567:
227:
522:
490:
447:("organs" within cells) and other substances. Instead of choanocytes, these bridges have further syncytia, known as choanosyncytia, which form bell-shaped chambers where water enters via perforations. The insides of these chambers are lined with "collar bodies", each consisting of a collar and flagellum but without a nucleus of its own. The motion of the flagella sucks water through passages in the "cobweb" and expels it via the open ends of the bell-shaped chambers.
142:
1777:
551:
114:
539:
476:
1688:
307:, these structures are aided by a protein called glassin. It helps accelerate the production of silicas from the silicic acid absorbed from the surrounding seawater. The body is relatively symmetrical, with a large central cavity that, in many species, opens to the outside through a sieve formed from the skeleton. Some species of glass sponges are capable of fusing together to create reefs or
637:. Species of zoantharin that rely on hexactinellid have also been found off the coast of the Japanese island of Minami-Torishima. Unidentified species of zoanthids have also been found in Australian waters, if these are identified as the same as the ones found in Minami-Torishima, this could potentially be proof of hexactinellids existing in all of the Pacific Ocean.
1676:
458:
that build spicules have multiple nuclei, and in glass sponge larvae they are connected to other tissues by cytoplasm bridges; such connections between sclerocytes have not so far been found in adults, but this may simply reflect the difficulty of investigating such small-scale features. The bridges
339:
All hexactinellids have the potential to grow to different sizes, but the average maximum growth is estimated to be around 32 centimeters long. Some grow past that length and continue to extend their length up to 1 meter long. The estimated life expectancy for hexactinellids that grow around 1 meter
609:
this species almost always hosts symbiotic zoanthids, which cause the hexactinellid sponge to imitate the appearance and structure of coral reefs. Only 33 species of this sponge have ever been reported in the South
Atlantic until 2017 when the Shinkai 6500 submersible went on an expedition through
652:
have shown that increases in temperature and acidification can lead to weakened skeletal strength and stiffness. In 1995, an
Antarctic ice shelf collapsed due to climate change. Since then, studies of the area have shown that hexactinellid reefs have been increasing in size despite the changes in
647:
Most hexactinellids live in deep waters that are not impacted by human activities. However, there are glass sponge reefs off the coast of
British Columbia. The Canadian government designated 2140 km of the Hecate strait and Queen Charlotte sound as a marine protected area. This area contains
462:
This physiology is what allows for a greater flow of ions and electrical signals to move throughout the organism, with around 75% of the sponge tissue being fused in this way. Another way is their role in the nutrient cycles of deep-sea environments. One species for example,
648:
four glass sponge reefs. The new regulations prohibit bottom contact fishing within 200 meters of the sponge reefs. Although human activities only affect a small portion of glass sponges, they are still subject to the threat of climate changes. Experiments using the species
398:
the sponge uses electrical neuron signaling to detect outside stimuli, such as sediments, and then send a signal through its body system to alert the organism to no longer be actively feeding. Another glass sponge species in the same experiment of
467:, has an abundance of symbiotic microbes which aid in the nitrification and denitrification of the communities in which they are present. These interactions help the sponges survive in the low-oxygen conditions of the depths.
950:"Identification of the Domains Involved in Promotion of Silica Formation in Glassin, a Protein Occluded in Hexactinellid Sponge Biosilica, for Development of a Tag for Purification and Immobilization of Recombinant Proteins"
336:, which is used for feeding purposes. The choanosome acts as the mouth for the sponge while the inner and outer canals that meet at the choanosome are passages for the food, creating a consumption path for the sponge.
411:" have a tuft of fibers that extends outward like an inverted crown at the base of their skeleton. These fibers are 50 to 175 millimetres (2.0 to 6.9 in) long and about the thickness of a human hair.
566:
403:
showed that the electrical conduction system for this class of sponges all has its own threshold of how much outside stimuli, sediments, etc., it can endure before it will stop its feeding process
507:, its maximum age is thought to be no more than 15,000 years, hence its listing of c. 15,000 years in the AnAge Database. The shallow-water occurrence of hexactinellids is rare worldwide. In the
419:
Bodies of glass sponges are different from those other sponges in various other ways. For example, most of their cytoplasm is not divided into separate cells by membranes, but forms a
394:
Glass sponges possess a unique system for rapidly conducting electrical impulses across their bodies, making it possible for them to respond quickly to external stimuli. In the case
1189:
Maldonado, Manuel; López-Acosta, María; Busch, Kathrin; Slaby, Beate M.; Bayer, Kristina; Beazley, Lindsay; Hentschel, Ute; Kenchington, Ellen; Rapp, Hans Tore (2021).
