686:
small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor, and is in turn re-delivered, by an oil level management system, back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain back by gravity to the oil separator or compressor.
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refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down, and the refrigerant replaced.
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Turbocor range of centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it, simplifies the design of the refrigerant system, increases the heat transfer coefficient in evaporators and condensers, eliminates the risk of refrigerant
685:
In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the system. In
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Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally
417:
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporation process occurs
401:
From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the heat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a high-temperature, high-pressure subcooled liquid. Subcool is the amount
570:
Chillers with centrifugal compressors have a 'Centrifugal
Compressor Map' that shows the "surge line" and the "choke line." For the same capacity ratings, across a wider span of operating conditions, chillers with the larger diameter lower-speed compressor have a wider 'Centrifugal Compressor Map'
405:
Between points 4 and 5, the subcooled liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The
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which can be considered to be HFCs with some carbon-carbon bonds being double bounds, do show promise of lowering GWP so little to be of no further concern. In the meantime, various blends of existing refrigerants are used to achieve the required properties and efficiency, at a reasonable cost and
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are commonly used (and have their own R-x customary numbers), depending on required temperatures and pressures. Many of these gases are flammable, explosive, or toxic; making their use restricted (i.e. well-controlled environment by qualified personnel, or a very small amount of refrigerant used).
282:
that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage
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Large commercial or industrial refrigeration systems may have multiple expansion valves and multiple evaporators in order to refrigerate multiple enclosed spaces or rooms. In such systems, the condensed liquid refrigerant may be routed into a pressure vessel, called a receiver, from which liquid
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An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the
428:
The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).
480:
Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by, the
596:
Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.
714:. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion valves.
340:. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC- and HFC-based compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential. General industry and governing body push are toward more GWP-friendly refrigerants. In industrial settings
721:
In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling demands while reducing energy consumption.
180:
of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.
1139:, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation in Australia and England.
250:
and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as
717:
In addition to the operational controls, separate high-pressure and low-pressure switches are normally utilised to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of safe parameters.
535:
Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point.
953:
testing conditions: evaporation temperature of â23.3 °C, condensing temperature of 54.4 °C, and ambient temperature of 32 °C) based on some of the best commercially available compressors, as produced by manufacturers
149:
and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be
237:
has a significant impact on the performance of the refrigeration cycles and as such it plays a key role when it comes to designing or simply choosing an ideal machine for a certain task. One of the most widespread refrigerants is
128:
as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a
730:
The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown in Figure 1 does not include other equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor compression refrigeration system, such as:
1093:
I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile fluids, and bringing them again into operation without
3239:
1073:
described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would move through a
561:
Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy.
463:, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following configurations:
418:
at essentially constant temperature. After evaporation is completed, the vapor will start to increase in temperature. The amount of sensible heat added to the vapor above its saturation point, i.e. its
88:
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an
1053:) is one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible with copper tubing.
978:. However, many refrigeration systems use compressors that have lower efficiencies of between 40 and 55%, since the 60% efficient ones cost almost twice as much as the lower efficiency ones.
184:
The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to either thermal
571:
and experience surge conditions less than those with the smaller diameter, less expensive, higher-speed compressors. The smaller diameter, higher-speed compressors have a flatter curve.,
200:
of the refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the compressor.
1131:. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in
1154:, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as
3189:
3219:
743:, between the evaporator and the compressor inlet to capture and remove any residual, entrained liquid in the refrigerant vapor because liquid may damage the compressor. Such
207:, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient
3370:
65:, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services.
574:
As the refrigerant flow rate decreases, some compressors change the gap between the impeller and the volute to maintain the correct velocity to avoid surge conditions.
192:. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid refrigerant, heat is transferred from the air to the refrigerant, which cools the air and warms the refrigerant, causing
1607:
1089:, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent:
1653:
710:
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or
3234:
1082:, and would eventually revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such refrigeration unit was built by Evans.
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compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency, and pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open,
278:
in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the
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are most often referred to as "suction line accumulators". (In other industrial processes, they are called "compressor suction drums" or "knockout pots".)
2727:
1976:
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Filter Dryers, installed before the compressors to catch any moisture or contaminants in the system and thus protect the compressors from internal damage
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Large equipment, typically 25 kW to 30 MW, used for chemical processing, cold storage, food processing, building, and district heating and cooling
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255:. Haloalkanes are also an order(s) of magnitude more expensive than petroleum-derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance.
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215:. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump.
