1018:
procedures. US industrial demand for helium-3 reached a peak of 70,000 litres (15,000 imp gal; 18,000 US gal) (approximately 8 kilograms (18 lb)) per year in 2008. Price at auction, historically about $ 100 per litre ($ 450/imp gal), reached as high as $ 2,000 per litre ($ 9,100/imp gal). Since then, demand for helium-3 has declined to about 6,000 litres (1,300 imp gal; 1,600 US gal) per year due to the high cost and efforts by the DOE to recycle it and find substitutes. Assuming a density of 114 grams per cubic metre (0.192 lb/cu yd) at $ 100/l helium-3 would be about a thirtieth as expensive as tritium (roughly $ 880 per gram ($ 25,000/oz) vs roughly $ 30,000 per gram ($ 850,000/oz)) while at $ 2000/l helium-3 would be about half as expensive as tritium ($ 17,540 per gram ($ 497,000/oz) vs $ 30,000 per gram ($ 850,000/oz)).
650:, about 26 cubic metres (920 cu ft) or almost 5 kilograms (11 lb) of He is available annually for separation from the US natural gas stream. If the process of separating out the He could employ as feedstock the liquefied helium typically used to transport and store bulk quantities, estimates for the incremental energy cost range from $ 34 to $ 300 per litre ($ 150 to $ 1,360/imp gal) NTP, excluding the cost of infrastructure and equipment. Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million normal cubic metres and this would contain between 7 and 24 cubic metres (250 and 850 cu ft) of helium-3 (about 1 to 4 kilograms (2.2 to 8.8 lb)) assuming a similar He fraction.
469:
1419:
1379:
1339:
1540:
1500:
1459:
1177:
1136:
1581:
2618:, and many more, though many of these concepts have fundamental problems with achieving a net energy gain, and generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible, and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big" and "hot" fusion systems, if such systems worked, they could scale to the higher barrier
1299:
45:
1218:
2305:
600:>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid He (since all materials except He have solidified and sunk to the bottom of the liquid He and any He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system.
1860:
1259:
2448:. Thus, a year's production (at 6 grams for each operation hour) would require 52.5 kilograms of helium-3. The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kW·h (1.14×10 W·h). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7
623:, thought to have become entrapped in the Earth during planetary formation. The ratio of He to He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that of estimates of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower He/He ratios due to production of He from radioactive decay.
3831:
3415:"any concentration of helium above approximately 0.2 percent is considered worthwhile examining" ... "U.S. government still owns approximately 1 billion nm of helium inventory", "Middle East and North Africa ... many very large, helium-rich (up to 0.5 percent) natural gas fields" (Smith uses nm to mean "normal
747:, which contains 28 ppm helium-4 and 2.8 ppb helium-3 (which is at the lower end of actual sample measurements, which vary from about 1.4 to 15 ppb). Terrestrial ratios of the isotopes are lower by a factor of 100, mainly due to enrichment of helium-4 stocks in the mantle by billions of years of
627:
isotopes has generated significant amounts of He, such that only around 7% of the helium now in the mantle is primordial helium, lowering the total He/He ratio to around 20 ppm. Ratios of He/He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the
2301:+ γ + 4.98 MeV. If the fusion temperature is below that for the helium nuclei to fuse, the reaction produces a high energy alpha particle which quickly acquires an electron producing a stable light helium ion which can be utilized directly as a source of electricity without producing dangerous neutrons.
1017:
Treaty in 1991 the number of nuclear warheads that are kept ready for use has decreased. This has reduced the quantity of helium-3 available from this source. Helium-3 stockpiles have been further diminished by increased demand, primarily for use in neutron radiation detectors and medical diagnostic
742:
One early estimate of the primordial ratio of He to He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of
Jupiter, measured by the mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe. This ratio is about 1:10,000, or 100 parts of He per million parts of He. This is
571:
In a zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field
1795:
signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able
1009:
and historically it was produced and stockpiled primarily for this application. The decay of tritium into helium-3 reduces the explosive power of the fusion warhead, so periodically the accumulated helium-3 must be removed from warhead reservoirs and tritium in storage. Helium-3 removed during this
645:
Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources, and large sources have over 0.5% (above 0.2% makes it viable to extract). The fraction of He in helium separated from natural gas in the U.S. was found to range from 70 to 242 parts per billion. Hence the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion
714:
deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total. Wittenberg cited
Anderson's estimate of
1033:
Currently only two commercial nuclear reactors (Watts Bar
Nuclear Plant Units 1 and 2) are being used for tritium production but the process could, if necessary, be vastly scaled up to meet any conceivable demand simply by utilizing more of the nation's power reactors. Substantial quantities of
674:
10 lb), the mass of He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or about 37,000 tonnes (36,000 long tons; 41,000 short tons) of He. (In fact the effective figure is ten times smaller, since the above ppm are ppmv and not ppmw. One must multiply by 3 (the molecular mass of
626:
He has a cosmological ratio of 300 atoms per million atoms of He (at. ppm), leading to the assumption that the original ratio of these primordial gases in the mantle was around 200-300 ppm when Earth was formed. Over Earth's history alpha-particle decay of uranium, thorium and other radioactive
2596:
claimed that their 7th fusion prototype (Polaris; fully funded and under construction as of
September 2022) will demonstrate "net electricity from fusion", and will demonstrate "helium-3 production through deuterium–deuterium fusion" by means of a "patented high-efficiency closed-fuel cycle".
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are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–He fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with
3335:"Table II. He Abundance of Natural Gas ... He in ppm ... Aldrich 0.05 – 0.5 ... Sano 0.46 – 22.7", "Table V. ... of Water ... He in ppm ... 1.6 – 1.8 East Pacific ... 0.006 – 1.5 Manitoba Chalk River ... 164 Japan Sea" (Aldrich measured Helium from US wells, Sano that of Taiwan gas:
455:
is also lower at 3.35 K, compared with helium-4 at 5.2 K. Helium-3 has less than half the density of helium-4 when it is at its boiling point: 59 g/L compared to 125 g/L of helium-4 at a pressure of one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026
2684:, launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals. No such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, though many of its scientific payloads have held helium-3-related applications.
2568:). In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050. In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D–T fusion. The reason for this is the very low
4213:
572:
and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a
4022:
985:
Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen and is typically produced by bombarding lithium-6 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. The lithium nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into helium-4 and tritium. Tritium decays into helium-3 with a half-life of
966:
from tritium can penetrate only about 6.0 millimetres (0.24 in) of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin. The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of
3587:
Niemann, Hasso B.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Carignan, George R.; Donahue, Thomas M.; Haberman, John A.; Harpold, Dan N.; Hartle, Richard E.; Hunten, Donald M.; et al. (1996). "The
Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer: Composition of Jupiter's Atmosphere".
1029:
in 2010. In this process tritium-producing burnable absorber rods (TPBARs) containing lithium in a ceramic form are inserted into the reactor in place of the normal boron control rods
Periodically the TPBARs are replaced and the tritium extracted.
665:
10 psi), and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (101325 Pa) in the Earth's atmosphere, and He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about
2312:
increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion
2705:
has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation "each year, three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world".
551:
discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which were soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3. The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996
1076:
2363:, can be contained by means of electric and magnetic fields. The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process) will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation.
4167:
3675:
2605:
To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D–T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–He fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed – the
693:
The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 0.1–1 megatonne (98,000–984,000 long tons; 110,000–1,100,000 short tons). Most mantle is not directly accessible. Some helium-3 leaks up through deep-sourced
320:, not release the dangerous radiation of traditional fusion or require much higher temperatures. The process may unavoidably create other reactions that themselves would cause the surrounding material to become radioactive.
4704:
686:, and beta decay of tritium (H). The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of He by
4029:
2444:. If the total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a gigawatt electrical plant per mole of
2726:
in 2015, characterises helium-3 extraction from the Moon for use in fusion as magical thinking about an unproven technology, and questions the feasibility of lunar extraction, as compared to production on Earth.
