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condenses, releases its latent heat, and warms the cool end of the pipe. Non-condensing gases (caused by contamination for instance) in the vapor impede the gas flow and reduce the effectiveness of the heat pipe, particularly at low temperatures, where vapor pressures are low. The speed of molecules in a gas is approximately the speed of sound, and in the absence of noncondensing gases (i.e., if there is only a gas phase present) this is the upper limit to the velocity with which they could travel in the heat pipe. In practice, the speed of the vapor through the heat pipe is limited by the rate of condensation at the cold end and far lower than the molecular speed. Note/explanation: The condensation rate is very close to the sticking coefficient times the molecular speed times the gas density, if the condensing surface is very cold. However, if the surface is close to the temperature of the gas, the evaporation caused by the finite temperature of the surface largely cancels this heat flux. If the temperature difference is more than some tens of degrees, the vaporization from the surface is typically negligible, as can be assessed from the vapor pressure curves. In most cases, with very efficient heat transport through the gas, it is very challenging to maintain such significant temperature differences between the gas and the condensing surface. Moreover, this temperature differences of course corresponds to a large effective thermal resistance by itself. The bottleneck is often less severe at the heat source, as the gas densities are higher there, corresponding to higher maximum heat fluxes.
569:
thermosyphons. When the heat pipe is not operating, the non-condensable gas and working fluid vapor are mixed throughout the heat pipe vapor space. When the variable conductance heat pipe is operating, the non-condensable gas is swept toward the condenser end of the heat pipe by the flow of the working fluid vapor. Most of the non-condensable gas is located in the reservoir, while the remainder blocks a portion of the heat pipe condenser. The variable conductance heat pipe works by varying the active length of the condenser. When the power or heat sink temperature is increased, the heat pipe vapor temperature and pressure increase. The increased vapor pressure forces more of the non-condensable gas into the reservoir, increasing the active condenser length and the heat pipe conductance. Conversely, when the power or heat sink temperature is decreased, the heat pipe vapor temperature and pressure decrease, and the non-condensable gas expands, reducing the active condenser length and heat pipe conductance. The addition of a small heater on the reservoir, with the power controlled by the evaporator temperature, will allow thermal control of roughly ±1-2 °C. In one example, the evaporator temperature was maintained in a ±1.65 °C control band, as power was varied from 72 to 150 W, and heat sink temperature varied from +15 °C to -65 °C.
757:
607:
of the working fluid vapor from the evaporator to the condenser sweeps the non-condensable gas into the reservoir, where it doesn't interfere with the normal heat pipe operation. When the nominal condenser is heated, the vapor flow is from the nominal condenser to the nominal evaporator. The non-condensable gas is dragged along with the flowing vapor, completely blocking the nominal evaporator, and greatly increasing the thermal resistivity of the heat pipe. In general, there is some heat transfer to the nominal adiabatic section. Heat is then conducted through the heat pipe walls to the evaporator. In one example, a vapor trap diode carried 95 W in the forward direction, and only 4.3 W in the reverse direction.
868:
conductive heat loss. Relative efficiencies of the evacuated tube system are reduced however, when compared to flat plate collectors because the latter have a larger aperture size and can absorb more solar energy per unit area. This means that while an individual evacuated tube has better insulation (lower conductive and convective losses) due to the vacuum created inside the tube, an array of tubes found in a completed solar assembly absorbs less energy per unit area due to there being less absorber surface area pointed toward the Sun because of the rounded design of an evacuated tube collector. Therefore, real world efficiencies of both designs are about the same.
724:(374 °C; 705 °F), as long as the heat pipe contains both liquid and vapor. Thus a heat pipe can operate at hot-end temperatures as low as just slightly warmer than the melting point of the working fluid, although the maximum rate of heat transfer is low at temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F). Similarly, a heat pipe with water as a working fluid can work well above the atmospheric boiling point (100 °C, 212 °F). The maximum temperature for long term water heat pipes is 270 °C (518 °F), with heat pipes operating up to 300 °C (572 °F) for short term tests.
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coefficient from the initial design will tend to inhibit the heat pipe action. This can be counterintuitive, in the sense that if a heat pipe system is aided by a fan, then the heat pipe operation may break down, resulting in a reduced effectiveness of the thermal management system—potentially severely reduced. The operating temperature and the maximum heat transport capacity of a heat pipe—limited by its capillary or other structure used to return the fluid to the hot area (centrifugal force, gravity, etc.)—are therefore inescapably and closely related.
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surfaces, capillary forces in the wick return the condensate to the evaporator. Note that most vapor chambers are insensitive to gravity, and will still operate when inverted, with the evaporator above the condenser. In this application, the vapor chamber acts as a heat flux transformer, cooling a high heat flux from an electronic chip or laser diode, and transforming it to a lower heat flux that can be removed by natural or forced convection. With special evaporator wicks, vapor chambers can remove 2000 W over 4 cm, or 700 W over 1 cm.
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returns to the evaporator by capillary forces in the wick. The reservoir eventually dries out, since there is no method for returning liquid. When the nominal condenser is heated, liquid condenses in the evaporator and the reservoir. While the liquid can return to the nominal condenser from the nominal evaporator, the liquid in the reservoir is trapped, since the reservoir wick is not connected. Eventually, all of the liquid is trapped in the reservoir, and the heat pipe ceases operation.
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instead of the screen or sintered wicks used for terrestrial heat pipes, since the heat pipes don't have to operate against gravity in space. This allows spacecraft heat pipes to be several meters long, in contrast to the roughly 25 cm maximum length for a water heat pipe operating on Earth. Ammonia is the most common working fluid for spacecraft heat pipes. Ethane is used when the heat pipe must operate at temperatures below the ammonia freezing temperature.
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240:
202:. This causes severe discrepancies in the temperature (and thus reliability and accuracy) of the transponders. The heat pipe cooling system designed for this purpose managed the high heat fluxes and demonstrated flawless operation with and without the influence of gravity. The cooling system developed was the first use of variable conductance heat pipes to actively regulate heat flow or evaporator temperature.
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67:
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pipes for wider uses such as in air conditioning, engine cooling, and electronics cooling. These papers were also the first to mention flexible, arterial, and flat plate heat pipes. Publications in 1969 introduced the concept of the rotational heat pipe with its applications to turbine blade cooling and contained the first discussions of heat pipe applications to cryogenic processes.
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linearly as the power or condenser temperature is reduced. For some applications, such as satellite or research balloon thermal control, the electronics will be overcooled at low powers, or at the low sink temperatures. Variable
Conductance Heat Pipes (VCHPs) are used to passively maintain the temperature of the electronics being cooled as power and sink conditions change.
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machined off to allow the adiabatic section to be bent. The condenser is shown above the adiabatic section. The non-condensable gas (NCG) reservoir is located above the main heat pipe. The valve is removed after filling and sealing the heat pipe. When electric heaters are used on the reservoir, the evaporator temperature can be controlled within ±2 K of the setpoint.
25:
735:. Using water as an example, the energy needed to evaporate one gram of water is 540 times the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that same one gram of water by 1 °C. Almost all of that energy is rapidly transferred to the "cold" end when the fluid condenses there, making a very effective heat transfer system with no moving parts.
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383:(298–573 K) as the working fluid. Copper/water heat pipes have a copper envelope, use water as the working fluid and typically operate in the temperature range of 20 to 150 °C. Water heat pipes are sometimes filled by partially filling with water, heating until the water boils and displaces the air, and then sealed while hot.