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1006:. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large
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of sensible heat removed from the liquid below its maximum saturation. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure.
161:. This is where heat is transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the gaseous refrigerant to cool and
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refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.
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Some refrigeration units may have multiple stages which requires the use of multiple compressors in various arrangements.
196:, returning it to a gaseous state. While liquid remains in the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the
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plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
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into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser.
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compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a high-pressure, high-temperature vapor.
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refrigerant is withdrawn and routed through multiple pipelines to the multiple expansion valves and evaporators.
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The resulting superheated vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
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1291:. A superheated vapor is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure.
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refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by
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1007:
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Small units are not practical due to back-leakage but large units have very high efficiency and flow capacity.
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Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the
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valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a
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Equipment to preserve and store goods, primarily foodstuffs, during transport by road, rail, air, and sea
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Can be driven directly using mechanical energy (water, car or truck motor) or with electrical energy.
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where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic
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diagram as depicted in Figure 2. At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the
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Equipment to preserve, process, and store food from its source to the wholesale distribution point
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1390:, Schematic diagrams of multi-stage units, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, 1998-11-30
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Low-temperature cooling of CMOS circuitry and other components in large computers and servers
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1010:, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than
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Figure 5: Commercial water-cooled liquid chiller installation for building air conditioning
777:", with common residential air conditioning units from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.
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as a low-temperature, low-pressure saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is
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refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned refrigerants such as
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radiation, releasing their chlorine free-radicals. These chlorine free-radicals act as
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Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.
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1105:, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer
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took out a
British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.
1061:
1002:, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly
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Reciprocating compressors are piston-style, positive displacement compressors.
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769:. Common residential air conditioning units range in capacity from 3.5 to 18
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1608:"The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle", University of Nevada (US)
1207:
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With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-
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with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes.
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of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial
1417:
1123:
The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by
329:
More benign refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as
168:
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a
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1283:
Saturated vapors and saturated liquids are vapors and liquids at their
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of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus
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His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially.
298:
effects compared to CFCs have replaced most CFC use. Examples include
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909:
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being contaminated with oil, and reduces maintenance requirements.
476:
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semi-hermetic compressor
314:, used in most cars). HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the
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1111:
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581:
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115:
30:
A representative pressureâvolume diagram for a refrigeration cycle
1622:
1613:"The Refrigeration Cycle: Central Air Conditioner For Homeowners"
1335:
Chilled Water Plant Design Guide | Taylor
Engineering | Pages 281
2722:
2642:
766:
318:
and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain
299:
267:
20:
1949:
1635:
816:
Holding and displaying frozen and fresh food in retail outlets
473:
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor
1101:
A similar attempt was made in 1842, by
American physician,
1065:
Schematic of Dr. John Gorrie's 1841 mechanical ice machine.
271:
322:
atoms. However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have very large
489:
overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.
19:"VCRS" redirects here. For videocassette recorders, see
1324:
Fundamentals of
Centrifugal Chillers | Johnson Controls
85:
systems may also be implemented using two compressors.
1033:
are coming back into more extensive use. For example,
443:
The most common compressors used in refrigeration are
1431:
586:
Figure 4: Operating principle of a Scroll
Compressor
3287:
3253:
3180:
3084:
2932:
2435:
2121:
1983:
1880:
1854:
1779:
1739:
1680:
1669:
1085:In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain,
802:Appliances used for keeping food in dwelling units
451:, but large chillers or industrial cycles may use
1465:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology, Volume 2
1462:Colin Hempstead; William E. Worthington (2005).
157:The superheated vapor then passes through the
1961:
1647:
1618:"The Refrigeration Cycle", from HowStuffWorks
1580:Yunus A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles (2008).
1450:Ammonia Refrigeration â Properties of Ammonia
8:
1400:Schmidt, R. R.; Notohardjono, B. D. (2002).
1369:"The Different Types of Cooling Compressors"
1127:, a British journalist who had emigrated to
697:and require no lubrication, for example the
124:Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid
1440:(scroll down to pdf page 6 of 9 pdf pages).
1357:Centrifugal Chiller - Fundamentals | McQuay
846:R-123, R-134a, R-404A, R-407C, R-507, R-717
3371:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
2728:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
1977:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
1968:
1954:
1946:
1677:
1654:
1640:
1632:
1213:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
1041:in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO
1402:"High-end server low-temperature cooling"
242:". Freon is a trade name for a family of
120:Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration
3162:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
1164:
1150:of France in 1859 and patented in 1860.