1704:
had hoped to deploy detectors to spot smuggled plutonium in shipping containers by their neutron emissions, but the worldwide shortage of helium-3 following the drawdown in nuclear weapons production since the
4882:
The belief in helium-3 mining is a great example of a myth that has been incorporated into the larger enthusiasm for human spaceflight, a magical incantation that is murmured, but rarely actually discussed.
1791:
is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the
3829:, Sur, Bhaskar; Rodrigo, Lakshman & Didsbury, Richard, "System and method for collecting He gas from heavy water nuclear reactors", published 30 September 2013, issued 2013
2409:
reaction. It offers a theoretical reaction that produces no neutrons; the charged protons produced can be contained in electric and magnetic fields, which in turn directly generates electricity.
1062:
4910:
NASA Technical
Memorandum 2006-214122. AIAA–2005–4319. Prepared for the 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit cosponsored by AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE, Tucson, Arizona, July 10–13, 2005.
1836:(JET) have experimented with adding a little helium-3 to a H–D plasma to increase the absorption of radio-frequency (RF) energy to heat the hydrogen and deuterium ions, a "three-ion" effect.
2673:. Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 150 tonnes of regolith to obtain one gram of helium-3).
523:. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. Many speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into
3836:
4145:
409:. Also, the microscopic properties of helium-3 cause it to have a higher zero-point energy than helium-4. This implies that helium-3 can overcome dipole–dipole interactions with less
2490:
conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70% may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive a
2452:
per year of helium-3 would be required for that segment of the energy demand of the United States, 15 to 20 tonnes per year given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.
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675:
helium-3) and divide by 29 (the mean molecular mass of the atmosphere), resulting in 3,828 tonnes (3,768 long tons; 4,220 short tons) of helium-3 in the earth's atmosphere.)
1042:
fleet, are both known to extract tritium from moderator/coolant heavy water, but those amounts are not nearly enough to satisfy global demand of either tritium or helium-3.
2828:
2394:
fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D–T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction.
4955:
1049:(see the article on tritium for details), extraction from those sources could be another source of helium-3. If the annual discharge of tritium (per 2018 figures) at
4065:
Leawoods, Jason C.; Yablonskiy, Dmitriy A.; Saam, Brian; Gierada, David S.; Conradi, Mark S. (2001). "Hyperpolarized He Gas
Production and MR Imaging of the Lung".
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809:
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is taken as a basis, the amounts discharged (31.2 grams (1.10 oz) at La Hague) are not nearly enough to satisfy demand, even if 100% recovery is achieved.
642:
from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4. Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million.
4746:
2474:. The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of
3104:
3872:[2020 Environmental Radiation Survey and Evaluation Report Around Nuclear Power Plant]. Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power. 26 April 2021. p. 25.
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Sano, Yuji; Wakita, Hiroshi; Huang, Chin-Wang (September 1986). "Helium flux in a continental land area estimated from He/He ratio in northern Taiwan".
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than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water
2378:. Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D–D reaction (
5076:
4475:
3719:
990:, so helium-3 can be produced by simply storing the tritium until it undergoes radioactive decay. As tritium forms a stable compound with oxygen (
3322:
Aldrich, L.T.; Nier, Alfred O. Phys. Rev. 74, 1590 – 1594 (1948). The
Occurrence of He3 in Natural Sources of Helium. Page 1592, Tables I and II.
4285:
3826:
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5012:
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4137:
3479:
Davidson, Thomas A.; Emerson, David E. (1990). Method and
Apparatus for Direct Determination of Helium-3 in Natural Gas and Helium (Report).
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1805:
1510:
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Helium three: proceedings of the Second Symposium on Liquid and Solid Helium Three, held at the Ohio State University, August 23--25, 1960
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particles on the ocean floors. In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release.
4983:
3886:
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2506:
There have been many claims about the capabilities of helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on
2413:
fusion is feasible as demonstrated in the laboratory and has immense advantages, but commercial viability is many years in the future.
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2889:"Global inventory of Helium-3 in lunar regoliths estimated by a multi-channel microwave radiometer on the Chang-E 1 lunar satellite"
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and the fusion protons. High speed protons, as positively charged particles, can have their kinetic energy converted directly into
1021:
The DOE recognized the developing shortage of both tritium and helium-3, and began producing tritium by lithium irradiation at the
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are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity.
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2405:), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus is even more difficult than the D-
1050:
2572:
for this reaction; for D+He, the barrier is much higher, and it is even higher for He–He. The immense cost of reactors like
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Not all writers feel the extraction of lunar helium-3 is feasible, or even that there will be a demand for it for fusion.
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normal m would have contained about 12 to 43 kilograms (26 to 95 lb) of helium-3. According to American physicist
557:
3236:
Osheroff, D. D.; Gully, W. J.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (1972). "New Magnetic Phenomena in Liquid He below 3 mK".
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announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020, if funding can be found.
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1804:. This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as
2577:
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helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. This effect is employed in
1631:
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561:
1878:
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568:
won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.
476:
An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a
3108:
1658:
beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction
1591:
548:
4437:"Mining the Moon: Lab experiments suggest that future fusion reactors could use helium-3 gathered from the moon"
661:
10 (1.38 parts per million). The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 0.52 pascals (7.5
1013:
For decades this has been, and remains, the principal source of the world's helium-3. Since the signing of the
323:
Helium-3 is thought to be more abundant on the Moon than on Earth, having been deposited in the upper layer of
2661:
in permanently shadowed regions. A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to
5085:
978:
The low energy of tritium's radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using
3199:
2662:
2390:
reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D–D reaction rate (see graph). Therefore, fusion using D–
1797:
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351:
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31:
3902:
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nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy by-product, the
971:) appropriate for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory (the most recent experiment being
553:
3921:
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3332:
2420:
are substantial by comparison to amounts currently available. The total amount of energy produced in the
798:
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Gentile, T.R.; Jones, G.L.; Thompson, A.K.; Barker, J.; Glinka, C.J.; Hammouda, B.; Lynn, J.W. (2000).
654:
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Discovering Alvarez: selected works of Luis W. Alvarez, with commentary by his students and colleagues
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287:
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3621:
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3370:
3271:
Leggett, A. J. (1972). "Interpretation of Recent Results on He below 3 mK: A New Liquid Phase?".
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1674:, or protons (p, H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a
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The ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly. Samples of the
401:
different from those of helium-4, with a mass of 4.0026 u. On account of the weak, induced
3080:
405:
between the helium atoms, their microscopic physical properties are mainly determined by their
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infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an
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Chase, C. E.; Zimmerman, G. O. (1973). "Measurements of P-V-T and Critical Indices of He".
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539:. Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s,
508:
for quantized angular momentum. At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a
5004:
Return to the Moon: Exploration, Enterprise, and Energy in the Human Settlement of Space
4943:
4686:
Wisconsin Center for Space Automation and Robotics Technical Report WCSAR-TR-AR3-9311-2.
4604:
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4168:"Efficient generation of energetic ions in multi-ion plasmas by radio-frequency heating"
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using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping. During this process,
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has to some extent prevented this. As of 2012, DHS determined the commercial supply of
786:
Virtually all helium-3 used in industry today is produced from the radioactive decay of
596:=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum,
4550:
Todd Rider. "A general critique of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion systems".
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Helium.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Nuclear Bomb Detectors Stopped by Material Shortage
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Production, sales and distribution of helium-3 in the United States are managed by the
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298:. Some found in the terrestrial atmosphere is a remnant of atmospheric and underwater
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2585:(17.6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for
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Luna C/I:: Chandrayaan-1 Payload Feature #2: Sub KeV Atom Reflecting Analyser (SARA)
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The reality is not so clear-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are
440:, but with one fewer neutron, helium-3 has an overall spin of one half, making it a
4665:"The challenge of mining He-3 on the lunar surface: how all the parts fit together"
4102:
Altes, Talissa; Salerno, Michael (2004). "Hyperpolarized Gas Imaging of the Lung".