3216:
677:
and fossilize better. Like almost all sponges, the hexactinellids draw water in through a series of small pores by the whip-like beating of a series of hairs or
3242:
614:, British Columbia, have grown to up to 7 kilometres long and 20 metres high. Prior to these discoveries, sponge reefs were thought to have died out in the
1649:
Part E, Revised. Porifera, Volume 3: Classes
Demospongea, Hexactinellida, Heteractinida & Calcarea, xxxi + 872 p., 506 fig., 1 table, 2004, available
450:
Some types of cells have a single nucleus and membrane each but are connected to other single-nucleus cells and to the main syncytium by "bridges" made of
279:
Glass sponges are relatively uncommon and are mostly found at depths from 450 to 900 metres (1,480 to 2,950 ft) below sea level. Although the species
3403:
285:
has been found in shallow water, others have been found much deeper. They are found in all oceans of the world, although they are particularly common in
271:. Some experts believe glass sponges are the longest-lived animals on earth; these scientists tentatively estimate a maximum age of up to 15,000 years.
3190:
3229:
3322:
Falcucci, Giacomo; Amati, Giorgio; Fanelli, Pierluigi; Krastev, Vesselin K.; Polverino, Giovanni; Porfiri, Maurizio; Succi, Sauro (July 2021).
1047:
879:
292:
They are more-or-less cup-shaped animals, ranging from 10 to 30 centimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) in height, with sturdy skeletons made of
497:
These creatures are long-lived, but the exact age is hard to measure; one study based on modelling gave an estimated age of a specimen of
1241:
550:
344:
1808:
1720:
1191:"A Microbial Nitrogen Engine Modulated by Bacteriosyncytia in Hexactinellid Sponges: Ecological Implications for Deep-Sea Communities"
1324:
Hajdu, Eduardo; Castello-Branco, Cristiana; Lopes, Daniela A.; Sumida, Paulo Yukio Gomes; Perez, Jose Angel
Alvarez (December 2017).
1658:
521:
515:, one species occurs as shallow as 18 metres (59 ft) in a cave with deep water upwelling (Boury-Esnault & Vacelet (1994))
3301:
1845:
1630:
1840:
895:
1412:
Kise, Hiroki; Nishijima, Miyuki; Iguchi, Akira; Minatoya, Junpei; Yokooka, Hiroyuki; Ise, Yuji; Suzuki, Atsushi (2023-03-24).
1092:"Glass sponges arrest pumping in response to sediment: implications for the physiology of the hexactinellid conduction system"
3234:
1326:"Deep-sea dives reveal an unexpected hexactinellid sponge garden on the Rio Grande Rise (SW Atlantic). A mimicking habitat?"
948:
Nishi, Michika; Kobayashi, Hiroki; Amano, Taro; Sakate, Yuto; Bito, Tomohiro; Arima, Jiro; Shimizu, Katsuhiko (2020-12-01).
1924:
1914:
1897:
141:
1776:
1500:
Stevenson, A.; Archer, S. K.; Schultz, J. A.; Dunham, A.; Marliave, J. B.; Martone, P.; Harley, C. D. G. (2020-05-18).
1388:
3151:
3138:
623:
629:
538:
226:
3247:
1414:"A new hexactinellid-sponge-associated zoantharian (Porifera, Hexasterophora) from the northwestern Pacific Ocean"
1680:
840:
257:
1288:
826:
3398:
1929:
503:
as 23,000 years (with a range from 13,000 to 40,000 years). However, due to changes in sea levels since the
479:
459:
are controlled by "plugged junctions" that apparently permit some substances to pass while blocking others.
408:
1476:
489:
329:, through which the spicules penetrate. Unlike other sponges, they do not possess the ability to contract.
3078:
1801:
1713:
1363:
3278:
3156:
1892:
127:
325:. The epidermal cells characteristic of other sponges are absent, being replaced by a syncitial net of
3345:
3257:
3177:
3125:
1578:
1513:
1421:
1337:
1103:
961:
814:
800:"Ediacarian sponge spicule clusters from southwestern Mongolia and the origins of the Cambrian fauna"
504:
386:
3306:
1622:
3116:
1692:
778:
602:
1502:"Warming and acidification threaten glass sponge Aphrocallistes vastus pumping and reef formation"
673:
as fossils, but this is thought to be, at least in part, because their spicules are sturdier than
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2357:
1909:
1887:
1875:
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512:
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Their body comprises three parts: the inner and outer peripheral trabecular networks, and the
3293:
3270:
1150:"The significance of syncytial tissues for the position of the hexactinellida in the metazoa"
3353:
1834:
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1477:"Hecate Strait/Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs Marine Protected Area (HS/QCS MPA)"
3060:
2966:
2817:
2720:
2577:
2110:
1039:
695:
281:
1242:"The Role of Sponges in High-Antarctic Carbon and Silicon Cycling - a Modelling Approach"
3349:
1582:
1517:
1452:
1425:
1413:
1341:
1107:
965:
921:
818:
267:, but some researchers consider them sufficiently distinct to deserve their own phylum,
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2411:
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1501:
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Fillinger, Laura; Janussen, Dorte; Lundalv, Tomas; Richter, Claudio (July 22, 2013).