784:
773:. In a few countries it is measured in "
765:of refrigeration systems is measured in
470:Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor
25:
1816:Homogeneous charge compression ignition
1583:Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
1406:IBM Journal of Research and Development
1249:
689:Some newer compressor technologies use
626:
406:adiabatic flash evaporation process is
57:and is the most widely used method for
1388:Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles
39:vapor-compression refrigeration system
3035:Programmable communicating thermostat
378:Figure 2: TemperatureâEntropy diagram
294:Newer refrigerants that have reduced
7:
3157:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
1263:(2nd ed.). Universities Press.
996:depletion of the Earth's ozone layer
833:R-123, R-134a, R-407C, R-410A, R-507
726:Other features and facts of interest
370:Thermodynamic analysis of the system
1518:A History of Mechanical Engineering
1310:, The Natural Refrigerant R744 (CO)
949:theoretical limit (as evaluated in
467:Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor
3018:Minimum efficiency reporting value
14:
3060:Standard temperature and pressure
2773:Packaged terminal air conditioner
2309:Passive daytime radiative cooling
2038:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
1260:An Introduction to Thermodynamics
1234:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
615:Diagonal or mixed-flow compressor
2129:Absorption-compression heat pump
1492:Modern Engineering Thermodynamic
826:Food processing and cold storage
668:
656:
641:
629:
35:Vapour-compression refrigeration
3024:Normal temperature and pressure
2404:Vapor-compression refrigeration
1069:In 1805, the American inventor
998:. In countries adhering to the
1:
3172:Testing, adjusting, balancing
3116:Building information modeling
3111:Building services engineering
2688:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
2216:Demand controlled ventilation
2164:Building insulation materials
1586:(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
739:, equipped internally with a
246:refrigerants manufactured by
2733:High-pressure cut-off switch
2284:Ice storage air conditioning
2205:Dedicated outdoor air system
1627:heat pumps and refrigeration
1516:Burstall, Aubrey F. (1965).
566:Centrifugal Compressor Surge
211:. The ice is melted through
172:, is next routed through an
3076:Thermostatic radiator valve
2878:Thermostatic radiator valve
2389:Underfloor air distribution
2324:Radiant heating and cooling
2242:Energy recovery ventilation
2154:Automobile air conditioning
2018:Domestic energy consumption
1721:Stirling (pseudo/adiabatic)
1037:'s vending machines at the
648:Axial-flow compressor of a
3402:
3225:Institute of Refrigeration
3106:Architectural technologist
2578:Electrostatic precipitator
1623:Scientific papers about CO
1301:r744.com â Everything R744
794:Typical refrigerants used
761:In most of the world, the
604:
589:
554:
528:
504:
436:
306:, used in most homes) and
222:
18:
3278:Volatile organic compound
3137:Environmental engineering
3101:Architectural engineering
2903:Ultra-low particulate air
2488:Automatic balancing valve
2416:Variable refrigerant flow
2268:Heat recovery ventilation
2211:Deep water source cooling
1489:Robert T. Balmer (2011).
788:Refrigeration application
735:A horizontal or vertical
493:Reciprocating compressors
344:, as well as gasses like
3325:Template:Home automation
3147:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
2843:Solar-assisted heat pump
2443:Air conditioner inverter
2222:Displacement ventilation
2113:Vapour pressure of water
2098:Thermal destratification
1008:global warming potential
839:Industrial refrigeration
813:Commercial refrigeration
515:Rotary screw compressors
507:Reciprocating compressor
501:Reciprocating compressor
433:Types of gas compressors
324:global warming potential
3320:World Refrigeration Day
3167:Refrigerant reclamation
3096:Architectural acoustics
3040:Programmable thermostat
2972:Clean air delivery rate
2868:Thermal expansion valve
2783:Pressurisation ductwork
2693:Ground source heat pump
2134:Absorption refrigerator
1468:. Taylor& Francis.
1186:Absorption refrigerator
987:Many systems still use
945:Efficient up to 60% of
939:Relatively inexpensive.
936:Very mature technology.
891:Cryogenic refrigeration
852:Transport refrigeration
745:vaporâliquid separators
712:thermal expansion valve
543:Centrifugal compressors
531:Rotary screw compressor
422:, is called superheat.