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over billions of years, though still lower in abundance than in the Solar System's
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would support converting its neutron detection infrastructure to that technology.
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waste disposal requirements. Recent estimates suggest that about $ 6 billion in
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3194:
1796:
to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the
1034:
tritium and helium-3 could also be extracted from the heavy water moderator in
5162:
5157:
4825:
4795:
4633:
3962:
3443:
2691:
2545:
plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand.
2347:") fusion process produces energetic neutrons which render reactor components
1734:
1187:
829:
707:
679:
532:
513:
420:
effects on helium-3 and helium-4 are significantly different because with two
328:
295:
267:
192:
4264:
3366:
5146:
3640:"Isotope Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA)"
3128:
2747:
interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of
2736:
2515:
2507:
2460:
2429:
2336:
2304:
1940:
1809:
1234:
1193:
1152:
1122:
1103:
805:
804:
While tritium has several different experimentally determined values of its
639:
332:
132:
4336:
4123:
3706:
3057:
3013:
2986:
2785:
5089:: A BBC Horizon documentary on the possibility of lunar mining of Helium-3
4009:
3671:"Comprehensive Review and Critical Evaluation of the Half-Life of Tritium"
3617:
5132:
5110:
4200:
3688:
3676:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
3389:
WebElements Periodic Table: Professional Edition: Helium: key information
2666:
2611:
2542:
2170:
1784:
1710:
1706:
951:
890:
702:, but only 300 grams (11 oz) per year is emitted to the atmosphere.
628:
429:
378:
361:
collided with deuteron targets (incidentally, the first demonstration of
358:
324:
248:
240:
4555:
3884:
A Modular Neutron Detector | Summer 2003| Los Alamos National Laboratory
3524:
3499:
2950:
Cocks, F. H. (2010). "He in permanently shadowed lunar polar surfaces".
17:
3331:
Holden, Normen E. 1993. Helium Isotopic Abundance Variation in Nature.
3171:
3036:
Alvarez, Luis; Cornog, Robert (1939). "Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3".
3022:
2913:
Slyuta, E. N.; Abdrakhimov, A. M.; Galimov, E. M. (March 12–16, 2007).
2748:
2491:
2383:
2340:
1994:
1780:
1667:
1223:
1038:
nuclear reactors. India and Canada, the two countries with the largest
1014:
958:, while the remaining energy is carried off by the nearly undetectable
787:
781:
756:
752:
657:. The natural abundance of He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38
635:
477:
441:
425:
343:
The existence of helium-3 was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian
283:
252:
236:
224:
188:
4951:
4923:
Smith, D. M.; Goodwin, T. W.; Schillinger, J. A. (26 September 2003).
4191:
472:
Phase diagram for Helium-3. Bcc - body-centered cubic crystal lattice.
377:
until it was also found in samples of natural helium, which is mostly
5123:
4088:
3358:
2471:
2360:
1817:
1738:
1726:
1545:
1505:
1464:
1344:
1264:
999:
972:
448:
421:
232:
228:
4529:
3764:
Accelerator Production of Tritium – That Could Mean 40 Years of Work
2821:"Is MOON's Sci-Fi Vision of Lunar Helium 3 Mining Based in Reality?"
2529:
will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion
994:) while helium-3 does not, the storage and collection process could
2607:
2449:
2303:
1424:
1384:
1045:
As tritium is also produced inadvertently in various processes in
1035:
491:
467:
437:
4925:"Challenges to the worldwide supply of helium in the next decade"
2653:'s surface contain helium-3 at concentrations between 1.4 and 15
584:=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero,
4590:"The estimation of helium-3 probable reserves in lunar regolith"
2650:
2573:
2561:
2433:
313:
3444:
The Helium-3 Shortage: Supply, Demand, and Options for Congress
790:, given its very low natural abundance and its very high cost.
4782:
Russian Rocket Builder Aims for Moon Base by 2015, Reports Say
2916:
The Estimation of Helium-3 Probable Reserves in Lunar Regolith
2657:
in sunlit areas, and may contain concentrations as much as 50
2479:
2272:
2238:
2205:
2159:
2111:
2063:
2020:
1975:
1853:
1697:, a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter.
4753:. Luna-ci.blogspot.com (2008-11-12). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3500:"The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses"
2922:. 38th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p. 2175.
30:
This article is about the isotope. For the record label, see
715:
another 1,200 tonnes (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) in
255:
with more protons than neutrons. It was discovered in 1939.
4982:. Second Wisconsin Symposium on Helium-3 and Fusion Power.
3936:"SANS polarization analysis with nuclear spin-polarized He"
2320:
can be used in fusion reactions by either of the reactions
286:
is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by
274:
over millions of years. It is also thought to be a natural
4796:"Moonscam: Russians try to sell the Moon for foreign cash"
4772:. Chinadaily.com.cn (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3105:"Lawrence and His Laboratory: Episode: A Productive Error"
308:
using helium-3 has long been viewed as a desirable future
3858:. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. 13 April 2021.
706:
emit another 3 kilograms per year (8.2 g/d). Around
2985:
Oliphant, M. L. E.; Harteck, P.; Rutherford, E. (1934).
1650:
Helium-3 is an important isotope in instrumentation for
4697:"With He-3 on mind, India gets ready for lunar mission"
4588:
E. N. Slyuta; A. M. Abdrakhimov; E. M. Galimov (2007).
3193:
Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (1972).
3912:. Ncnr.nist.gov (2004-04-28). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
381:, taken both from the terrestrial atmosphere and from
2779:
Galli, D. (September 2004). "The cosmic saga of He".
1654:. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal
1634:, which are underway at the Surface Physics Group at
5074:
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech
3853:"Basic policy on handling of the ALPS treated water"
2987:"Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen"
2416:
The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for
1824:
Radio energy absorber for tokamak plasma experiments
1725:
uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3
678:
He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium
4784:. Associated Press (via space.com). 26 January 2006
1057:
Annual discharge of tritium from nuclear facilities
365:). Isolation of helium-3 was first accomplished by
357:. Oliphant had performed experiments in which fast
182:
164:
151:
131:
119:
112:
95:
78:
66:
56:
51:
4464:Date from the US Energy Information Administration
3561:Page A-1 citing Anderson 1993, "1200 metric tonne"
3442:Shea, Dana A.; Morgan, Daniel (22 December 2010).
3072:
2945:
2943:
2626:, which requires no exotic fuel such as helium-3.
2386:. Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D–
2374:fusion are much higher than those of conventional
2286:can be produced by the low temperature fusion of
243:, has two protons and two neutrons.) Helium-3 and
4734:. Isro.org (2008-11-11). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
1733:uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach
3573:Page A-4 "1 kg (He), pumping power would be 1.13
3107:. Newsmagazine Publication. 1981. Archived from
1685:Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly
1638:in Cambridge and in the Chemistry Department at
4932:American Institute of Physics Conference Series
3924:. Ill.eu (2010-10-22). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3733:"Savannah River Tritium Enterprise: Fact Sheet"
2622:fuels, and so their proponents tend to promote
2355:. The appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the
27:Helium isotope with two protons and one neutron
4896:"Atmospheric Mining in the Outer Solar System"
1737:temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a
4578:. Fti.neep.wisc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
4569:FTI Research Projects :: He Lunar Mining
4166:Kazakov, Ye. O.; et al. (19 June 2017).
3797:. Spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3795:Physics Projects Deflate for Lack of Helium-3
3669:Lucas, L. L. & Unterweger, M. P. (2000).
3577:10 MWyr ... fusion power derived ... 19 MWyr"
1070:
954:'s kinetic energy varies, with an average of
743:roughly the same ratio of the isotopes as in
460:compared with the 0.0829 kJ/mol of helium-4.
8:
2533:. Financial break even at today's wholesale
1806:chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
1010:process is marketed for other applications.
728:
619:He is a primordial substance in the Earth's
519:that can be roughly understood as a type of
37:
4236:"Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion"
4140:MIT Achieves Breakthrough in Nuclear Fusion
3498:Smith, Lesley; Trenberth, Kevin E. (2005).