997:
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319:
122:
71:
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348:
1032:
3203:
3110:
2937:
2908:
2894:
2884:
2469:
2285:
2198:
1980:
1567:"Rapid glass sponge expansion after climate-induce Antarctic ice shelf collapse"
841:"Hexactinellid sponge (Scolymastra joubini) longevity, ageing, and life history"
768:
707:
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432:
352:
46:
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1985:
1970:
1758:
1591:
1566:
1207:
1190:
1115:
713:
455:
428:
333:
326:
303:, fused to form a lattice. In some glass sponges such as members of the genus
91:
56:
17:
3365:
3101:
1533:
1443:
1260:
1226:
1123:
981:
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3000:
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2224:
2176:
2097:
2084:
2065:
2060:
2019:
1392:
920:
US Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
678:
508:
451:
444:
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368:
343:
322:
315:
286:
153:
96:
39:
3373:
1600:
1551:
1461:
1175:
989:
575:
Rauff, 1894; an
Ordovician hexactinellid sponge from near Cincinnati, Ohio.
439:
spicules. The remaining cells are connected to the syncytium by bridges of
3324:"Extreme flow simulations reveal skeletal adaptations of deep-sea sponges"
1698:
1675:
1166:
1149:
3095:
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2007:
1998:
1904:
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615:
264:
242:
86:
81:
66:
61:
51:
1217:
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2623:
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308:
101:
76:
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1963:
1950:
1821:
1818:
1730:
594:
436:
297:
261:
246:
238:
173:
163:
3072:
3340:
3195:
311:. They are generally pale in colour, ranging from white to orange.
511:, two species occur as shallow as 33 meters under the ice. In the
488:
474:
342:
293:
225:
1475:
Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2019-09-18).
3076:
2082:
1790:
1702:
1090:
Tompkins-MacDonald, Gabrielle J.; Leys, Sally P. (2008-05-15).
427:(e.g., Reiswig and Mackie, 1983); it is held suspended like a
3182:
684:
The class is divided into two subclasses and several orders:
621:
Reports of glass sponges have also been recorded on the HMCS
1368:
Georgia
Straight Vancouver's News & Entertainment Weekly
798:
Brasier, Martin; Green, Owen; Shields, Graham (April 1997).
827:
10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0303:ESSCFS>2.3.CO;2
1330:
Deep Sea
Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography
874:. Philadelphia: Holt-Saunders International. p. 104.
661:
The earliest known hexactinellids are from the earliest
681:
in chambers which in this group line the sponge wall.
896:"Glass Sponges, the Living Ornaments of the Deep Sea"
1304:"Reef of glass sponges found off Washington's coast"
3085:
2753:
2634:
2609:
2600:
2576:
2554:
2519:
2478:
2453:
2446:
2431:
2383:
2356:
2341:
2294:
2272:
2252:
2223:
2216:
2189:
2174:
2163:
2126:
2095:
2018:
1979:
1948:
1289:"Hexactinellid information from the AnAge Database"
1031:
943:
941:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1802:
1714:
8:
1143:
1141:
3073:
2750:
2606:
2582:
2558:
2527:
2450:
2443:
2439:
2362:
2353:
2349:
2278:
2256:
2249:
2220:
2186:
2182:
2171:
2160:
2132:
2103:
2092:
2079:
1991:
1956:
1945:
1809:
1795:
1787:
1721:
1707:
1699:
1364:"B.C.'s Reefs Among Science's Great Finds"
423:or continuous mass of cytoplasm with many
112:
31:
3339:
1590:
1541:
1451:
1433:
1216:
1206:
1165:
669:eras. They are fairly common relative to
610:the Rio Grande Rise. Reefs discovered in
2147:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)
27:Class of sponges with siliceous spicules
790:
517:
2141:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
2111:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)
1319:
1317:
1030:Ruppert RE, Fox RS, Barnes RD (2004).
