 912:Hôtel Meurice 909: 908:rue Lauriston 905: 901: 900: 895: 891: 890: 885: 884: 879: 875: 874: 869: 868:Hôtel Lutetia 865: 864: 859: 858:Avenue Kléber 855: 851: 847: 838: 837: 829: 824: 817: 812: 808: 804: 803:Hôtel Crillon 800: 799: 791: 786: 779: 774: 769: 767: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 736: 729: 727: 725: 724: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 702:Les Invalides 698: 695:and took the 694: 685: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 664: 655: 653: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 630: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 599:Western Front 596: 592: 584: 582: 580: 575: 573: 569: 565: 564: 559: 555: 554: 549: 545: 541: 537: 536: 531: 530: 525: 521: 513: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492: 487: 483: 479: 470: 464: 457: 452: 448: 444: 440: 439: 431: 426: 422: 415: 410: 406: 399: 394: 389: 387: 384: 379: 375: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 324: 313: 308: 306: 301: 299: 294: 293: 291: 290: 287: 277: 276: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 237: 236: 235: 230: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 204: 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Larousse. 3719: 3696:. Paperpac. 3693: 3677:. Hachette. 3673: 3653: 3637: 3619: 3607:Bibliography 3592: 3580: 3569:. Retrieved 3565: 3556: 3544:. Retrieved 3535: 3528: 3521:Combeau 2013 3516: 3504: 3492: 3480: 3470:December 16, 3468:. Retrieved 3463: 3454: 3442: 3430: 3418: 3406: 3394: 3382: 3370: 3339: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3285: 3276: 3251: 3243: 3231: 3223: 3218: 3210: 3206: 3194: 3187: 3179: 3175: 3163: 3151: 3143: 3139: 3127: 3115: 3103: 3091: 3064: 3052: 3025:. Retrieved 3020: 3011: 3004:Combeau 2013 2984:. Retrieved 2979: 2970: 2958: 2950: 2945: 2933:. Retrieved 2928: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2894:. 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