3398:. Webelements.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
2709:In January 2006, the Russian space company
2510:and helium-3 would offer lower capital and
2455:A second-generation approach to controlled
5103:
4634:"A fascinating hour with Gerald Kulcinski"
3776:Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 1
3408:
3406:
3404:
3318:
3316:
1077:
1063:
1055:
504:particles. This is a direct result of the
451:compared with helium-4 at 4.23 K, and its
43:
5024:The properties of liquid and solid helium
4199:
4078:
3696:
3644:US Department of Energy Office of Science
3523:
3220:
3071:Alvarez, Luis W; Peter Trower, W (1987).
3012:
2784:
2739:for helium-3 has also been proposed. The
1632:spin echo experiments of surface dynamics
393:Due to its low atomic mass of 3.016
239:. (In contrast, the most common isotope,
3079:. University of Chicago Press. pp.
1873:: vague phrasing that often accompanies
480:since it contains an odd number of spin
4012:. Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3304:
3302:
3129:Teragon's Summary of Cryogen Properties
2771:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3195:"Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He"
2887:Fa WenZhe; Jin YaQiu (December 2010).
2459:power involves combining helium-3 and
1905:
710:, various sources produce helium-3 in
373:in 1939. Helium-3 was thought to be a
36:
4872:from the original on 27 December 2018
4385:John Santarius (September 28, 2004).
3720:Nuclide safety data sheet: Hydrogen-3
1511:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station
7:
4663:I.N. Sviatoslavsky (November 1993).
4644:from the original on January 9, 2011
3922:He-spin-filters/ ILL He spin filters
3893:. Lanl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.
3816:Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2005.
3650:from the original on 19 October 2011
3419:", elsewhere called "cubic metre at
2868:from the original on 22 October 2017
1551:Pickering Nuclear Generating Station
1027:Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station
494:, containing an even number of spin
4632:Eric R. Hedman (January 16, 2006).
4597:Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII
3766:. Los Alamos Monitor. March 1, 1998
2831:from the original on 30 August 2017
1005:Tritium is a critical component of
946:Among the total released energy of
738:Solar nebula (primordial) abundance
5042:Exotic properties of superfluid He
4838:from the original on June 15, 2023
4826:"Death throes and grand delusions"
4802:from the original on June 15, 2023
4216:from the original on 1 August 2020
4116:10.1097/01.rti.0000142837.52729.38
3990:Neutron Spin Filters: Polarized He
3151:Journal of Low Temperature Physics
2992:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
2678:Indian Space Research Organisation
1787:inside a sealed glass vessel. The
1749:Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic
25:
4435:Mark Williams (August 23, 2007).
3460:from the original on 4 March 2016
2703:Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
2220:
576:-wave superfluid, with spin one,
4794:James Oberg (February 6, 2006).
4763:He asked for the moon-and got it
3785:. IEER. Retrieved on 2011-11-08;
3487:. Report of Investigations 9302.
2761:List of elements facing shortage
2428:, which corresponds to some 493
2370:, the temperatures required for
1858:
1798:alveolar oxygen partial pressure
1579:
1538:
1498:
1470:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station
1457:
1417:
1377:
1337:
1297:
1257:
1216:
1175:
1134:
447:Pure helium-3 gas boils at 3.19
4989:from the original on 2021-01-17
4961:from the original on 2015-01-04
4707:from the original on 2008-09-21
4614:from the original on 2008-07-05
4447:from the original on 2010-12-30
4367:from the original on 2000-02-01
4242:from the original on 2021-01-26
4148:from the original on 2020-08-01
4008:Wald, Matthew L.. (2009-11-22)
3972:from the original on 2012-04-02
3745:from the original on 2016-12-22
2929:from the original on 2008-07-05
2895:from the original on 2017-10-11
2825:Scientific American – News Blog
2641:Lunar resources § Helium-3
2397:The second possibility, fusing
1702:Department of Homeland Security
698:volcanoes such as those of the
631:produced by radioactive decay.
490:particles. Helium-4 nuclei are
5062:. Ohio State University Press.
4973:L.J. Wittenberg (July 1994) .
4067:Concepts in Magnetic Resonance
3870:"2020년도 원전주변 환경방사능 조사 및 평가보고서"
3451:Congressional Research Service
2741:British Interplanetary Society
2121:Third-generation fusion fuels
2073:Second-generation fusion fuel
1934:First-generation fusion fuels
1051:La Hague reprocessing facility
828:). It decays into helium-3 by
580:=1, and angular momentum one,
1:
3485:US Department of the Interior
1695:neutron polarization analysis
1229:Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant
1147:Heysham nuclear power station
980:liquid scintillation counting
832:as in this nuclear equation:
127:0.001% (% He in Solar System)
5049:W. P. Halperin, ed. (1990).
4474:Paul DiMare (October 2004).
4310:John Santarius (June 2006).
4261:"Nuclear Fission and Fusion"
3610:10.1126/science.272.5263.846
2972:10.1016/j.icarus.2009.12.032
2850:Close, Frank (August 2007).
2819:Matson, John (12 Jun 2009).
2701:who is now in charge of the
2680:'s first lunar probe called
2466:. This reaction produces an
1430:Sanmen Nuclear Power Station
1350:Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant
1310:Wolseong Nuclear Power Plant
512:: A fraction of it enters a
350:while he was working at the
3293:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1227
2800:Ley, Willy (October 1966).
2699:Chinese Academy of Sciences
2558:magnetic confinement fusion
2550:inertial confinement fusion
2541:) would occur after five 1-
1802:ventilation/perfusion ratio
1689:-dependent, which allows a
1630:Helium-3 can be used to do
1270:La Hague reprocessing plant
836:
312:. The fusion of two of its
5228:
5035:. Oxford University Press.
5026:. Oxford University Press.
4862:"The helium-3 incantation"
3412:
3258:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.920
3222:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885
2638:
2578:National Ignition Facility
2554:National Ignition Facility
1885:Such statements should be
1843:
1662:n + He → H + H + 0.764 MeV
1390:Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant
1023:Tennessee Valley Authority
1002:from the stored material.
998:collect the material that
779:
653:He is also present in the
612:
432:, helium-4 has an overall
205:Complete table of nuclides
29:
5058:J. G. Daunt, ed. (1960).
3963:10.1107/S0021889800099817
3903:NCNR Neutron Spin Filters
3570:
3558:
3546:
3308:
2676:The primary objective of
2669:and use the helium-3 for
2587:helium-3 fusion reactions
2247:
2214:
2120:
2072:
1933:
1592:Diablo Canyon Power Plant
549:Robert Coleman Richardson
403:dipole–dipole interaction
199:
125:0.000137% (% He on Earth)
42:
3839:23 December 2015 at the
2804:. For Your Information.
2432:(4.93×10 W·h) per three
1911:for different reactions
1763:, and a relatively high
1636:the Cavendish Laboratory
521:Bose–Einstein condensate
3333:copy of paper BNL-49331
3273:Physical Review Letters
3238:Physical Review Letters
3200:Physical Review Letters
2802:"The Delayed Discovery"
2537:prices (5 US cents per
2478:fields to control fuel
2215:Net result of D burning
1666:into charged particles
795:US Department of Energy
729:Extraterrestrial mining
352:University of Cambridge
300:nuclear weapons testing
32:Helium 3 (record label)
5040:G. E. Volovik (1992).
4976:Non-Lunar He Resources
4860:(September 28, 2015).
4053:Dilution Refrigeration
3138:Teragon Research, 2005
3058:10.1103/PhysRev.56.613
3014:10.1098/rspa.1934.0077
2806:Galaxy Science Fiction
2366:Because of the higher
2314:
2217:(sum of first 4 rows)
554:Nobel Prize in Physics
473:
251:) are the only stable
5001:H.H. Schmitt (2005).