1647:Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
1642:
1640:
7:
3258:c58d401e-7ac6-4c96-858c-8708e2b40853
2412:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)
865:
863:
861:
340:is approximately 200 years (Plyes).
1154:Integrative and Comparative Biology
200:
2009:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
389:and collar bodies showing interior
25:
3404:Extant Cambrian first appearances
245:made of four- and/or six-pointed
3053:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species
1775:
1686:
1674:
1631:World Register of Marine Species
565:
549:
537:
520:
443:"rivers" that transport nuclei,
314:Much of the body is composed of
260:along with other sponges in the
140:
1389:"Diving deep for glass sponges"
585:The sponges form reefs (called
2240:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
1249:Ber. Polarforsch. Meeresforsch
544:Various hexactinellid sponges.
1:
1302:Stiffler, Lisa (2007-07-27).
289:and Northern Pacific waters.
230:Bolosoma stalked glass sponge
2852:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins
2909:Chelicerates inc. arachnids
2649:Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
2464:Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
2375:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
2264:Loricifera (corset animals)
1195:Frontiers in Marine Science
1012:"Gale - Institution Finder"
601:, which are studied in the
3420:
3358:10.1038/s41586-021-03658-1
2799:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish
2545:Annelida (segmented worms)
2370:Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
2286:Onychophora (velvet worms)
1526:10.1038/s41598-020-65220-9
1435:10.3897/zookeys.1156.96698
1350:10.1016/j.dsr2.2017.11.009
1308:Seattle Post-Intelligencer
1063:Lawrence, Eleanor (1999).
974:10.1007/s10126-020-09967-2
870:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
556:Hexactinellid sponge on a
3049:
2847:Asterozoans inc. starfish
2749:
2742:
2693:
2644:Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
2625:Ectoprocta (moss animals)
2585:
2561:
2530:
2470:Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
2442:
2365:
2352:
2281:
2259:
2248:
2199:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
2185:
2159:
2135:
2106:
2091:
2078:
2043:
1994:
1971:Ctenophora (comb jellies)
1959:
1944:
1828:
1773:
1738:
1592:10.1016/j.cub.2013.05.051
1208:10.3389/fmars.2021.638505
1148:Leys SP (February 2003).
1116:10.1007/s00227-008-0987-y
1038:(7th ed.). Brooks /
922:"What is a glass sponge?"
215:
208:
198:
193:
137:Scientific classification
135:
120:
111:
34:
2405:Rotifera (wheel animals)
2204:Priapulida (penis worms)
845:genomics.senescence.info
633:wrecks off the coast of
435:-like framework made of
2619:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
2591:Nemertea (ribbon worms)
2312:Tardigrada (waterbears)
2305:Arthropoda (arthropods)
900:Schmidt Ocean Institute
493:Euplectella aspergillum
484:Euplectella aspergillum
396:Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni,
318:, extensive regions of
252:, often referred to as
2794:Anthozoans inc. corals
2493:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
1240:Susanne Gatti (2002).
494:
486:
391:
231:
3279:Paleobiology Database
2924:Hexapods inc. insects
2234:Nematoda (roundworms)
926:oceanservice.noaa.gov
650:Aphrocallistes vastus
492:
478:
346:
235:Hexactinellid sponges
229:
128:Kunstformen der Natur
121:"Hexactinellae" from
38:Temporal range: Late
2117:Chordata (chordates)
1753:(calcareous sponges)
1683:at Wikimedia Commons
1077:10.1038/news990415-5
1034:Invertebrate Zoology
954:Marine Biotechnology
872:Invertebrate Zoology
505:Last Glacial Maximum
480:Venus' flower basket
409:Venus' flower basket
3350:2021Natur.595..537F
2567:Mollusca (molluscs)
2052:of the animal root
1583:2013CBio...23.1330F
1518:2020NatSR..10.8176S
1426:2023ZooK.1156...71K
1342:2017DSRII.146...93H
1167:10.1093/icb/43.1.19
1108:2008MarBi.154..973T
966:2020MarBt..22..739N
819:1997Geo....25..303B
779:Sponge Reef Project
607:Sarostegia oculata,
603:Sponge Reef Project
589:) off the coast of
573:Pattersonia ulrichi
500:Scolymastra joubini
465:Vazella pourtalesii
256:. They are usually
2780:Calcareous sponges
1965:Porifera (sponges)
1506:Scientific Reports
1042:. pp. 76–97.
495:
487:
392:
232:
3334:(7868): 537–541.