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191:, which played a large role in heat pipe development in the 1960s, particularly regarding applications and reliability in space flight. This was understandable given the low weight, high heat flux, and zero power draw of heat pipes – and that they would not be adversely affected by operating in a zero gravity environment.
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transfer heat from a hot stream to a cold stream of air, water or oil. A heat pipe heat exchanger contains several heat pipes of which each acts as an individual heat exchanger itself. This increases efficiency, life span and safety. In case that one heat pipe breaks, only a small amount of liquid is
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Evacuated tube collectors reduce the need for anti-freeze additives since the vacuum helps slow heat loss. However, under prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures the heat transfer fluid can still freeze and precautions must be taken to ensure that the freezing liquid does not damage the evacuated
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applications in combination with evacuated tube solar collector arrays. In these applications, distilled water is commonly used as the heat transfer fluid inside a sealed length of copper tubing that is located within an evacuated glass tube and oriented towards the Sun. In connecting pipes, the heat
638:
While a typical terrestrial water heat pipe is less than 30 cm long, thermosyphons are often several meters long. The thermosyphons used to cool the Alaska pipe line were roughly 11 to 12 m long. Even longer thermosyphons have been proposed for the extraction of geothermal energy. For example,
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In a thermosyphon, liquid working fluid is vaporized by a heat supplied to the evaporator at the bottom of the heat pipe. The vapor travels to the condenser at the top of the heat pipe, where it condenses. The liquid then drains back to the bottom of the heat pipe by gravity, and the cycle repeats.
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Standard heat pipes are constant conductance devices, where the heat pipe operating temperature is set by the source and sink temperatures, the thermal resistances from the source to the heat pipe, and the thermal resistances from the heat pipe to the sink. In these heat pipes, the temperature drops
429:
in 1963, extensive life tests have been conducted to determine compatible envelope/fluid pairs, some going on for decades. In a heat pipe life test, heat pipes are operated for long periods of time, and monitored for problems such as non-condensable gas generation, material transport, and corrosion.
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Heat pipes contain no mechanical moving parts and typically require no maintenance, though non-condensable gases that diffuse through the pipe's walls, that result from breakdown of the working fluid, or that exist as original impurities in the material, may eventually reduce the pipe's effectiveness
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Such a closed system, requiring no external pumps, may be of particular interest in space reactors in moving heat from the reactor core to a radiating system. In the absence of gravity, the forces must only be such as to overcome the capillary and the drag of the returning vapor through its channels.
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Increased efficiency of photovoltaic cells by coupling the solar panel to a heat pipe system. This transports heat away from overheated panels to maintain optimal temperature for maximum energy generation. Additionally, the tested set up seizes the recovered thermal heat to warm, for instance, water
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An interesting property of heat pipes is the temperature range over which they are effective. Initially, it might be suspected that a water-charged heat pipe only works when the hot end reaches the boiling point (100 °C, 212 °F, at normal atmospheric pressure) and steam is transferred to
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Other pairs include stainless steel envelopes with nitrogen, oxygen, neon, hydrogen, or helium working fluids at temperatures below 100 K, copper/methanol heat pipes for electronics cooling when the heat pipe must operate below the water range, aluminium/ethane heat pipes for spacecraft thermal
421:
Heat pipes have an envelope, a wick, and a working fluid. Heat pipes are designed for very long term operation with no maintenance, so the heat pipe wall and wick must be compatible with the working fluid. Some material/working fluids pairs that appear to be compatible are not. For example, water
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The advantage of heat pipes over many other heat-dissipation mechanisms is their great efficiency in transferring heat. A pipe one inch in diameter and two feet long can transfer 3.7 kW (12.500 BTU per hour) at 1,800 °F (980 °C) with only 18 °F (10 °C) drop from end to end.
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residual ground heat remaining in the oil as well as heat produced by friction and turbulence in the moving oil could conduct down the pipe's support legs and melt the permafrost on which the supports are anchored. This would cause the pipeline to sink and possibly be damaged. To prevent this, each
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A vapor trap diode is fabricated in a similar fashion to a variable conductance heat pipe, with a gas reservoir at the end of the condenser. During fabrication, the heat pipe is charged with the working fluid and a controlled amount of a non-condensable gas (NCG). During normal operation, the flow
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There are two main applications for vapor chambers. First, they are used when high powers and heat fluxes are applied to a relatively small evaporator. Heat input to the evaporator vaporizes liquid, which flows in two dimensions to the condenser surfaces. After the vapor condenses on the condenser
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hollow vessel, a working fluid, and a closed-loop capillary recirculation system. In addition, an internal support structure or a series of posts are generally used in a vapor chamber to accommodate clamping pressures sometimes up to 90 PSI. This helps prevent collapse of the flat top and bottom
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is still possible through the walls of the heat pipe, but at a greatly reduced rate of thermal transfer. In addition, for a given heat input, it is necessary that a minimum temperature of the working fluid be attained; while at the other end, any additional increase (deviation) in the heat transfer
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disparities that reduce power output, impair fuel economy, and accelerate wear. In the SAE paper 2014-01-2160, by Wei Wu et al., describes: 'A Heat Pipe
Assisted Air-Cooled Rotary Wankel Engine for Improved Durability, Power and Efficiency', they obtained a reduction in top engine temperature from
942:
The first commercial heat pipe product was the "Thermal Magic
Cooking Pin" developed by Energy Conversion Systems, Inc. and first sold in 1966. The cooking pins used water as the working fluid. The envelope was stainless steel, with an inner copper layer for compatibility. During operation, one
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Variable conductance heat pipes have two additions compared to a standard heat pipe: 1. a reservoir, and 2. a non-condensable gas (NCG) added to the heat pipe, in addition to the working fluid. This non-condensable gas is typically argon for standard
Variable conductance heat pipes, and helium for
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The stated/recommended operating temperature of a given heat pipe system is critically important. Below the operating temperature, the liquid is too cold and cannot vaporize into a gas. Above the operating temperature, all the liquid has turned to gas, and the environmental temperature is too high
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Because of the characteristics of the device, better efficiencies are obtained when the unit is positioned upright with the supply-air side mounted over the exhaust air side, which allows the liquid refrigerant to flow quickly back to the evaporator aided by the force of gravity. Generally, gross
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Heat pipes began to be used in computer systems in the late 1990s, when increased power requirements and subsequent increases in heat emission resulted in greater demands on cooling systems. They are now extensively used in many modern computer systems, typically to move heat away from components
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Pressure controlled heat pipes (PCHPs) can be used when tighter temperature control is required. In a pressure controlled heat pipe, the evaporator temperature is used to either vary the reservoir volume, or the amount of non-condensable gas in the heat pipe. Pressure controlled heat pipes have
217:
During the late 1990s increasingly high heat flux microcomputer CPUs spurred a threefold increase in the number of U.S. heat pipe patent applications. As heat pipes evolved from a specialized industrial heat transfer component to a consumer commodity most development and production moved from the
205:
NASA has tested heat pipes designed for extreme conditions, with some using liquid sodium metal as the working fluid. Other forms of heat pipes are currently used to cool communication satellites. Publications in 1967 and 1968 by