139:thermal expansion valve
137:, a metering device or
77:processing plants, and
3310:Glossary of HVAC terms
3272:Sick building syndrome
3152:Mechanical engineering
2863:Smoke exhaust ductwork
2294:Mixed-mode ventilation
1285:saturation temperature
1219:Magnetic refrigeration
1120:
1066:
994:, which contribute to
922:
859:R-134a, R-407C, R-410A
799:Domestic refrigeration
681:Compressor lubrication
619:Liquid ring compressor
587:
557:Centrifugal compressor
552:
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502:
379:
121:
79:natural gas processing
31:
3330:Template:Solar energy
3008:Intelligent buildings
2967:Carbon dioxide sensor
2354:Room air distribution
2174:Central solar heating
1257:Y. V. C. Rao (2003).
1191:Einstein refrigerator
1119:'s ice-making device.
1115:
1064:
920:
885:R-134a, R-404A, R-507
878:Medical refrigeration
872:R-134a, R-404A, R-507
820:R-134a, R-404A, R-507
775:tons of refrigeration
611:Axial-flow compressor
585:
551:Centrifugal principle
550:
522:
500:
377:
119:
83:Cascade refrigeration
53:, is one of the many
29:
16:Refrigeration process
3386:Thermodynamic cycles
3381:Industrial processes
3132:Duct leakage testing
3122:Deep energy retrofit
3066:Thermographic camera
3003:Infrared thermometer
2478:Air source heat pump
2427:Water heat recycling
1993:Air changes per hour
1905:Regenerative cooling
1783:combustion / thermal
1682:Without phase change
1673:combustion / thermal
1663:Thermodynamic cycles
1566:. 16 September 2023.
806:R-600a, R-134a, R-22
607:Diaphragm compressor
410:(occurs at constant
225:List of refrigerants
102:geothermal heat pump
98:air source heat pump
55:refrigeration cycles
3351:American inventions
2998:HVAC control system
2988:Home energy monitor
2962:Building automation
2748:Inverter compressor
2410:Variable air volume
2319:Passive ventilation
2289:Kitchen ventilation
2189:Constant air volume
2159:Autonomous building
1418:10.1147/rd.466.0739
1289:saturation pressure
1039:2006 FIFA World Cup
1029:for example) and CO
205:refrigeration cycle
3361:Cooling technology
3356:Chemical processes
3261:Indoor air quality
3205:ASTM International
3142:Hydronic balancing
2919:Wood-burning stove
2798:Radiator reflector
2583:Evaporative cooler
2394:Underfloor heating
2379:Thermal insulation
1495:. Academic Press.
1436:2011-11-10 at the
1306:2017-07-24 at the
1121:
1067:
923:
865:Electronic cooling
791:Short descriptions
588:
578:Scroll compressors
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449:scroll compressors
380:
262:, substances like
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3254:Health and safety
2833:Scroll compressor
2788:Process duct work
2543:Convection heater
2538:Condensing boiler
2468:Air-mixing plenum
2364:Solar combisystem
2200:Cross ventilation
2003:Building envelope
1943:
1942:
1920:Vapor-compression
1846:Staged combustion
1775:
1774:
1740:With phase change
1593:978-0-07-352921-9
1520:. The MIT Press.
1502:978-0-12-374996-3
1270:978-81-7371-461-0
1203:Flash evaporation
1107:Alexander Twining
1000:Montreal Protocol
926:Economic analysis
915:
914:
691:magnetic bearings
592:Scroll compressor
316:Montreal Protocol
178:flash evaporation
3393:
3376:Industrial gases
3366:Gas technologies
3300:Building science
3055:Smart thermostat
3050:Room temperature
2633:Fireplace insert
2339:Radon mitigation
2237:Electric heating
2232:District heating
2227:District cooling
2144:Air conditioning
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1915:Vapor absorption
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2823:Run-around coil
2818:Reversing valve
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2753:Kerosene heater
2743:Infrared heater
2673:Gasoline heater
2613:Fan filter unit
2528:Condensate pump
2513:Centrifugal fan
2431:
2334:Radiant heating
2329:Radiant cooling
2304:Passive cooling
2299:Microgeneration
2169:Central heating
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1985:
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384:thermodynamics
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253:sulfur dioxide
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2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2399:Vapor barrier
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2374:Solar heating
2372:
2370:
2369:Solar cooling
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2344:Refrigeration
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2314:Passive house
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:Chilled water
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2083:Sensible heat