4441:MIT Technology Review
4286:"The Fusion Reaction"
2852:"Fears Over Factoids"
2639:Further information:
2518:, and only low-level
2307:
2248:Current nuclear fuel
1731:dilution refrigerator
1723:helium-3 refrigerator
1190:reprocessing facility
960:electron antineutrino
765:extinct radionuclides
609:Terrestrial abundance
556:for their discovery.
471:
436:of zero, making it a
258:Helium-3 occurs as a
223:) is a light, stable
5207:Nuclear fusion fuels
5031:E. R. Dobbs (2000).
4312:"A Strategy for D –
3943:J. Appl. Crystallogr
3689:10.6028/jres.105.043
3549:p. 3, Table 1; p. 9.
2861:. Physicsworld.com.
2859:CERN Document Server
2767:Notes and references
2601:Alternatives to He-3
2496:electrical generator
2330:He + He → He + 2 p
1887:clarified or removed
1834:Joint European Torus
1773:circularly polarized
1676:proportional counter
1047:light water reactors
950:, the part taken by
615:Isotope geochemistry
397:, helium-3 has some
355:Cavendish Laboratory
282:, one produced when
74:tralphium (obsolete)
72:helium-3, 3He, He-3,
5044:. World Scientific.
4944:2004AIPC..710..119S
4894:Bryan Palaszewski.
4605:2007LPI....38.2175S
4505:"ITER & Beyond"
4361:"Nuclear Reactions"
4184:2017NatPh..13..973K
4023:"Office of Science"
3955:2000JApCr..33..771G
3646:. 18 October 2018.
3602:1996Sci...272..846N
3525:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1
3516:2005JCli...18..864T
3351:1986Natur.323...55S
3285:1972PhRvL..29.1227L
3250:1972PhRvL..29..920O
3213:1972PhRvL..28..885O
3164:1973JLTP...11..551C
3050:1939PhRv...56..613A
3005:1934RSPSA.144..692O
2964:2010Icar..206..778C
2808:. pp. 116–127.
2353:activation products
1912:
1085:
1040:heavy water reactor
799:DOE Isotope Program
717:interplanetary dust
670:10 kilograms (1.133
413:than helium-4 can.
399:physical properties
389:Physical properties
375:radioactive isotope
288:spontaneous fission
39:
5202:Isotopes of helium
5094:2023-06-15 at the
5079:2008-07-23 at the
4768:2023-06-15 at the
4749:2019-07-20 at the
4730:2009-10-12 at the
4701:The Times Of India
4574:2006-09-04 at the
3995:2011-10-16 at the
3908:2007-05-20 at the
3889:2008-05-03 at the
3812:2016-08-27 at the
3807:Tritium Production
3781:2006-09-27 at the
3762:Charmian Schaller
3504:Journal of Climate
3394:2008-05-09 at the
3172:10.1007/BF00654447
3134:2017-08-09 at the
2786:astro-ph/0412380v1
2470:and a high-energy
2424:reaction is 18.4 M
2418:conventional fuels
2315:
1906:
1800:, and measure the
1767:. Helium-3 can be
1765:magnetogyric ratio
1700:The United States
1680:Geiger–Müller tube
1640:Swansea University
1626:Helium-3 spin echo
1056:
655:Earth's atmosphere
474:
418:quantum mechanical
280:cosmogenic nuclide
260:primordial nuclide
201:Isotopes of helium
5190:
5189:
5022:J. Wilks (1967).
5014:978-0-387-24285-9
4952:10.1063/1.1774674
4824:(March 5, 2007).
4480:Popular Mechanics
4476:"Mining The Moon"
4405:and Fusion Power"
4192:10.1038/nphys4167
3279:(18): 1227–1230.
3090:978-0-226-81304-2
2649:Materials on the
2502:He-3 power plants
2486:, through use of
2382:) does produce a
2335:The conventional
2322:H + He → He + p
2281:
2280:
1904:
1903:
1846:Aneutronic fusion
1652:neutron detection
1646:Neutron detection
1618:
1617:
942:
941:
759:as well as their
604:Natural abundance
537:superconductivity
407:zero-point energy
345:nuclear physicist
292:nuclear reactions
210:
209:
121:Natural abundance
38:Helium-3, He
16:(Redirected from
5219:
5104:
5063:
5054:
5053:. North-Holland.
5045:
5036:
5027:
5018:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4988:
4981:
4969:
4967:
4966:
4960:
4929:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4901:. Archived from
4900:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4879:
4877:
4866:The Space Review
4854:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4843:
4831:The Space Review
4818:
4812:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4760:
4754:
4741:
4735:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4693:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4676:
4670:. Archived from
4669:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4638:The Space Review
4629:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4619:
4613:
4594:
4585:
4579:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4507:. Archived from
4501:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4491:
4482:. Archived from
4471:
4465:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4432:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4416:
4410:. Archived from
4409:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4395:
4394:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4372:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4347:
4341:
4335:. Archived from
4334:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4320:
4319:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4288:. Archived from
4282:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4263:. Archived from
4257:
4251:
4250:
4248:
4247:
4232:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4221:
4203:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4153:
4134:
4128:
4127:
4104:J Thorac Imaging
4099:
4093:
4092:
4089:10.1002/cmr.1014
4082:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4034:
4028:. Archived from
4027:
4019:
4013:
4006:
4000:
3987:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3971:
3940:
3931:
3925:
3919:
3913:
3900:
3894:
3881:
3875:
3873:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3849:
3843:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3817:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3773:
3767:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3729:
3723:
3722:. ehso.emory.edu
3717:
3711:
3710:
3700:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3584:
3578:
3576:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3527:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3459:
3448:
3439:
3424:
3410:
3399:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3359:10.1038/323055a0
3329:
3323:
3320:
3311:
3306:
3297:
3296:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3145:
3139:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3078:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3016:
2999:(853): 692–703.
2982:
2976:
2975:
2947:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2928:
2921:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2867:
2856:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2776:
2745:Project Daedalus
2743:'s hypothetical
2723:The Space Review
2663:explore the Moon
2630:Extraterrestrial
2464:
2447:
2443:
2423:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2389:
2381:
2373:
2331:
2323:
2319:
2300:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2258:
2233:
2224:
2201:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2183:
2182:
2173:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2146:
2145:
2136:
2128:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2097:
2088:
2080:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2050:
2049:
2040:
2032:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2007:
2006:
1997:
1987:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1962:
1961:
1952:
1944:
1913:
1899:
1896:
1890:
1862:
1861:
1854:
1832:tokamak and the
1789:angular momentum
1762:
1761:
1757:
1670:ions (T, H) and
1585:
1583:
1582:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1092:Nuclear facility
1086:
1079:
1072:
1065:
989:
957:
949:
938:
937:
935:
934:
927:
924:
923:
908:
907:
905:
904:
897:
896:
881:
880:
879:
872:
871:
857:
856:
855:
848:
847:
837:
827:
825:
819:
817:
771:Human production
708:subduction zones
704:Mid-ocean ridges
700:Hawaiian Islands
673:
669:
664:
660:
558:Alexei Abrikosov
545:Douglas Osheroff
510:phase transition
503:
502:
498:
489:
488:
484:
262:, escaping from
178:
177:
173:
144:
105:
88:
47:
40:
21:
5227:
5226:
5222:
5221:
5220:
5218:
5217:
5216:
5192:
5191:
5183:
5175:
5155:
5144:
5130:
5117:
5116:Helium-3 is an
5108:
5101:
5096:Wayback Machine
5081:Wayback Machine
5070:
5057:
5048:
5039:
5030:
5021:
5015:
5000:
4992:
4990:
4986:
4979:
4972:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4927:
4922:
4919:
4914:
4905:
4898:
4893:
4892:
4888:
4875:
4873:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4841:
4839:
4820:
4819:
4815:
4805:
4803:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4780:
4776:
4770:Wayback Machine
4761:
4757:
4751:Wayback Machine
4742:
4738:
4732:Wayback Machine
4723:
4719:
4710:
4708:
4695:
4694:
4690:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4667:
4662:
4661:
4657:
4647:
4645:
4631:
4630:
4626:
4617:
4615:
4611:
4592:
4587:
4586:
4582:
4576:Wayback Machine
4567:
4563:
4549:
4548:
4544:
4534:
4532:
4528:
4527:
4523:
4514:
4512:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4489:
4487:
4473:
4472:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4450:
4448:
4434:
4433:
4429:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4407:
4401:
4399:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4391:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4384:
4383:
4379:
4370:
4368:
4359:
4358:
4354:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4332:
4326:
4324:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4308:
4304:
4295:
4293:
4284:
4283:
4279:
4270:
4268:
4259:
4258:
4254:
4245:
4243:
4234:
4233:
4229:
4219:
4217:
4178:(10): 973–978.