Feldman, Eastman, and Katzoff first discussed applications of heat
805:
Grooved wicks are used in spacecraft heat pipes, as shown in the first photograph in this section. The heat pipes are formed by extruding aluminium, and typically have an integral flange to increase the heat transfer area, which lowers the temperature drop. Grooved wicks are used in spacecraft,
809:
The second figure shows a typical grooved aluminium/ammonia variable conductance heat pipe (VCHP) for spacecraft thermal control. The heat pipe is an aluminium extrusion, similar to that shown in the first figure. The bottom flanged area is the evaporator. Above the evaporator, the flange is
667:
An oscillating heat pipe (OHP), also known as a pulsating heat pipe (PHP), is only partially filled with liquid working fluid. The pipe is arranged in a serpentine pattern in which freely moving liquid and vapor segments alternate. Oscillation takes place in the working fluid; the pipe remains
610:
A liquid trap diode has a wicked reservoir at the evaporator end of the heat pipe, with a separate wick that is not in communication with the wick in the remainder of the heat pipe. During normal operation, the evaporator and reservoir are heated. The vapor flows to the condenser, and liquid
551:
Second, compared to a one-dimensional tubular heat pipe, the width of a two-dimensional heat pipe allows an adequate cross section for heat flow even with a very thin device. These thin planar heat pipes are finding their way into "height sensitive" applications, such as notebook computers and
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Another major usage of vapor chambers is for cooling purposes in gaming laptops. As vapor chambers are a flatter and more two-dimensional method of heat dissipation, sleeker gaming laptops benefit hugely from them as compared to traditional heat pipes. For example, the vapor chamber cooling in
915:
The significant feature of a thermosyphon is that it is passive and does not require any external power to operate. During the winter, the air is colder than the ground around the supports. The liquid at the bottom of the thermosyphon is vaporized by heat absorbed from the ground, cooling the
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The vapor pressure over the hot liquid working fluid at the hot end of the pipe is higher than the equilibrium vapor pressure over the condensing working fluid at the cooler end of the pipe, and this pressure difference drives a rapid mass transfer to the condensing end where the excess vapor
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Since the early 1990s, numerous nuclear reactor power systems have been proposed using heat pipes for transporting heat between the reactor core and the power conversion system. The first nuclear reactor to produce electricity using heat pipes was first operated on
September 13, 2012, in a
867:
In solar thermal water heating applications, an individual absorber tube of an evacuated tube collector is up to 40% more efficient compared to more traditional "flat plate" solar water collectors. This is largely due to the vacuum that exists within the tube, which slows down convective and
213:
began incorporating heat pipes into the cooling schemes for some of its commercial electronic products in place of both forced convection and passive finned heat sinks. Initially they were used in receivers and amplifiers, soon spreading to other high heat flux electronics applications.
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surrounding permafrost and lowering its temperature. During the summer, the thermosyphons stop operating, since there is no gas condensing at the top of the heat pipe, but the extreme air cooling during the winter causes condensation and the liquid to flow down. In the
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liquid and its vapor (gas phase). The saturated liquid vaporizes and travels to the condenser, where it is cooled and turned back to a saturated liquid. In a standard heat pipe, the condensed liquid is returned to the evaporator using a wick structure exerting a
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motionless. These have been investigated for many applications, including cooling photovoltaic panels, cooling electronic devices, heat recovery systems, fuel cell systems, HVAC systems, and desalination. More and more, PHPs are synergistically combined with
623:, similar to the way that a sponge sucks up water when an edge is placed in contact with a pool of water. However the maximum adverse elevation (evaporator over condenser) is relatively small, on the order of 25 cm long for a typical water heat pipe.
797:
Some spacecraft are designed to last for 20 years, so heat transport without electrical power or moving parts is desirable. Rejecting the heat by thermal radiation means that large radiator panes (multiple square meters) are required. Heat pipes and
943:
end of the heat pipe is poked through the roast. The other end extends into the oven where it draws heat to the middle of the roast. The high effective conductivity of the heat pipe reduces the cooking time for large pieces of meat by one-half.
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casing, that is around 1/80 of the original flux. This is because outside the intended temperature range the working fluid will not undergo phase change; below the range, the working fluid never vaporizes, and above the range it never condenses.
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of a working fluid or coolant. Heat pipes rely on a temperature difference between the ends of the pipe, and cannot lower temperatures at either end below the ambient temperature (hence they tend to equalize the temperature within the pipe).
477:
Heat pipes must be tuned to particular cooling conditions. The choice of pipe material, size, and coolant all have an effect on the optimal temperatures at which heat pipes work. When used outside of its design heat range, the heat pipe's
703:
The condensed working fluid then flows back to the hot end of the pipe. In the case of vertically oriented heat pipes the fluid may be moved by the force of gravity. In the case of heat pipes containing wicks, the fluid is returned by
278:
This 120 mm diameter vapor chamber (heat spreader) heat sink design thermal animation was created using high-resolution CFD analysis and shows temperature contoured heat sink surface and fluid flow trajectories predicted using a
834:
Typical heat pipe configuration within a consumer laptop. The heat pipes conduct waste heat away from the CPU, GPU and voltage regulators, transferring it to a heatsink coupled with a cooling fan that acts as a fluid-to-fluid heat
402:, screen, and grooved wicks, which have a series of grooves parallel to the pipe axis. When the condenser is located above the evaporator in a gravitational field, gravity can return the liquid. In this case, the heat pipe is a
1959:
Alhuyi Nazari, Mohammad; Ahmadi, Mohammad H.; Ghasempour, Roghayeh; Shafii, Mohammad
Behshad; Mahian, Omid; Kalogirou, Soteris; Wongwises, Somchai (2018). "A review on pulsating heat pipes: From solar to cryogenic applications".
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Most manufacturers cannot make a traditional heat pipe smaller than 3 mm in diameter due to material limitations. Heat pipes containing graphene have been demonstrated which can improve cooling performance in electronics.
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When making heat pipes, there is no need to create a vacuum in the pipe. One simply boils the working fluid in the heat pipe until the resulting vapor has purged the non-condensing gases from the pipe, and then seals the end.
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If however, the evaporator is located below the condenser, the liquid can drain back by gravity instead of requiring a wick, and the distance between the two can be much longer. Such a gravity aided heat pipe is known as a
2115:
Khalilmoghadam, Pooria; Kiyaee, Soroush; Rajabi-Ghahnavieh, Abbas; Warsinger, David M.; Behshad Shafii, Mohammad (2024). "An improved passive solar still integrated with pulsating heat pipes and phase change materials".
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Rotating heat pipes, where the heat pipe is shaped so that liquid can only travel by centrifugal forces from the nominal evaporator to the nominal condenser. Again, no liquid is available when the nominal condenser is
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Storch et al. fabricated a 53 mm I.D., 92 m long propane thermosyphon that carried roughly 6 kW of heat. Their scalability to large sizes also makes them relevant for solar thermal and HVAC applications.
265:
This 100 mm by 100 mm by 10 mm high thin flat heat pipe (heat spreader) animation was created using high resolution CFD analysis and shows temperature contoured flow trajectories, predicted using a
946:
The principle has also been applied to camping stoves. The heat pipe transfers a large volume of heat at low temperature to allow goods to be baked and other dishes to be cooked in camping-type situations.
592:, which only transfer heat from the bottom to the top of the thermosyphon, where the condensate returns by gravity. When the thermosyphon is heated at the top, there is no liquid available to evaporate.
1668:"Modeling and Design Optimization of Ultra-Thin Vapor Chambers for High Heat Flux Applications, R. Ranjan et al., Purdue University Cooling Technologies Research Center Publications, Paper 186, 2012"
962:
The device consists of a battery of multi-row finned heat pipe tubes located within both the supply and exhaust air streams. The system recovers heat from the exhaust and transfers it to the intake.