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2063:Noise control
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2043:Heat transfer
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1964:
1959:
1957:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1910:Transcritical
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1890:HampsonâLinde
1888:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1882:Refrigeration
1879:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1811:Gas-generator
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1796:Brayton/Joule
1794:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1778:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:Brayton/Joule
1699:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1527:0-262-52001-X
1523:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1475:1-57958-464-0
1471:
1467:
1466:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1346:Chiller Surge
1342:
1339:
1336:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1320:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1240:
1239:Working fluid
1237:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1229:Refrigeration
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1177:
1171:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1099:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1087:Jacob Perkins
1083:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1063:
1056:
1054:
1048:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
990:
983:Disadvantages
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
952:
948:
944:
941:
938:
935:
934:
930:
925:
919:
911:
907:
903:
899:
896:
893:
890:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
811:
807:
804:
801:
798:
797:
793:
790:
787:
786:
780:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
756:
753:
749:
746:
742:
738:
734:
733:
732:
725:
723:
719:
715:
713:
705:
703:
700:
696:
692:
687:
680:
671:
666:
659:
654:
651:
644:
639:
632:
627:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
600:
598:
593:
584:
577:
575:
572:
565:
563:
558:
549:
542:
540:
537:
532:
521:
514:
512:
508:
499:
492:
490:
486:
482:
475:
472:
469:
466:
465:
464:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:reciprocating
440:
432:
430:
426:
423:
421:
420:boiling point
415:
413:
409:
403:
399:
397:
393:
389:
385:
376:
369:
367:
364:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
332:
331:supercritical
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
286:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
256:
254:
249:
245:
241:
236:
235:working fluid
232:
226:
218:
216:
214:
210:
206:
201:
199:
198:boiling point
195:
191:
187:
182:
179:
175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
155:
153:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
118:
111:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
71:petrochemical
68:
64:
63:refrigerators
60:
56:
52:
51:phase changes
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
22:
3305:Fireproofing
3089:and services
3085:Professions,
2983:Gas detector
2883:Trickle vent
2858:Smoke damper
2853:Smoke canopy
2848:Space heater
2778:Plenum space
2713:Heating film
2593:Exhaust hood
2563:Dehumidifier
2503:Blast damper
2498:Barrier pipe
2473:Air purifier
2403:
2384:Thermosiphon
2263:Free cooling
2179:Chilled beam
2103:Thermal mass
2088:Stack effect
2073:Particulates
2053:Infiltration
1984:Fundamental
1919:
1767:Regenerative
1696:Bell Coleman
1582:
1564:Scienceworks
1563:
1554:
1545:
1536:
1517:
1511:
1491:
1484:
1464:
1457:
1445:
1426:
1409:
1405:
1395:
1383:
1372:. Retrieved
1363:
1352:
1341:
1330:
1319:
1296:
1279:
1259:
1252:
1141:
1122:
1100:
1097:
1084:
1071:Oliver Evans
1068:
1023:hydrocarbons
1016:
992:refrigerants
986:
781:Applications
760:
729:
720:
716:
709:
695:air bearings
688:
684:
675:Roots blower
623:Roots blower
595:
573:
569:
560:
538:
534:
510:
487:
483:
479:
453:rotary screw
442:
427:
424:
416:
404:
400:
381:
358:hydrocarbons
328:
293:
260:stratosphere
257:
228:
219:Refrigerants
202:
183:
167:
156:
123:
94:refrigerator
87:
42:
38:
34:
33:
3315:Warm Spaces
2957:Blower door
2935:and control
2933:Measurement
2914:Windcatcher
2888:Trombe wall
2828:Sail switch
2808:Refrigerant
2803:Recuperator
2678:Grease duct
2638:Freeze stat
2623:Fire damper
2493:Back boiler
2463:Air ionizer
2458:Air handler
2422:Ventilation
2274:Hybrid heat
2139:Air barrier
2058:Latent heat
1935:Ionocaloric
1930:Vuilleumier
1752:Hygroscopic
1560:"What's on"
1314:, 2006â2012
1224:Refrigerant
1103:John Gorrie
663:Liquid ring
457:centrifugal
408:isenthalpic
366:lower GWP.