3317:
3316:
3266:Open Tree of Life
3079:Taxon identifiers
3070:
3069:
3045:
3044:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2681:
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2660:
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2656:
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2426:
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2422:
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2212:
2211:
2155:
2154:
2074:
2073:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2034:
1784:
1783:
1679:Media related to
1577:(14): 1330–1334.
1481:www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca
1049:978-0-03-025982-1
881:978-0-03-056747-6
736:
605:. In the case of
224:
223:
189:
16:(Redirected from
3411:
3385:
3343:
3310:
3309:
3297:
3296:
3287:
3286:
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3261:
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3238:
3237:
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3224:
3212:
3211:
3199:
3198:
3186:
3185:
3173:
3172:
3160:
3159:
3147:
3146:
3134:
3133:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3074:
2751:
2707:
2607:
2583:
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2528:
2524:
2451:
2444:
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2436:
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2354:
2350:
2346:
2279:
2257:
2250:
2221:
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2168:
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2133:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2080:
2057:
1992:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1857:
1837:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1788:
1779:
1767:Homoscleromorpha
1762:
1754:
1746:
1723:
1716:
1709:
1700:
1691:Data related to
1690:
1678:
1662:
1644:
1635:
1634:
1623:"Hexactinellida"
1619:
1613:
1612:
1594:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1545:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1455:
1437:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1321:
1312:
1311:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1269:
1263:. Archived from
1246:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1220:
1210:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1169:
1145:
1136:
1135:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1065:"Nervous sponge"
1060:
1054:
1053:
1037:
1027:
1016:
1015:
1008:
1002:
1001:
945:
936:
935:
933:
932:
917:
911:
910:
908:
907:
892:
886:
885:
867:
856:
855:
853:
851:
837:
831:
830:
804:
795:
734:
732:Dactylocalycidae
635:Vancouver Island
599:Washington state
591:British Columbia
569:
553:
541:
524:
384:
375:
366:
361: Water flow
360:
316:syncitial tissue
187:
145:
144:
116:
106:
32:
21:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3389:
3388:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3305:
3300:
3292:
3290:
3282:
3277:
3269:
3264:
3256:
3254:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3228:
3220:
3215:
3207:
3202:
3194:
3189:
3181:
3176:
3168:
3163:
3155:
3150:
3142:
3137:
3129:
3124:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3081:
3071:
3066:
3041:
2967:Phylactolaemata
2755:
2745:
2744:
2730:
2721:Xenambulacraria
2697:
2653:
2630:
2596:
2578:Kryptotrochozoa
2572:
2550:
2520:
2507:
2498:Monoblastozoa (
2474:
2432:
2419:
2391:Micrognathozoa
2379:
2342:
2317:
2290:
2268:
2244:
2208:
2175:
2164:
2151:
2122:
2096:
2087:
2070:
2047:
2031:
2014:
1983:
1975:
1949:
1940:
1939:
1855:
1833:
1824:
1815:
1785:
1780:
1771:
1760:
1752:
1745:(glass sponges)
1744:
1743:Hexactinellida
1734:
1727:
1671:
1666:
1665:
1645:
1638:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1571:Current Biology
1564:
1563:
1559:
1499:
1498:
1494:
1485:
1483:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1420:(1156): 71–85.
1411:
1410:
1406:
1397:
1395:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1373:
1371:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1323:
1322:
1315:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1244:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1147:
1146:
1139:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1040:COLE Publishing
1029:
1028:
1019:
1010:
1009:
1005:
947:
946:
939:
930:
928:
919:
918:
914:
905:
903:
894:
893:
889:
882:
869:
868:
859:
849:
847:
839:
838:
834:
802:
797:
796:
792:
787:
765:
696:Amphidiscophora
659:
645:
583:
576:
570:
561:
554:
545:
542:
533:
525:
473:
417:
390:
387:Choanosyncitium
382:
380:
373:
371:
364:
362:
358:
282:Oopsacas minuta
277:
186:
139:
107:
105:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3417:
3415:
3407:
3406:
3401:
3399:Hexactinellida
3391:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3298:
3288:
3275:
3262:
3252:
3239:
3226:
3213:
3200:
3187:
3174:
3161:
3148:
3144:Hexactinellida
3135:
3131:Hexactinellida
3122:
3117:Hexactinellida
3107:
3091:
3089:
3087:Hexactinellida
3083:
3082:
3077:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3057:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2932:Platyhelminths
2928:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2759:
2757:
2747:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2726:Centroneuralia
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2562:
2556:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2541:
2531:
2525:
2522:Lophotrochozoa
2517:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2459:
2457:
2448:
2437:
2434:Platytrochozoa
2429:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2408:
2396:
2393:(Limnognathia)
2387:
2385:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2347:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2300:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2260:
2254:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2229:
2227:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2180:
2169:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2025:
2023:
2022:(Triploblasts)
2016:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2005:
2003:and relatives)
1995:
1989:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1960:
1954:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1930:Mesomycetozoea
1927:
1922:
1912:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1866:Diaphoretickes
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1830:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1791:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1756:
1748:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1718:
1711:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1695:at Wikispecies
1693:Hexactinellida
1684:
1681:Hexactinellida
1670:
1669:External links
1667:
1664:
1663:
1636:
1614:
1557:
1492:
1467:
1404:
1380:
1355:
1313:
1294:
1280:
1232:
1181:
1137:
1102:(6): 973–984.