959:(HVAC) systems, heat pipes are positioned within the supply and exhaust air streams of an air-handling system or in the exhaust gases of an industrial process, in order to recover the heat energy.
872:
tube when designing systems for such environments. Properly designed solar thermal water heaters can be frost protected down to more than -3 °C with special additives and are being used in
927:
where the embankment and track absorb the sun's heat. Vertical heat pipes on either side of relevant formations prevent that heat from spreading any further into the surrounding permafrost.
619:
Most heat pipes use a wick to return the liquid from the condenser to the evaporator, allowing the heat pipe to operate in any orientation. The liquid is sucked up back to the evaporator by
651:(LHP) is a passive two-phase transfer device related to the heat pipe. It can carry higher power over longer distances by having co-current liquid and vapor flow, in contrast to the
635:
Thermosyphons are diode heat pipes; when heat is applied to the condenser end, there is no condensate available, and hence no way to form vapor and transfer heat to the evaporator.
2469:"The performance of a novel flat heat pipe based thermal and PV/T(photovoltaic and thermal systems) solar collector that can be used as an energy-active building envelope material"
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released which is critical for certain industrial processes such as aluminium casting. Additionally, with one broken heat pipe the heat pipe heat exchanger still remains operable.
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510:
Variable conductance heat pipes (VCHPs), which use a Non-Condensable Gas (NCG) to change the heat pipe effective thermal conductivity as power or the heat sink conditions change
465:
envelope with alkali metal (cesium, potassium, sodium) working fluid for high temperature heat pipes, most commonly used for calibrating primary temperature measurement devices.
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Hybrid control rod heat pipes to shut down a nuclear reactor in case of an emergency and simultaneously transferring decay heat away to prevent the reactor from running hot
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in 1963, with his patent of that year being the first to use the term "heat pipe", and he is often referred to as "the inventor of the heat pipe". He noted in his notebook:
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Typical grooved aluminium-ammonia VCHP for spacecraft thermal control, with the evaporator section on the bottom, and the non-condensable gas reservoir just below the valve
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When one end of the heat pipe is heated, the working fluid inside the pipe at that end vaporizes and increases the vapor pressure inside the cavity of the heat pipe. The
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Pressure controlled heat pipes (PCHPs), which are a VCHP where the volume of the reservoir, or the NCG mass can be changed, to give more precise temperature control
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is difficult because heat from the structure can thaw the permafrost. Heat pipes are used in some cases to avoid the risk of destabilization. For example, in the
756:
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1821:
T. Storch et al., "Wetting and Film
Behavior Of Propane Inside Geothermal Heat Pipes", 16th International Heat Pipe Conference, Lyon, France, May 20–24, 2012.
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and the "Perkins Tube", which saw widespread use in locomotive boilers and working ovens. Capillary-based heat pipes were first suggested by R. S. Gaugler of
802:
are used extensively in spacecraft, since they don't require any power to operate, operate nearly isothermally, and can transport heat over long distances.
1226:
Energy, Tom Harper, Chief
Information Officer, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC, for the U.S. Department of.
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Lenovo's Legion 7i was its most unique selling point (although it was misadvertised as all models having vapor chambers, while in fact only a few had).
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231 °C to 129 °C, and the temperature difference reduced from 159 °C to 18 °C for a typical small-chamber-displacement air-cooled
956:
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transport occurs in the liquid steam phase because the thermal transfer medium is converted into steam in a large section of the collecting pipeline.
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Conventional heat pipes transfer heat in either direction, from the hotter to the colder end of the heat pipe. Several different heat pipes act as a
101:
by absorbing heat from that surface. The vapor then travels along the heat pipe to the cold interface and condenses back into a liquid, releasing the
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the cold end. However, the boiling point of water depends on the absolute pressure inside the pipe. In an evacuated pipe, water vaporizes from its
46:
33:
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Previous edition of the Joint
International Heat Pipe Conference & International Heat Pipe Symposium (20IHPC & 14IHPS), 7-10 September 2021
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system has the function to keep all components on the spacecraft within their acceptable temperature range. This is complicated by the following:
422:
in an aluminium envelope will develop large amounts of non-condensable gas over a few hours or days, preventing normal operation of the heat pipe.
2226:"C. E Heuer, "The Application of Heat Pipes on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline" Special Report 79-26, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Sept. 1979"
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Upcoming edition of the Joint International Heat Pipe Conference & International Heat Pipe Symposium (21IHPC & 15IHPS), 5-9 February 2023
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and use water as the working fluid. They are common in many consumer electronics like desktops, laptops, tablets, and high-end smartphones.
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and use water as the working fluid. They are common in many consumer electronics like desktops, laptops, tablets, and high-end smartphones.
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surface mount circuit board cores. It is possible to produce flat heat pipes as thin as 1.0 mm (slightly thicker than a 0.76 mm
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Diode heat pipes, which have a high thermal conductivity in the forward direction, and a low thermal conductivity in the reverse direction
1213:
198:
orbit, one side is exposed to the direct radiation of the sun while the opposite side is completely dark and exposed to the deep cold of
934:, depth thermosyphon, sloped-thermosyphon foundation, flat loop thermosyphon foundation, and hybrid flat loop thermosyphon foundation.
128:, heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. The effective thermal conductivity varies with heat pipe length and can approach
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1990:
Behi, Hamidreza; Ghanbarpour, Morteza; Behi, Mohammadreza (2017). "Investigation of PCM-assisted heat pipe for electronic cooling".
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Loop Heat Pipe Transient Behavior Using Heat Source Temperature for Set Point Control with Thermoelectric Converter on Reservoir
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In addition to standard, constant conductance heat pipes (CCHPs), there are a number of other types of heat pipes, including:
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982:, where extreme thermal conditions are encountered. These alkali metal heat pipes transferred heat from the heat source to a
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A typical heat pipe consists of a sealed pipe or tube made of a material that is compatible with the working fluid such as
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3749:
3744:
3321:
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in a heat pipe. This allows the wick in a loop heat pipe to be required only in the evaporator and compensation chamber.
519:
Thermosyphons, which are heat pipes where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by gravitational/accelerational forces,
363:(2000–3000 K) for extremely high temperatures. The vast majority of heat pipes for room temperature applications use
2085:
Nethaji, N.; Mohideen, S. Tharves (2017). "Energy conservation studies on a split airconditioner using loop heat pipes".
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1625:"High Heat Flux, High Power, Low Resistance, Low CTE Two-Phase Thermal Ground Planes for Direct Die Attach Applications"
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Working fluids are chosen according to the temperatures at which the heat pipe must operate, with examples ranging from
280:
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1945:
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1035:
Due to the great adaptability of heat pipes, research explores the implementation of heat pipes into various systems:
1532:
Liu, Ya; Chen, Shujing; Fu, Yifeng; Wang, Nan; Mencarelli, Davide; Pierantoni, Luca; Lu, Hongbin; Liu, Johan (2021).
194:
The first application of heat pipes in the space program was the thermal equilibration of satellite transponders. As
1739:
727:
The main reason for the effectiveness of heat pipes is the vaporization and condensation of the working fluid. The
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Vapor chambers (planar heat pipes), which are used for heat flux transformation, and isothermalization of surfaces
38:
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initially ammonia was used as the working fluid, however this was replaced with carbon dioxide due to blockages.