336:, known as
280:ozone layer
194:evaporation
126:refrigerant
112:Description
47:refrigerant
3345:Categories
3071:Thermostat
2993:Humidistat
2924:Zone valve
2893:TurboSwing
2768:Oil heater
2738:Humidifier
2668:Gas heater
2618:Fan heater
2588:Evaporator
2573:Economizer
2548:Compressor
2453:Air filter
2436:Components
2253:Forced-air
2149:Antifreeze
2122:Technology
2068:Outgassing
2008:Convection
1900:Pulse tube
1872:Mixed/dual
1374:2024-01-13
1245:References
1142:The first
1076:compressor
1019:haloalkane
960:Matsushita
931:Advantages
650:jet engine
392:compressor
356:and other
354:iso-butane
244:haloalkane
223:See also:
213:defrosting
186:convection
131:compressor
49:undergoes
3181:Industry
3030:OpenTherm
2708:Heat pump
2703:Heat pipe
2653:Fume hood
2628:Fireplace
2533:Condenser
2483:Attic fan
2279:Hydronics
1895:Kleemenko
1781:Internal
1208:Heat pump
1129:Australia
1080:condenser
1035:Coca-Cola
310:(such as
302:(such as
276:catalysts
231:selection
159:condenser
152:condensed
135:condenser
106:heat pump
3288:See also
3013:LonWorks
2947:Aquastat
2813:Register
2793:Radiator
2448:Air door
2248:Firestop
2048:Humidity
2023:Enthalpy
2013:Dilution
1998:Bake-out
1986:concepts
1862:Combined
1821:Humphrey
1806:Expander
1791:Atkinson
1726:Stoddard
1716:Stirling
1711:Ericsson
1671:External
1434:Archived
1304:Archived
1180:See also
1137:Victoria
976:Tecumseh
964:Copeland
947:Carnot's
906:nitrogen
898:Ethylene
771:kilowatt
741:demister
461:hermetic
412:enthalpy
346:ethylene
320:chlorine
283:include
209:humidity
163:condense
143:throttle
75:chemical
3087:trades,
2658:Furnace
2523:Chiller
2195:Coolant
1925:Siemens
1841:Scuderi
1757:Rankine
1156:ammonia
1133:Geelong
1057:History
1047:Ammonia
972:Bristol
968:Embraco
956:Danfoss
902:propane
706:Control
699:Danfoss
523:Lysholm
388:entropy
350:propane
342:ammonia
326:(GWP).
3240:SMACNA
3200:ASHRAE
3020:(MERV)
2974:(CADR)
2952:BACnet
2905:(ULPA)
2758:Louver
2683:Grille
2558:Damper
2508:Boiler
2406:(VCRS)
2207:(DOAS)
1831:Miller
1826:Lenoir
1801:Diesel
1747:Kalina
1731:Manson
1706:Carnot
1590:
1524:
1499:
1472:
1267:
1215:(HVAC)
1168:, and
1094:waste.
1027:butane
974:, and
951:ASHRAE
910:helium
894:
881:
621:, and
601:Others
312:R-134a
248:DuPont
3280:(VOC)
3274:(SBS)
3263:(IAQ)
3220:CIBSE
3215:BSRIA
3118:(BIM)
3062:(STP)
3026:(NTP)
2648:Freon
2418:(VRF)
2412:(VAV)
2270:(HRV)
2244:(ERV)
2218:(DCV)
2191:(CAV)
1855:Mixed
767:watts
338:R-744
300:HCFCs
268:HCFCs
240:Freon
188:or a
3235:LEED
3195:AMCA
3190:AHRI
2723:HEPA
2643:Flue
2568:Duct
1867:HEHC
1836:Otto
1588:ISBN
1522:ISBN
1497:ISBN
1470:ISBN
1287:and
1265:ISBN
1078:and
1004:HFCs
989:HCFC
447:and
382:The
363:HFOs
308:HFCs
304:R-22
289:R-12
287:and
285:R-11
266:and
264:CFCs
229:The
133:, a
73:and
43:VCRS
21:VCRs
3245:UMC
3230:IIR
3210:BRE
2603:Fan
1414:doi
1172:(CH
1049:(NH
693:or
455:or
414:).
233:of
190:fan
108:).
37:or
3347::
1562:.
1544:.
1410:46
1408:.
1404:.
1163:SO
1158:,
1135:,
1045:.
1014:.
970:,
966:,
962:,
958:,
908:,
904:,
900:,
808:,
617:,
613:,
609:,
352:,
348:,
291:.
272:UV
100:,
96:,
92:,
69:,
1969:e
1962:t
1955:v
1763:)
1759:(
1688:)
1684:(
1655:e
1648:t
1641:v
1625:2
1596:.
1548:.
1530:.
1505:.
1478:.
1420:.
1416::
1377:.
1312:2
1273:.
1174:3
1165:2
1051:3
1043:2
1031:2
1025:(
238:"
41:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