4165:
4164:
4160:
4151:
4149:
4136:
4135:
4131:
4101:
4100:
4096:
4080:10.1.1.492.8128
4064:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4021:
4020:
4016:
4007:
4003:
3997:Wayback Machine
3988:
3984:
3975:
3973:
3969:
3938:
3933:
3932:
3928:
3920:
3916:
3910:Wayback Machine
3901:
3897:
3891:Wayback Machine
3882:
3878:
3868:
3867:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3850:
3846:
3841:Wayback Machine
3832:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3814:Wayback Machine
3805:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3783:Wayback Machine
3774:
3770:
3761:
3757:
3748:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3718:
3714:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3651:
3638:
3637:
3633:
3596:(5263): 846–9.
3586:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3571:Wittenberg 1994
3569:
3565:
3559:Wittenberg 1994
3557:
3553:
3547:Wittenberg 1994
3545:
3541:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3481:Bureau of Mines
3478:
3477:
3473:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3446:
3441:
3440:
3427:
3411:
3402:
3396:Wayback Machine
3387:
3383:
3345:(6083): 55–57.
3336:
3330:
3326:
3321:
3314:
3309:Wittenberg 1994
3307:
3300:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3244:(14): 920–923.
3235:
3234:
3230:
3207:(14): 885–888.
3192:
3191:
3187:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3136:Wayback Machine
3127:
3123:
3114:
3112:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3038:Physical Review
3035:
3034:
3030:
2984:
2983:
2979:
2949:
2948:
2941:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2898:
2896:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2871:
2869:
2865:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2834:
2832:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2757:
2751:, for example.
2733:
2647:
2637:
2632:
2603:
2570:Coulomb barrier
2566:Wendelstein 7-X
2512:operating costs
2504:
2462:
2445:
2441:
2421:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2371:
2368:Coulomb barrier
2329:
2321:
2317:
2298:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2253:
2231:
2222:
2216:
2199:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2126:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1993:
1985:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1939:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1884:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1842:
1826:
1814:cystic fibrosis
1759:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1745:Medical imaging
1719:
1648:
1628:
1623:
1580:
1578:
1539:
1537:
1499:
1497:
1458:
1456:
1418:
1416:
1378:
1376:
1338:
1336:
1298:
1296:
1275:English Channel
1258:
1256:
1217:
1215:
1176:
1174:
1135:
1133:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1101:
1096:
1084:
1083:
1007:nuclear weapons
992:tritiated water
988:12.3 years
987:
955:
947:
933:
930:
929:
928:
925:
922:
920:
919:
918:
916:
915:
903:
901:
900:
899:
895:
893:
892:
891:
889:
888:
878:
876:
875:
874:
870:
867:
866:
865:
864:
854:
852:
851:
850:
846:
843:
842:
841:
840:
826:0.02 years
823:
821:
815:
813:
784:
778:
773:
740:
733:Lunar resources
725:
671:
667:
662:
658:
617:
611:
606:
562:Vitaly Ginzburg
500:
496:
495:
486:
482:
481:
466:
391:
341:
203:
184:Parent isotopes
175:
171:
170:
142:
135:
126:
99:
82:
73:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5225:
5223:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5194:
5193:
5188:
5187:
5177:
5168:
5137:
5136:
5127:
5114:
5099:
5098:
5083:
5069:
5068:External links
5066:
5065:
5064:
5055:
5046:
5037:
5028:
5019:
5013:
4998:
4970:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4912:
4908:on 2009-03-27.
4886:
4849:
4813:
4786:
4774:
4755:
4736:
4717:
4703:. 2008-09-19.
4688:
4655:
4624:
4599:(1338): 2175.
4580:
4561:
4542:
4521:
4496:
4466:
4457:
4427:
4400:
4392:
4377:
4352:
4325:
4317:
4302:
4277:
4252:
4227:
4172:Nature Physics
4158:
4129:
4110:(4): 250–258.
4094:
4073:(5): 277–293.
4057:
4045:
4014:
4001:
3982:
3949:(3): 771–774.
3926:
3914:
3895:
3876:
3861:
3844:
3818:
3799:
3787:
3768:
3755:
3724:
3712:
3683:(4): 541–549.
3661:
3631:
3579:
3563:
3551:
3539:
3510:(6): 864–875.
3490:
3471:
3425:
3400:
3381:
3324:
3312:
3298:
3263:
3228:
3185:
3140:
3121:
3096:
3089:
3063:
3028:
2977:
2958:(2): 778–779.
2939:
2905:
2879:
2842:
2811:
2792:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2756:
2753:
2732:
2729:
2645:Changesite-(Y)
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2602:
2599:
2503:
2500:
2468:alpha particle
2430:megawatt-hours
2279:
2278:
2275:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2235:
2228:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2179:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2156:
2151:
2142:
2132:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2103:
2094:
2084:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2055:
2046:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2017:
2012:
2003:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1972:
1967:
1958:
1948:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1907:Comparison of
1902:
1901:
1866:
1864:
1857:
1841:
1838:
1825:
1822:
1769:hyperpolarized
1746:
1743:
1718:
1715:
1691:spin-polarized
1664:
1663:
1647:
1644:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1589:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1435:East China Sea
1432:
1427:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1293:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1212:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1183:United Kingdom
1171:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1150:
1144:
1142:United Kingdom
1130:
1129:
1126:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1082:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1059:
1058:
964:Beta particles
944:
943:
940:
939:
931:
921:
913:
910:
902:
894:
886:
883:
877:
868:
862:
859:
853:
844:
777:
774:
772:
769:
761:decay products
745:lunar regolith
739:
736:
724:
721:
688:alpha particle
648:Richard Garwin
613:Main article:
610:
607:
605:
602:
506:addition rules
465:
462:
453:critical point
411:thermal energy
390:
387:
363:nuclear fusion
340:
337:
306:Nuclear fusion
208:
207:
197:
196:
186:
180:
179:
168:
162:
161:
155:
149:
148:
145:
140:
129:
128:
123:
117:
116:
110:
109:
106:
93:
92:
89:
76:
75:
70:
64:
63:
60:
54:
53:
49:
48:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5224:
5213:
5212:Superfluidity
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5186:
5181:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5160:
5159:
5153:
5149:
5148:
5142:
5141:Decay product
5139:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5128:
5126:
5125:
5121:
5115:
5113:
5112:
5106:
5105:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5087:Moon for Sale
5084:
5082:
5078:
5075:
5072:
5071:
5067:
5061:
5056:
5052:
5047:
5043:
5038:
5034:
5029:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5010:
5006:
5005:
4999:
4985:
4978:
4977:
4971:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4926:
4921:
4920:
4916:
4904:
4897:
4890:
4887:
4883:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4850:
4837:
4833:
4832:
4827:
4823:
4822:Dwayne A. Day
4817:
4814:
4801:
4797:
4790:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4759:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4745:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4721:
4718:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4692:
4689:
4677:on 2019-01-20
4673:
4666:
4659:
4656:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4628:
4625:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4591:
4584:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4570:
4565:
4562:
4557:
4553:
4546:
4543:
4531:
4525:
4522:
4511:on 2009-05-20
4510:
4506:
4500:
4497:
4486:on 2007-08-14
4485:
4481:
4477:
4470:
4467:
4461:
4458:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4431:
4428:
4417:on 2007-07-03
4413:
4406:
4381:
4378:
4366:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4342:on 2007-07-03
4338:
4331:
4306:
4303:
4292:on 2013-07-31
4291:
4287:
4281:
4278:
4267:on 2007-04-04
4266:
4262:
4256:
4253:
4241:
4237:
4231:
4228:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4201:1721.1/114949
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4159:
4147:
4143:
4141:
4133:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4098:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4061:
4058:
4054:
4049:
4046:
4035:on 2014-07-26
4031:
4024:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3991:
3986:
3983:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3904:
3899:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3880:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3862:
3854:
3848:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3828:
3822:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3808:
3803:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3756:
3741:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3677:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3583:
3580:
3572:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3555:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3494:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3456:
3452:
3445:
3438:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3390:
3385:
3382:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3319:
3317:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3229:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3189:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3144:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3122:
3111:on 2017-05-10
3110:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2981:
2978:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2925:
2918:
2917:
2909:
2906:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2880:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2846:
2843:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2793:
2787:
2782:
2775:
2772:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2720:, writing in
2719:
2714:
2712:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2695:Ouyang Ziyuan
2693:
2689:
2685:
2683:
2682:Chandrayaan-1
2679:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2665:, mine lunar
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2642:
2634:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2594:Helion Energy
2590:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2539:kilowatt-hour
2536:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2476:electrostatic
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2453:
2451:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2419:
2414:
2401:with itself (
2395:
2385:
2377:
2369:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2332:+ 12.86 MeV.