445:
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and then sealed. The working fluid mass is chosen so that the heat pipe contains both vapor and liquid over the
222:
144:
2467:
H. Jouharaa; J. Milkob; J. Danielewiczb; M.A. Sayeghb; M. Szulgowska-Zgrzywab; J.B. Ramosc; S.P. Lester (2016).
659:
have been developed and successfully employed in a wide sphere of applications both on the ground and in space.
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987:
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Improving the efficiency of geothermal heating to prevent slippery roads during winter in cold climate zones
406:. Finally, rotating heat pipes use centrifugal forces to return liquid from the condenser to the evaporator.
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2767:
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2256:
2025:
Oro, Marcos Vinício; Bazzo, Edson (2015). "Flat heat pipes for potential application in fuel cell cooling".
1111:
1012:
1897:
Multi-Evaporator Miniature Loop Heat Pipe for Small Spacecraft Thermal Control – Part 2: Validation Results
274:
4004:
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envelope/lithium working fluid for high temperature (above 1,050 °C (1,920 °F)) applications.
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Praful, S; Prajwal Rao, V; Vijeth, V; Bhagavath, Skanda V; Seetharamu, K N; Narasimha Rao, R (2020).
983:
728:
656:
652:
479:
160:
2508:"Effective energy management design of spent fuel dry storage based on hybrid control rod-heat pipe"
2401:"A Heat Pipe Assisted Air-Cooled Rotary Wankel Engine for Improved Durability, Power and Efficiency"
1685:
291:
Cross section of a heat pipe for cooling the CPU of a laptop computer. Ruler scale is in millimetres
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of vaporization absorbed by the working fluid reduces the temperature at the hot end of the pipe.
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87:
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Cut-away view of a 500 μm thick flat heat pipe with a thin planar capillary (aqua coloured)
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2007:
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1007:
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is used to remove the air from the empty heat pipe. The heat pipe is partially filled with a
114:
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keep ground frozen and inhibit water transfer into the open pit during mining activities at
110:
83:
680:
Heat pipes employ phase change to transfer thermal energy from one point to another by the
418:
of more than 23 kW/cm, about four times the heat flux through the surface of the Sun.
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2427:
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2003:
1279:
G. Y. Eastman, "The Heat Pipe" Scientific American, Vol. 218, No. 5, pp. 38-46, May 1968.
522:
Rotating heat pipes, where the liquid is returned to the evaporator by centrifugal forces
2484:
2195:
Planning and Installing Solar Thermal Systems: A Guide for Installers ... – Google Books
1486:
1306:
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79:
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on the liquid phase of the working fluid. Wick structures used in heat pipes include
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Heat pipes on spacecraft typically use a grooved aluminium extrusion as the envelope.
732:
582:
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344:
155:
The general principle of heat pipes using gravity, commonly classified as two phase
3938:
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3516:
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1973:
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239:
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125:
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585:, transferring heat in one direction, while acting as an insulator in the other:
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3126:
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2907:
2772:
2691:
2061:
693:
320:
199:
102:
2428:"Analysis of gravity heat pipe for anti-icing and snow melting on road surface"
2363:
2181:
1895:
Ku, Jentung; Ottenstein, Laura; Douglas, Donya; Hoang, Triem (4 January 2010).
66:
3704:
3626:
3557:
3526:
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3371:
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931:
930:
Depending on application there are several thermosyphon designs: thermoprobe,
923:
Heat pipes are also used to keep the permafrost frozen alongside parts of the
900:
892:
873:
830:
535:
or flat heat pipes) have the same primary components as tubular heat pipes: a
462:
251:
2011:
1852:
1324:
3663:
3341:
3286:
3261:
3116:
2912:
1931:
1908:
1831:
Khanna, Mohan Lal; Singh, Narinder Mohan (1967). "Industrial solar drying".
1056:
823:
415:
316:
195:
1559:
848:
to heat sinks where thermal energy may be dissipated into the environment.
24:
243:
Diagram showing components and mechanism for a heat pipe containing a wick
3646:
3580:
3081:
2881:
2681:
2656:
2631:
2412:
2052:
Vasiliev, L.; Vasiliev, L. (2008). "Heat Pipes in Fuel Cell Technology".
1747:
396:
372:
97:
liquid in contact with a thermally conductive solid surface turns into a
3156:
2828:
1606:
773:
376:
364:
121:
1804:
1508:"Things to Consider When Bending or Flattening A Heat Pipe | Enertron"
966:
heat transfer efficiencies of up to 75% are claimed by manufacturers.
908:
vertical support member has been mounted with four vertical heat pipe
3833:
3585:
3391:
3141:
1926:. 9th Annual International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference.
1805:"Thermosyphon Heat Exchanger, Cooling Systems & Reboilers by ACT"
1339:"Improving materials that convert heat to electricity and vice-versa"
1112:"Thermal conductivity of common metals, metallic elements and Alloys"
487:
360:
356:
348:
312:
137:
106:
2524:
2507:
1002:
Ignition of the fuel mixture always takes place in the same part of
303:
174:
George Grover independently developed capillary-based heat pipes at
1550:
295:
3848:
3281:
2257:"Anna M. Wagner, "Review of Thermosyphon Applications", Feb. 2014"
1643:"Legion 7i falsely advertised: not all models have vapor chambers"
1479:"Compatible Heat Pipe Fluids and Materials - Heat Pipe Technology"
883:
829:
817:
755:
747:
380:
302:
294:
286:
273:
260:
238:
98:
65:
307:
Thin flat heat pipe (heat spreader) with remote heat sink and fan
3356:
3276:
1214:"George M. Grover, 81, Inventor Of Popular Heat Transfer Device"
449:
433:
The most commonly used envelope (and wick)/fluid pairs include:
210:
188:
171:
in 1942, who patented the idea, but did not develop it further.
2583:
1534:"A lightweight and high thermal performance graphene heat pipe"
2278:"Thermosyphon technology for Artificial Ground Freezing (AGF)"
974:
Grover and his colleagues were working on cooling systems for
841:
790:
Limited electrical power available, favoring passive solutions
18:
1922:
Ku, Jentung; Paiva, Kleber; Mantelli, Marcia (31 July 2011).
486:
properties of its solid metal casing alone. In the case of a
2144:"Intermediate Temperature Heat Pipe Life Tests and Analyses"
1772:"Variable Conductance Heat Pipes for Variable Thermal Links"
2559:
2554:
1168:"Heat Pipes", Fifth Edition, D. A. Reay, P.A. Kew, p. 10.
2550:
Frontiers in Heat Pipes (FHP) – An International Journal
2432:
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
1450:"Heat Pipe Materials, Working Fluids, and Compatibility"
1591:
Advanced Cooling Technologies Inc. (29 November 2013).
891:
support legs cooled by heat pipe thermosyphons to keep
2386:"Researchers test novel power system for space travel"
1789:
Advanced Cooling Technologies Inc. (7 November 2013).
1059: – Passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat
132:
for long heat pipes, in comparison with approximately
470:
control in environments when ammonia can freeze, and
347:
for extremely low temperature applications (2–4
2056:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 117–124.
1067:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
386:
For the heat pipe to transfer heat, it must contain
120:
Due to the very high heat transfer coefficients for
3921:
3887:
3814:
3718:
3566:
3069:
2755:
2617:
2426:Qian Qing, Deng-Chun Zhang and Da-Wei Chen (2019).