1096:Marine Biology
1082:
1055:
1048:
1017:
1003:
960:(6): 739–747.
937:
912:
887:
880:
857:
832:
813:(4): 303–306.
789:
788:
786:
783:
782:
781:
776:
771:
764:
761:
760:
759:
758:
757:
755:Sceptrulophora
751:
745:
739:
738:
737:
727:Incertae sedis
722:Hexasterophora
718:
717:
716:
710:
704:
702:Amphidiscosida
689:Hexactinellida
667:Neoproterozoic
658:
657:Classification
655:
644:
641:
582:
579:
578:
577:
571:
564:
562:
555:
548:
546:
543:
536:
534:
529:Staurocalyptus
526:
519:
472:
469:
416:
413:
407:Species like "
381:
372:
363:
357:
276:
273:
222:
221:
220:
219:
213:
212:
206:
205:
196:
195:
191:
190:
184:Hexactinellida
181:
177:
176:
171:
167:
166:
161:
157:
156:
151:
147:
146:
133:
132:
118:
117:
109:
108:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
44:
37:
26:
24:
18:Hexactinellida
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3416:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3319:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3062:
3061:dubious phyla
3058:
3056:
3052:
3051:
3048:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2860:Hemichordates
2857:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2775:Glass sponges
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2716:Deuterostomia
2714:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2702:of Bilateria
2701:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2535:Cycliophora (
2533:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2518:
2503:
2501:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2430:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2274:Panarthropoda
2271:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2215:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2173:
2170:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2045:
2042:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1893:Stramenopiles
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1856:(major groups
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1820:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1778:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1761:(demosponges)
1759:Demospongiae
1757:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1737:
1732:
1724:
1719:
1717:
1712:
1710:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1659:0-8137-3131-3
1656:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1493:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1468:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1405:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1270:on 2011-07-24
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1219:
1214:
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1185:
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1177:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1007:
1004:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
944:
942:
938:
927:
923:
916:
913:
901:
897:
891:
888:
883:
877:
873:
866:
864:
862:
858:
846:
842:
836:
833:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
801:
794:
791:
784:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
766:
762:
756:
752:
750:
749:Lyssacinosida
746:
744:
743:Lychniscosida
740:
733:
730:
729:
728:
725:
724:
723:
719:
715:
711:
709:
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703:
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651:
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640:
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632:
631:
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625:
619:
617:
613:
612:Hecate Strait
608:
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592:
588:
580:
574:
568:
563:
559:
552:
547:
540:
535:
531:
530:
523:
518:
516:
514:
513:Mediterranean
510:
506:
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501:
491:
485:
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477:
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453:
448:
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397:
388:
379:
370:
355:
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345:
341:
337:
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330:
328:
324:
321:
320:multinucleate
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
299:
295:
290:
288:
284:
283:
274:
272:
270:
266:
263:
259:
255:
254:glass sponges
251:
248:
244:
240:
236:
228:
218:Hyalospongiae
217:
216:
214:
211:
207:
204:
202:
197:
192:
188:Schmidt, 1870
185:
182:
179:
178:
175:
172:
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168:
165:
162:
159:
158:
155:
152:
149:
148:
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134:
130:
129:
124:
123:Ernst Haeckel
119:
115:
110:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
41:
35:Glass sponges
33:
30:
19:
3331:
3327:
3086:
3059:Potentially
3054:
3007:
2983:
2977:Gymnolaemata
2972:Stenolaemata
2961:Ectoproctans
2959:
2930:
2901:
2877:
2871:Pterobranchs
2858:
2834:
2810:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2756:within phyla
2754:Major groups
2624:
2611:Bryozoa s.l.