2327:
2311:
2310:reaction rate
2306:
2302:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2172:
2168:
2167:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2085:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2022:
2018:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1898:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1867:This section
1865:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1850:Fusion rocket
1847:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1830:Alcator C-Mod
1823:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1752:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1672:Hydrogen ions
1669:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1598:Pacific Ocean
1596:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1587:United States
1577:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1455:
1454:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1395:Taiwan Strait
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1214:
1213:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1173:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1105:
1099:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1011:
1008:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
983:
981:
976:
974:
970:
965:
961:
953:
948:18.6 keV
936:
914:
911:
906:
887:
884:
863:
860:
839:
838:
835:
834:
833:
831:
811:
807:
802:
800:
796:
791:
789:
783:
776:Tritium decay
775:
770:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
737:
735:
734:
730:
723:Lunar surface
722:
720:
718:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
691:
689:
685:
681:
676:
656:
651:
649:
643:
641:
637:
632:
630:
624:
622:
616:
608:
603:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
527:analogous to
526:
522:
518:
515:
511:
507:
493:
479:
470:
464:Superfluidity
463:
461:
459:
454:
450:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
414:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
388:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
371:Robert Cornog
368:
364:
360:
356:
353:
349:
348:Mark Oliphant
346:
338:
336:
334:
330:
326:
321:
319:
315:
311:
310:energy source
307:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:Earth's crust
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
187:
185:
181:
169:
167:
163:
160:
156:
154:
150:
146:
139:
134:
130:
124:
122:
118:
115:
111:
107:
103:
98:
94:
90:
86:
81:
77:
71:
69:
65:
61:
59:
55:
50:
46:
41:
33:
19:
5184:
5176:of helium-3
5170:
5166:
5156:
5145:
5131:
5118:
5109:
5100:
5086:
5059:
5051:Helium three
5050:
5041:
5033:Helium three
5032:
5023:
5007:. Springer.
5003:
4991:. Retrieved
4975:
4963:. Retrieved
4935:
4931:
4917:Bibliography
4903:the original
4889:
4881:
4874:. Retrieved
4865:
4852:
4840:. Retrieved
4829:
4816:
4804:. Retrieved
4789:
4777:
4758:
4739:
4720:
4709:. Retrieved
4700:
4691:
4679:. Retrieved
4672:the original
4658:
4646:. Retrieved
4637:
4627:
4616:. Retrieved
4596:
4583:
4564:
4556:1721.1/29869
4545:
4535:29 September
4533:. Retrieved
4530:"Helion FAQ"
4524:
4513:. Retrieved
4509:the original
4499:
4488:. Retrieved
4484:the original
4479:
4469:
4460:
4449:. Retrieved
4440:
4430:
4419:. Retrieved
4412:the original
4380:
4369:. Retrieved
4355:
4344:. Retrieved
4337:the original
4330:Development"
4305:
4294:. Retrieved
4290:the original
4280:
4269:. Retrieved
4265:the original
4255:
4244:. Retrieved
4230:
4218:. Retrieved
4175:
4171:
4161:
4150:. Retrieved
4139:
4132:
4107:
4103:
4097:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4048:
4037:. Retrieved
4030:the original
4017:
4004:
3985:
3974:. Retrieved
3946:
3942:
3929:
3917:
3898:
3879:
3864:
3847:
3821:
3802:
3790:
3771:
3758:
3747:. Retrieved
3727:
3715:
3680:
3674:
3664:
3652:. Retrieved
3643:
3634:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3566:
3554:
3542:
3507:
3503:
3493:
3474:
3462:. Retrieved
3384:
3342:
3338:
3327:
3276:
3272:
3266:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3204:
3198:
3188:
3158:(5–6): 551.
3155:
3149:
3143:
3124:
3113:. Retrieved
3109:the original
3099:
3074:
3066:
3041:
3037:
3031:
2996:
2990:
2980:
2955:
2951:
2931:. Retrieved
2915:
2908:
2897:. Retrieved
2882:
2870:. Retrieved
2858:
2845:
2833:. Retrieved
2824:
2814:
2805:
2795:
2774:
2734:
2721:
2715:
2711:RKK Energiya
2708:
2688:Cosmochemist
2686:
2675:
2648:
2616:Focus fusion
2604:
2591:
2547:
2505:
2454:
2415:
2396:
2365:
2334:
2316:
2282:
1924:
1909:neutronicity
1892:
1879:unverifiable
1871:weasel words
1868:
1840:Nuclear fuel
1827:
1777:alkali metal
1751:nuclear spin
1748:
1720:
1699:
1684:
1665:
1649:
1629:
1355:Luzon Strait
1315:Sea of Japan
1044:
1032:
1020:
1012:
1004:
996:continuously
984:
977:
956:5.7 keV
945:
803:
792:
785:
741:
726:
692:
677:
652:
644:
633:
625:
618:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
570:
566:Tony Leggett
529:Cooper pairs
524:
475:
446:
415:
392:
367:Luis Alvarez
342:
322:
304:
257:
216:
212:
211:
153:Isotope mass
137:
114:Nuclide data
101:
84:
5172:Decay chain
4938:: 119–138.
4858:Day, Dwayne
3464:23 December
3417:cubic metre
3413:Smith, D.M.
2535:electricity
2531:power plant
2520:radioactive
2488:solid-state
2484:electricity
2461:deuterium,
2349:radioactive
2308:The fusion
1881:information
1828:Both MIT's
1557:Great Lakes
1516:Great Lakes
1476:Great Lakes
1305:South Korea
969:rhenium-187
749:alpha decay
712:natural gas
690:emissions.
684:cosmic rays
383:natural gas
296:cosmic rays
276:nucleogenic
272:outer space
195:of tritium)
5196:Categories
5158:hydrogen-3
4993:2024-09-10
4965:2024-09-10
4876:11 January
4842:August 30,
4806:August 30,
4725:Scientific
4711:2008-09-21
4681:2008-03-04
4648:August 30,
4618:2007-05-31
4515:2009-08-04
4490:2007-05-06
4451:2011-01-25
4421:2007-05-06
4371:2007-05-06
4346:2007-05-06
4296:2007-05-06
4271:2007-05-06
4246:2007-05-06
4152:2020-07-18
4039:2014-07-18
3999:. NIST.gov
3976:2011-11-08
3827:CA 2810716
3749:2016-03-01
3654:11 January
3453:. 7-5700.
3449:(Report).
3115:2009-09-01
3044:(6): 613.