2298:, NASA Report NASA CR-2508, p. 19, January 1, 1975.
441:. This is by far the most common type of heat pipe.
1258:Stanford Ollendorf. Heat Pipe Flight Experiments.
793:Long lifetimes, with no possibility of maintenance
455:Aluminium envelope with ammonia working fluid for
16:Heat-transfer device that employs phase transition
1901:American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronomics
1390:Los Alamos-developed heat pipes ease space flight
1197:"Evaporation-condensation heat transfer device"
180:
2110:
2108:
1985:
1983:
2595:
2399:Wu, Wei; Lin, Yeong-Ren; Chow, Louis (2014).
1686:"VCHPs for Passively Controlling Temperature"
1421:"Incompatible Heat Pipe Fluid/Envelope Pairs"
1093:
1091:
1089:
1087:
437:Copper envelope with water working fluid for
8:
2344:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1766:
1764:
1722:"Pressure Controlled Heat Pipe Applications"
1574:"Heat Pipes - Different Kinds of Heat Pipes"
1291:"On the operating temperature of heat pipes"
1244:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
772:Widely varying external conditions, such as
221:Modern CPU heat pipes are typically made of
143:Modern CPU heat pipes are typically made of
2362:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from
2308:Kew, David Anthony Reay; Peter. A. (2006).
1868:"Passive solar heating and cooling systems"
3985:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
3362:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
2611:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
2602:
2588:
2580:
1934:– via NASA Technical Reports Server.
1911:– via NASA Technical Reports Server.
1392:. Los Alamos News Release, April 26, 2000.
1361:
1359:
1074: – Electrically powered heat-transfer
444:Copper or steel envelope with refrigerant
109:then returns to the hot interface through
2523:
2451:
1946:"An Introduction to Pulsating Heat Pipes"
1549:
1341:. Ecnmag.com. May 6, 2013. Archived from
1314:
1134:
1132:
957:heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
3796:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
2512:International Journal of Energy Research
1791:"Liquid Trap Diode Heat Pipes Animation"
573:shown milli-Kelvin temperature control.
246:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
1704:"PCHPs for Precise Temperature Control"
1101:, Second edition, Global Digital Press.
1083:
93:At the hot interface of a heat pipe, a
2337:
1237:
1065: – two-phase heat transfer device
425:Since heat pipes were rediscovered by
319:for ammonia heat pipes. Typically, a
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
3669:Programmable communicating thermostat
1295:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
994:demonstration using flattop fission.
448:working fluid for energy recovery in
7:
3791:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
2506:Kyung Mo Kim, In Cheol Bang (2020).
2495:– via Elsevier, Research Gate.
2039:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.07.055
2004:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.08.109
826:(aluminium) with heat pipes (copper)
783:Heat removal from the spacecraft by
414:Some heat pipes have demonstrated a
187:Grover's suggestion was taken up by
117:, or gravity and the cycle repeats.
856:Heat pipes are also widely used in
86:to transfer heat between two solid
3652:Minimum efficiency reporting value
2575:Heat Pipe Basics and Demonstration
2183:, 1998, Hong Xie, Intel Corp, IEEE
1216:, November 3, 1996, New York Times
720:(0.01 °C, 32 °F) to its
229:Structure, design and construction
159:, dates back to the steam age and
70:A laptop computer heat pipe system
14:
3694:Standard temperature and pressure
3407:Packaged terminal air conditioner
2943:Passive daytime radiative cooling
2672:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
2763:Absorption-compression heat pump
1099:Heat Pipe Science and Technology
1031:Currently developed applications
998:Wankel rotary combustion engines
335:for any of the gas to condense.
23:
3658:Normal temperature and pressure
3038:Vapor-compression refrigeration
2570:Heat pipe selection guide (pdf)
2238:from the original on 2013-10-22
1316:10.1088/1742-6596/1473/1/012025
1268:"Inspired Heat-Pipe Technology"
235:Vapor-compression refrigeration
37:may be too short to adequately
2453:10.1088/1757-899X/592/1/012012
1974:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.04.020
1368:Popular Science – Google Books
540:when the pressure is applied.
482:is effectively reduced to the
176:Los Alamos National Laboratory
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
3806:Testing, adjusting, balancing
3750:Building information modeling
3745:Building services engineering
3322:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
2850:Demand controlled ventilation
2798:Building insulation materials
2294:Midwest Research Institute,
2130:10.1016/j.solener.2024.112612
2099:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.09.024
731:greatly exceeds the specific
602:Liquid trap diode heat pipes.
3367:High-pressure cut-off switch
2918:Ice storage air conditioning
2839:Dedicated outdoor air system
2493:10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.063
2360:"Nuclear Reactors for Space"
1845:10.1016/0038-092x(67)90046-1
918:Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
905:Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
599:Vapor trap diode heat pipes.
3710:Thermostatic radiator valve
3512:Thermostatic radiator valve
3023:Underfloor air distribution
2958:Radiant heating and cooling
2876:Energy recovery ventilation
2788:Automobile air conditioning
2652:Domestic energy consumption
2062:10.1007/978-1-4020-8295-5_8
2027:Applied Thermal Engineering
1992:Applied Thermal Engineering
1866:Yellott, J I (1978-01-01).
359:(873–1473 K) and even
4023:
3859:Institute of Refrigeration
3740:Architectural technologist
3212:Electrostatic precipitator
2565:House_N Research (mit.edu)
2405:SAE Technical Paper Series
1998:. Elsevier BV: 1132–1142.
1116:www.engineeringtoolbox.com
766:spacecraft thermal control
457:spacecraft thermal control
232:
3990:Computer hardware cooling
3912:Volatile organic compound
3771:Environmental engineering
3735:Architectural engineering
3537:Ultra-low particulate air
3122:Automatic balancing valve
3050:Variable refrigerant flow
2902:Heat recovery ventilation
2845:Deep water source cooling
1839:(2). Elsevier BV: 87–89.
1593:"Vapor Chamber Animation"
1019:Heat pipe heat exchangers
990:to generate electricity.
951:Ventilation heat recovery
315:for water heat pipes, or
3959:Template:Home automation
3781:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
3477:Solar-assisted heat pump
3077:Air conditioner inverter
2856:Displacement ventilation
2747:Vapour pressure of water
2732:Thermal destratification
2316:(5th ed.). Oxford:
1150:(Jul-Aug2010). ARRL: 3–9
988:thermoelectric converter
970:Nuclear power conversion
663:Oscillating or pulsating
531:Thin planar heat pipes (
3954:World Refrigeration Day
3801:Refrigerant reclamation
3730:Architectural acoustics
3674:Programmable thermostat
3606:Clean air delivery rate
3502:Thermal expansion valve
3417:Pressurisation ductwork
3327:Ground source heat pump
2768:Absorption refrigerator
2444:2019MS&E..592a2012Q
1013:unmanned aerial vehicle
3944:Glossary of HVAC terms
3906:Sick building syndrome
3786:Mechanical engineering
3497:Smoke exhaust ductwork
2928:Mixed-mode ventilation
1560:10.1002/nano.202000195
1179:"Heat transfer device"
1139:Jansson, Dick (2010).
1072:Thermoelectric cooling
896:
836:
827:
761:
753:
670:phase change materials
410:at transferring heat.