2602:Lophophorata
2590:
2566:
2544:
2536:
2499:
2488:Orthonectida
2463:
2410:
2403:
2392:
2311:
2304:
2233:
2191:Scalidophora
2140:
2128:Ambulacraria
2115:
2028:(see below↓)
2008:
2000:
1964:
1915:Opisthokonta
1742:
1646:
1626:
1617:
1574:
1570:
1560:
1509:
1505:
1495:
1484:. Retrieved
1480:
1470:
1417:
1407:
1396:. Retrieved
1383:
1372:. Retrieved
1370:. 2005-02-24
1367:
1358:
1333:
1329:
1307:
1297:
1283:
1272:. Retrieved
1265:the original
1252:
1248:
1235:
1218:10261/235467
1198:
1194:
1184:
1160:(1): 19–27.
1157:
1153:
1099:
1095:
1085:
1068:
1058:
1033:
1006:
957:
953:
929:. Retrieved
925:
915:
904:. Retrieved
902:. 2020-10-01
899:
890:
871:
848:. Retrieved
844:
835:
810:
806:
793:
774:Cloud sponge
726:
688:
686:
683:
660:
649:
646:
643:Conservation
638:
628:
624:Saskatchewan
622:
620:
606:
593:, southeast
587:sponge reefs
584:
572:
527:
498:
496:
483:
464:
461:
449:
418:
404:
400:
395:
393:
351:
349:glass sponge
338:
331:
313:
304:
291:
280:
278:
268:
253:
234:
233:
199:
183:
126:
29:
3204:iNaturalist
3111:Wikispecies
3035:Tusk shells
3020:Cephalopods
2991:Polychaetes
2938:Turbellaria
2919:Crustaceans
2895:Secernentea
2885:Chromadorea
2866:Acorn worms
2836:Echinoderms
2828:Vertebrates
2770:Demosponges
2704:is disputed
2166:Protostomia
2054:is disputed
1981:ParaHoxozoa
1512:(1): 8176.
769:Sponge reef
708:Hemidiscosa
671:demosponges
630:Cape Breton
456:sclerocytes
441:cytoplasmic
433:scaffolding
401:R. dawsoni,
367: Main
353:Euplectella
327:amoebocytes
3393:Categories
3341:2305.10901
3015:Gastropods
2996:Clitellata
2903:Arthropods
2842:Sea lilies
2788:Cnidarians
2706:; see also
2636:Brachiozoa
2399:Syndermata
2358:Gnathifera
2056:; see also
2001:Trichoplax
1999:Placozoa (
1986:Planulozoa
1486:2023-10-06
1398:2017-05-22
1374:2017-05-22
1336:: 93–100.
1274:2009-05-25
931:2023-06-11
906:2023-06-11
785:References
735:Gray, 1867
714:Reticulosa
560:gastropod.
558:xenophorid
445:organelles
334:choanosome
305:Euplectela
258:classified
194:Subgroups
3382:236176161
3366:1476-4687
3001:Sipuncula
2948:Monogenea
2943:Trematoda
2914:Myriapods
2879:Nematodes
2823:Tunicates
2818:Lancelets
2812:Chordates
2804:Myxozoans
2711:Nephrozoa
2700:phylogeny
2500:Salinella
2455:Rouphozoa
2296:Tactopoda
2225:Nematoida
2177:Ecdysozoa
2098:Bilateria
2085:Bilateria
2066:Benthozoa
2061:Eumetazoa
2050:phylogeny
2020:Bilateria
1910:Amoebozoa
1888:Alveolata
1876:Cryptista
1851:Eukaryota
1751:Calcarea
1534:2045-2322
1444:1313-2970
1393:CBC Radio
1261:1618-3193
1227:2296-7745
1124:0025-3162
998:215761084
982:1436-2236
720:Subclass
694:Subclass
653:climate.
627:and HMCS
509:Antarctic
471:Longevity
452:cytoplasm
421:syncytium
369:syncitium
323:cytoplasm
287:Antarctic
269:Symplasma
247:siliceous
160:Kingdom:
154:Eukaryota
40:Ediacaran
3374:34290424
3096:Wikidata
3025:Bivalves
3009:Molluscs
2985:Annelids
2344:Spiralia
1951:Animalia
1905:Amorphea
1883:Rhizaria
1871:Hacrobia
1861:Excavata
1846:Bacteria
1731:Porifera
1609:18142746
1601:23850279
1552:32424237
1462:37234793
1453:10208231
1176:21680406
1132:54079172
990:32291549
763:See also
679:flagella
665:or late
663:Cambrian
618:period.