2933:2007-05-31
2899:2012-12-12
2737:gas giants
2731:Gas giants
2718:Dwayne Day
2692:geochemist
2624:p-B fusion
2620:aneutronic
2583:D–T fusion
2524:investment
2376:D–T fusion
2357:aneutronic
1916:Reactants
1895:March 2013
1844:See also:
1779:, such as
1717:Cryogenics
1188:Sellafield
830:beta decay
780:See also:
680:spallation
533:BCS theory
514:superfluid
428:, and two
333:gas giants
329:solar wind
318:aneutronic
268:atmosphere
247:(ordinary
193:beta decay
157:3.0160293
5147:lithium-4
5129:Heavier:
5107:Lighter:
4210:106402331
4142:Aug 2017"
4075:CiteSeerX
4055:. cern.ch
3874:(table 8)
3367:1476-4687
3180:123038029
2697:from the
2592:In 2022,
2560:(such as
2552:(such as
2516:pollution
2508:deuterium
2494:-powered
2337:deuterium
2234:+ n + p)
1921:Products
1869:contains
1810:emphysema
1735:cryogenic
1594:Units1, 2
1553:Units 1-4
1235:Black Sea
1194:Irish Sea
1153:Irish Sea
1000:outgasses
806:half-life
640:spodumene
541:David Lee
430:electrons
359:deuterons
316:would be
270:and into
266:into its
231:with two
219:see also
133:Half-life
5133:helium-4
5111:diproton
5092:Archived
5077:Archived
4984:Archived
4956:Archived
4870:Archived
4836:Archived
4800:Archived
4766:Archived
4747:Archived
4728:Archived
4705:Archived
4642:Archived
4609:Archived
4572:Archived
4445:Archived
4365:Archived
4240:Archived
4214:Archived
4146:Archived
4124:15502612
3993:Archived
3967:Archived
3906:Archived
3887:Archived
3837:Archived
3810:Archived
3779:Archived
3740:Archived
3707:27551621
3648:Archived
3534:16754900
3455:Archived
3392:Archived
3132:Archived
2924:Archived
2893:Archived
2863:Archived
2829:Archived
2755:See also
2667:regolith
2612:Polywell
2543:gigawatt
1785:rubidium
1711:boron-10
1707:Cold War
1089:Location
952:electron
818:8 d
426:neutrons
379:helium-4
325:regolith
253:nuclides
249:hydrogen
241:helium-4
235:and one
213:Helium-3
97:Neutrons
18:Helium 3
5120:isotope
4940:Bibcode
4601:Bibcode
4387:"Lunar
4220:18 July
4180:Bibcode
3951:Bibcode
3698:4877155
3626:3242002
3618:8629016
3598:Bibcode
3590:Science
3512:Bibcode
3375:4358031
3347:Bibcode
3281:Bibcode
3246:Bibcode
3209:Bibcode
3160:Bibcode
3046:Bibcode
3023:2935553
3001:Bibcode
2960:Bibcode
2749:Jupiter
2735:Mining
2527:capital
2492:turbine
2411:He + He
2403:He + He
2384:neutron
2341:tritium
2324:+ 18.3
2313:energy.
2277:0.0075
2268:+ 2.5n
2237:43.225
2127:He + He
2110:18.354
2062:17.571
1781:caesium
1758:⁄
1668:tritium
1656:neutron
1224:Romania
1095:Closest
1015:START I
912:+
885:+
861:→
788:tritium
782:Tritium
757:thorium
753:uranium
696:hotspot
636:lithium
531:in the
499:⁄
485:⁄
478:fermion
442:fermion
422:protons
385:wells.
339:History
327:by the
290:and by
284:lithium
245:protium
237:neutron
233:protons
225:isotope
191: (
174:⁄
80:Protons
52:General
5185:Stable
5180:Decays
5124:helium
5011:
4208:
4122:
4077:
3833:
3705:
3695:
3624:
3616:
3532:
3373:
3365:
3339:Nature
3178:
3087:
3021:
2952:Icarus
2872:8 July
2835:29 Aug
2671:fusion
2643:, and
2556:) and
2472:proton
2457:fusion
2450:tonnes
2422:D + He
2372:H + He
2361:proton
2243:0.046
2158:12.86
2079:D + He
2068:0.057
2019:4.032
1980:0.306
1974:3.268
1929:n/MeV
1875:biased
1818:asthma
1816:, and
1739:kelvin
1727:kelvin
1584:
1546:Canada
1543:
1506:Canada
1503:
1465:Canada
1462:
1422:
1382:
1345:Taiwan
1342:
1302:
1288:32,100
1285:11,460
1279:11,400
1265:France
1262:
1231:Unit 1
1221:
1180:
1139:
1100:Liquid
1097:waters
973:KATRIN
926:ν
909:
882:
858:
812:lists
797:(DOE)
621:mantle
564:, and
492:bosons
458:kJ/mol
424:, two
229:helium
221:helion
147:stable
58:Symbol
4987:(PDF)
4980:(PDF)
4959:(PDF)
4928:(PDF)
4906:(PDF)
4899:(PDF)
4675:(PDF)
4668:(PDF)
4612:(PDF)
4593:(PDF)
4415:(PDF)
4408:(PDF)
4340:(PDF)
4333:(PDF)
4206:S2CID
4033:(PDF)
4026:(PDF)
3970:(PDF)
3939:(PDF)
3856:(PDF)
3743:(PDF)
3736:(PDF)
3622:S2CID
3530:S2CID
3458:(PDF)
3447:(PDF)
3371:S2CID
3176:S2CID
3083:–30.
3019:JSTOR
2927:(PDF)
2920:(PDF)
2866:(PDF)
2855:(PDF)
2781:arXiv
2608:Fusor
2440:) of
2436:(one
2434:grams
2380:H + H
2351:with
2328:, or
2293:H + p
2290:(D-p)
2271:~200
2204:8.68
2031:D + T
1986:D + D
1678:or a
1614:2019
1573:2015
1570:1,232
1532:2018
1529:1,204
1492:2018
1489:4,901
1486:1,750
1451:2020
1425:China
1411:2020
1385:China
1371:2015
1331:2020
1291:2018
1251:2018
1210:2019
1207:1,342
1169:2019
1166:1,115
1128:year
1119:Total
1116:(TBq)
1114:Total
1111:(TBq)
1109:Steam
1036:CANDU
822:12.32
814:4,500
751:from
525:pairs
517:phase
438:boson
314:atoms
294:with
68:Names
5182:to:
5143:of:
5009:ISBN
4878:2019
4844:2007
4808:2007
4650:2007
4537:2022
4222:2020
4120:PMID
3703:PMID
3656:2019
3614:PMID
3466:2015
3363:ISSN
3085:ISBN
2874:2018
2837:2017
2690:and
2651:Moon
2635:Moon
2576:and
2574:ITER
2564:and
2562:ITER
2480:ions
2438:mole
2137:+ 2
1848:and
1729:. A
1687:spin
1621:Uses
1472:A, B
1322:80.9
810:NIST
763:and
727:See
666:5.14
638:ore
547:and
434:spin
416:The
369:and
278:and
166:Spin
5122:of
4948:doi
4552:hdl
4196:hdl
4188:doi
4112:doi
4085:doi
3959:doi
3693:PMC
3685:doi
3681:105
3606:doi
3594:272
3520:doi
3421:NTP
3355:doi
3343:323
3289:doi
3254:doi
3217:doi
3168:doi
3054:doi
3009:doi
2997:144
2968:doi
2956:206
2659:ppb
2655:ppb
2345:D–T
2326:MeV
2273:MeV
2257:+ n
2239:MeV
2223:6 D
2206:MeV
2160:MeV
2112:MeV
2064:MeV
2021:MeV
1976:MeV
1943:+ D
1877:or
1793:NMR
1783:or
1753:of
1611:235
1605:2.7
1567:440
1564:300
1561:140
1526:430
1523:210
1520:220
1483:994
1480:756
1442:0.4
1408:146
1402:0.8
1368:123
1362:9.4
1328:671
1325:188
1319:107
1248:872
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