379:(273–403 K)), or
308:
300:
292:
284:
271:
258:
244:
209:Starting in the 1980s
185:
71:
4000:Spacecraft components
3964:Template:Solar energy
3642:Intelligent buildings
3601:Carbon dioxide sensor
2988:Room air distribution
2808:Central solar heating
2318:Butterworth-Heinemann
2054:Mini-Micro Fuel Cells
1228:"Service Unavailable"
925:Qinghai–Tibet Railway
887:
833:
821:
759:
751:
657:Micro loop heat pipes
329:operating temperature
306:
298:
290:
277:
264:
250:
242:
69:
3766:Duct leakage testing
3756:Deep energy retrofit
3700:Thermographic camera
3637:Infrared thermometer
3112:Air source heat pump
3061:Water heat recycling
2627:Air changes per hour
2413:10.4271/2014-01-2160
2162:"Solarleitung DN 16"
2087:Energy and Buildings
1793:– via YouTube.
1595:– via YouTube.
729:heat of vaporization
653:counter-current flow
560:Variable conductance
480:thermal conductivity
375:(283–403 K) or
161:Angier March Perkins
80:heat-transfer device
3632:HVAC control system
3622:Home energy monitor
3596:Building automation
3382:Inverter compressor
3044:Variable air volume
2953:Passive ventilation
2923:Kitchen ventilation
2823:Constant air volume
2793:Autonomous building
2485:2016Ene...108..148J
2366:on 27 February 2013
2198:. Earthscan. 2005.
1872:ASHRAE J.; (Canada)
1307:2020JPhCS1473a2025P
1006:, inducing thermal
976:nuclear power cells
779:Micro-g environment
537:hermetically sealed
439:electronics cooling
3895:Indoor air quality
3839:ASTM International
3776:Hydronic balancing
3553:Wood-burning stove
3432:Radiator reflector
3217:Evaporative cooler
3028:Underfloor heating
3013:Thermal insulation
2284:. 21 October 2013.
1740:"Diode Heat Pipes"
1407:2014-11-03 at the
897:
880:Permafrost cooling
837:
828:
762:
754:
367:(213–373 K),
355:(523–923 K),
337:Thermal conduction
309:
301:
293:
285:
272:
259:
256:Ekati Diamond Mine
245:
72:
3972:
3971:
3888:Health and safety
3467:Scroll compressor
3422:Process duct work
3177:Convection heater
3172:Condensing boiler
3102:Air-mixing plenum
2998:Solar combisystem
2834:Cross ventilation
2637:Building envelope
2331:978-0-7506-6754-8
2205:978-1-84407-125-8
2071:978-1-4020-8293-1
1388:Jim Danneskiold,
1097:Faghri, A, 2016,
785:thermal radiation
134:0.4 kW/(m⋅K)
130:100 kW/(m⋅K)
115:centrifugal force
64:
63:
4012:
3934:Building science
3689:Smart thermostat
3684:Room temperature
3267:Fireplace insert
2973:Radon mitigation
2871:Electric heating
2866:District heating
2861:District cooling
2778:Air conditioning
2604:
2597:
2590:
2581:
2538:
2537:
2527:
2518:(2): 2160–2176.
2503:
2497:
2496:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2396:
2390:
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2335:
2315:
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2274:
2268:
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2243:
2237:
2230:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2190:
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2179:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2112:
2103:
2102:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2022:
2016:
2015:
1987:
1978:
1977:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1932:2060/20110015224
1919:
1913:
1912:
1909:2060/20110015223
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1768:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1746:. Archived from
1736:
1730:
1729:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1682:
1676:
1675:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1607:"Vapor Chambers"
1603:
1597:
1596:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1553:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1510:. Archived from
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1485:. Archived from
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1456:. Archived from
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1427:. Archived from
1417:
1411:
1399:
1393:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1376:
1363:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:on July 28, 2013
1335:
1329:
1328:
1318:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1235:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1145:
1136:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1108:
1102:
1095:
1068:
814:Computer systems
706:capillary action
621:capillary action
472:refractory metal
393:capillary action
283:analysis package
270:analysis package
135:
131:
111:capillary action
84:phase transition
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
4022:
4021:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4009:
3995:Heat conduction
3975:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3929:ASHRAE Handbook
3917:
3901:Passive smoking
3883:
3816:
3810:
3722:
3720:
3714:
3568:
3562:
3543:Whole-house fan
3457:Run-around coil
3452:Reversing valve
3397:Mechanical room
3387:Kerosene heater
3377:Infrared heater
3307:Gasoline heater
3247:Fan filter unit
3162:Condensate pump
3147:Centrifugal fan
3065:
2968:Radiant heating
2963:Radiant cooling
2938:Passive cooling
2933:Microgeneration
2803:Central heating
2751:
2727:Thermal comfort
2619:
2613:
2608:
2546:
2541:
2525:10.1002/er.5910
2505:
2504:
2500:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2407:. Vol. 1.
2398:
2397:
2393:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2336:
2332:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2293:
2289:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2259:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2114:
2113:
2106:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2024:
2023:
2019:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1958:
1957:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1770:
1769:
1762:
1753:
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1738:
1737:
1733:
1720:
1719:
1715:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1652:
1650:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1517:
1515:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1492:
1490:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1463:
1461:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1409:Wayback Machine
1400:
1396:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1372:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1348:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1236:
1225:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1153:
1151:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1085:
1081:
1066:
1053:
1033:
1024:Heat exchangers
1021:
1000:
972:
953:
940:
889:Alaska pipeline
882:
876:to heat water.
854:
816:
800:loop heat pipes
746:
741:
678:
665:
645:
617:
579:
562:
529:
501:
484:heat conduction
237:
231:
153:
133:
129:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4020:
4019:
4016:
4008:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3977:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3909:
3903:
3898:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3726:
3724:
3716:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3679:Psychrometrics
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3576:Air flow meter
3572:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3352:Heating system
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3332:Heat exchanger
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3297:Gas compressor
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3232:Expansion tank
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3152:Ceramic heater
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2993:Solar air heat
2990:
2985:
2983:Renewable heat
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2899:
2894:
2892:Forced-air gas
2889:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2742:Thermodynamics
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2712:Psychrometrics
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2667:Gas compressor
2664:
2662:Fluid dynamics
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2545:
2544:External links
2542:
2540:
2539:
2498:
2459:
2418:
2391:
2377:
2351:
2330:
2300:
2287:
2269:
2264:dot.alaska.gov
2248:
2217:
2204:
2185:
2174:
2153:
2135:
2104:
2077:
2070:
2044:
2017:
1979:
1962:Applied Energy
1951:
1937:
1914:
1887:
1858:
1823:
1814:
1796:
1781:
1760:
1731:
1713:
1695:
1677:
1659:
1634:
1616:
1598:
1583:
1565:
1544:(2): 364–372.
1524:
1499:
1470:
1441:
1412:
1394:
1381:
1355:
1330:
1281:
1272:
1260:
1251:
1218:
1206:
1188:
1183:Google Patents
1170:
1161:
1128:
1103:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1063:Loop heat pipe
1060:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1032:
1029:
1020:
1017:
1004:Wankel engines
999:
996:
971:
968:
952:
949:
939:
936:
881:
878:
853:
850:
815:
812:
795:
794:
791:
788:
781:
776:
745:
742:
740:
737:
722:critical point
677:
674:
664:
661:
649:loop heat pipe
644:
641:
616:
613:
604:
603:
600:
597:
593:
578:
575:
561:
558:
533:heat spreaders
528:
525:
524:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
500:
497:
467:
466:
460:
453:
442:
233:Main article:
230:
227:
218:U.S. to Asia.