616:Jurassic
415:Syncytia
378:Spicules
309:bioherms
301:spicules
265:Porifera
250:spicules
243:skeleton
210:Synonyms
201:See text
174:Porifera
170:Phylum:
164:Animalia
150:Domain:
42:–present
3346:Bibcode
3294:4798504
3271:1007159
3102:Q263211
3030:Chitons
2953:Cestoda
2890:Enoplea
2764:Sponges
2537:Symbion
2480:Mesozoa
1920:Animals
1841:Archaea
1817:Extant
1733:classes
1729:Extant
1579:Bibcode
1543:7235243
1514:Bibcode
1422:Bibcode
1418:ZooKeys
1338:Bibcode
1104:Bibcode
962:Bibcode
850:2 March
815:Bibcode
807:Geology
712:Order †
706:Order †
675:spongin
275:Biology
241:with a
239:sponges
180:Class:
131:, 1904
3380:
3372:
3364:
3328:Nature
3291:uBio:
3255:NZOR:
3235:659131
3209:152110
3055:bolded
1898:Plants
1835:Domain
1819:animal
1657:
1607:
1599:
1550:
1540:
1532:
1460:
1450:
1442:
1259:
1225:
1174:
1130:
1122:
1069:Nature
1046:
996:
988:
980:
878:
753:Order
747:Order
741:Order
700:Order
687:Class
595:Alaska
454:. The
437:silica
429:cobweb
425:nuclei
385:
383:
376:
374:
365:
359:
298:silica
296:-like
262:phylum
3378:S2CID
3336:arXiv
3307:22612
3302:WoRMS
3248:60882
3217:IRMNG
3170:8ZXG3
3157:25620
2217:N+L+P
1925:Fungi
1822:phyla
1627:WoRMS
1605:S2CID
1268:(PDF)
1245:(PDF)
1128:S2CID
994:S2CID
803:(PDF)
581:Reefs
431:by a
294:glass
3370:PMID
3362:ISSN
3284:3841
3243:NCBI
3230:ITIS
3222:1398
3191:GBIF
3183:6793
3152:BOLD
2698:The
2048:The
1655:ISBN
1651:here
1597:PMID
1548:PMID
1530:ISSN
1458:PMID
1440:ISSN
1257:ISSN
1223:ISSN
1172:PMID
1120:ISSN
1044:ISBN
986:PMID
978:ISSN
876:ISBN
852:2023
597:and
347:The
237:are
47:PreꞒ
3354:doi
3332:595
3196:146
3178:EoL
3165:CoL
3139:AFD
3126:ADW
2555:M+K
2447:R+M
2384:M+S
2253:L+P
1653:.
1587:doi
1538:PMC
1522:doi
1448:PMC
1430:doi
1346:doi
1334:146
1253:434
1213:hdl
1203:doi
1162:doi
1112:doi
1100:154
1073:doi
970:doi
823:doi
532:sp.
125:'s
3395::
3376:.
3368:.
3360:.
3352:.
3344:.
3330:.
3326:.
3304::
3281::
3268::
3245::
3232::
3219::
3206::
3193::
3180::
3167::
3154::
3141::
3128::
3113::
3098::
1639:^
1629:.
1625:.
1603:.
1595:.
1585:.
1575:23
1573:.
1569:.
1546:.
1536:.
1528:.
1520:.
1510:10
1508:.
1504:.
1479:.
1456:.
1446:.
1438:.
1428:.
1416:.
1391:.
1366:.
1344:.
1332:.
1328:.
1316:^
1306:.
1255:.
1251:.
1247:.
1221:.
1211:.
1201:.
1197:.
1193:.
1170:.
1158:43
1156:.
1152:.
1140:^
1126:.
1118:.
1110:.
1098:.
1094:.
1071:.
1067:.
1020:^
992:.
984:.
976:.
968:.
958:22
956:.
952:.
940:^
924:.
898:.
860:^
843:.
821:.
811:25
809:.
805:.
482:,
356:.
203:.
97:Pg
3384:.
3356::
3348::
3338::
3063:†
2539:)
2504:†
2502:)
1988:)
1984:(
1932:)
1810:e
1803:t
1796:v
1722:e
1715:t
1708:v
1661:.
1633:.
1611:.
1589::
1581::
1554:.
1524::
1516::
1489:.
1464:.
1432::
1424::
1401:.
1377:.
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1348::
1340::
1310:.
1291:.
1277:.
1229:.
1215::
1205::
1199:8
1178:.
1164::
1134:.
1114::
1106::
1079:.
1075::
1052:.
1014:.
1000:.
972::
964::
934:.
909:.
884:.
854:.
829:.
825::
817::
405:.
102:N
92:K
87:J
82:T
77:P
72:C
67:D
62:S
57:O
52:Ꞓ
20:)
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