169:General Motors
165:Loftus Perkins
152:
149:
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4018:
4017:
4006:
4005:Heat transfer
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3913:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:organizations
3813:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3761:Duct cleaning
3759:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3717:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3659:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3612:Control valve
3610:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3532:Turning vanes
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3507:Thermal wheel
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3472:Solar chimney
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3242:Fan coil unit
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Cooling tower
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3033:Vapor barrier
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3008:Solar heating
3006:
3004:
3003:Solar cooling
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2978:Refrigeration
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2948:Passive house
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2818:Chilled water
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2717:Sensible heat
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2697:Noise control
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2677:Heat transfer
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2600:
2598:
2593:
2591:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2454:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2438:(1): 012012.
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2365:
2361:
2355:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2333:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2283:
2282:simmakers.com
2279:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2218:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2149:
2148:www.1-act.com
2145:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
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858:solar thermal
852:Solar thermal
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615:Thermosyphons
614:
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584:
583:thermal diode
576:
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566:
559:
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527:Vapor chamber
526:
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55:February 2024
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3723:and services
3719:Professions,
3617:Gas detector
3517:Trickle vent
3492:Smoke damper
3487:Smoke canopy
3482:Space heater
3412:Plenum space
3347:Heating film
3336:
3227:Exhaust hood
3197:Dehumidifier
3137:Blast damper
3132:Barrier pipe
3107:Air purifier
3018:Thermosiphon
2897:Free cooling
2813:Chilled beam
2737:Thermal mass
2722:Stack effect
2707:Particulates
2687:Infiltration
2618:Fundamental
2515:
2511:
2501:
2476:
2472:
2462:
2435:
2431:
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2370:21 September
2368:. Retrieved
2364:the original
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2303:
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2251:
2240:. Retrieved
2220:
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2118:Solar Energy
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2080:
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2020:
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1991:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1940:
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1879:. Retrieved
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1833:Solar Energy
1832:
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1748:the original
1743:
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1651:. Retrieved
1649:. 2020-08-28
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1367:
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1343:the original
1333:
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1254:
1232:www.lanl.gov
1231:
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1200:
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1164:
1154:November 14,
1152:. Retrieved
1147:
1141:"Heat Pipes"
1119:. Retrieved
1115:
1106:
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899:Building on
898:
870:
866:
855:
838:
808:
804:
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763:
739:Applications
726:
718:triple point
714:
710:
702:
698:
691:
686:condensation
682:vaporization
679:
666:
646:
637:
633:
629:thermosyphon
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404:thermosiphon
400:metal powder
385:
342:
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310:
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216:
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186:
181:
173:
163:and his son
154:
142:
126:condensation
119:
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34:lead section
3949:Warm Spaces
3591:Blower door
3569:and control
3567:Measurement
3548:Windcatcher
3522:Trombe wall
3462:Sail switch
3442:Refrigerant
3437:Recuperator
3312:Grease duct
3272:Freeze stat
3257:Fire damper
3127:Back boiler
3097:Air ionizer
3092:Air handler
3056:Ventilation
2908:Hybrid heat
2773:Air barrier
2692:Latent heat
2479:: 148–154.
2093:: 215–224.
2033:: 848–857.
1968:: 475–484.
1948:. May 2003.
1538:Nano Select
1371:. June 1974
1121:October 15,
980:space craft
694:latent heat
554:credit card
321:vacuum pump
200:outer space
103:latent heat
3979:Categories
3705:Thermostat
3627:Humidistat
3558:Zone valve
3527:TurboSwing
3402:Oil heater
3372:Humidifier
3302:Gas heater
3252:Fan heater
3222:Evaporator
3207:Economizer
3182:Compressor
3087:Air filter
3070:Components
2887:Forced-air
2783:Antifreeze
2756:Technology
2702:Outgassing
2642:Convection
2320:. p.
2312:Heat pipes
2296:Heat Pipes
2242:2013-10-22
2211:2013-05-07
2124:: 112612.
1881:2024-06-22
1754:2013-12-03
1672:purdue.edu
1653:2020-10-20
1647:Spearblade
1551:2002.11336
1518:2019-04-22
1493:2014-11-03
1464:2014-11-03
1435:2014-11-03
1402:Life Tests
1375:2013-05-07
1349:2013-05-07
1270:, lanl.gov
1201:google.com
1079:References
1008:dilatation
984:thermionic
932:thermopile
901:permafrost
893:permafrost
874:Antarctica
835:exchanger.
744:Spacecraft
463:Superalloy
252:Heat pipes
196:satellites
88:interfaces
3815:Industry
3664:OpenTherm
3342:Heat pump
3337:Heat pipe
3287:Fume hood
3262:Fireplace
3167:Condenser
3117:Attic fan
2913:Hydronics
2534:225323981
2340:cite book
2012:1359-4311
1853:0038-092X
1325:1742-6588
1057:Heat sink
824:heat sink
416:heat flux
388:saturated
317:aluminium
76:heat pipe
39:summarize
3922:See also
3647:LonWorks
3581:Aquastat
3447:Register
3427:Radiator
3082:Air door
2882:Firestop
2682:Humidity
2657:Enthalpy
2647:Dilution
2632:Bake-out
2620:concepts
2233:Archived
2167:22 March
1405:Archived
1240:cite web
1051:See also
1015:engine.
840:such as
774:eclipses
452:systems.
397:sintered
373:methanol
95:volatile
3721:trades,
3292:Furnace
3157:Chiller
2829:Coolant
2481:Bibcode
2440:Bibcode
1303:Bibcode
938:Cooking
895:frozen.
596:heated.
377:ethanol
369:alcohol
365:ammonia
353:mercury
331:range.
151:History
122:boiling
3874:SMACNA
3834:ASHRAE
3654:(MERV)
3608:(CADR)
3586:BACnet
3539:(ULPA)
3392:Louver
3317:Grille
3192:Damper
3142:Boiler
3040:(VCRS)
2841:(DOAS)
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2473:Energy
2328:
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2068:
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488:copper
361:indium
357:sodium
313:copper
223:copper
145:copper
138:copper
107:liquid
105:. The
3914:(VOC)
3908:(SBS)
3897:(IAQ)
3854:CIBSE
3849:BSRIA
3752:(BIM)
3696:(STP)
3660:(NTP)
3282:Freon
3052:(VRF)
3046:(VAV)
2904:(HRV)
2878:(ERV)
2852:(DCV)
2825:(CAV)
2530:S2CID
2260:(PDF)
2236:(PDF)
2229:(PDF)
1546:arXiv
1144:(PDF)
577:Diode
499:Types
446:R134a
381:water
351:) to
99:vapor
78:is a
3869:LEED
3829:AMCA
3824:AHRI
3357:HEPA
3277:Flue
3202:Duct
2372:2012
2346:link
2326:ISBN
2200:ISBN
2169:2024
2066:ISBN
2008:ISSN
1876:20:1
1849:ISSN
1321:ISSN
1299:1473
1246:link
1156:2011
1123:2020
978:for
846:GPUs
844:and
842:CPUs
787:only
764:The
684:and
643:Loop
450:HVAC
211:Sony
189:NASA
136:for
124:and
3879:UMC
3864:IIR
3844:BRE
3237:Fan
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2409:doi
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2126:doi
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2095:doi
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2058:doi
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2000:doi
1996:127
1970:doi
1966:222
1928:hdl
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556:).
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