58:, as higher energy lowers needed electricity to split molecules and opens up new, potentially better electrolytes like molten salts or hydroxides. Unlike electrolysis at room temperature, HTE operates at elevated temperature ranges depending on the thermal capacity of the material. Because of the detrimental effects of burning fossil fuels on humans and the environment, HTE has become a necessary alternative and efficient method by which hydrogen can be prepared on a large scale and used as fuel. The vision of HTE is to move towards decarbonization in all economic sectors. The material requirements for this process are: the heat source, the electrodes, the electrolyte, the electrolyzer membrane, and the source of electricity.
331:
368:, it takes 141.86 megajoules (MJ) of heat energy to produce one kg of hydrogen, for the HTE process itself and for the electricity required. At 100 °C, 350 MJ of thermal energy are required (41% efficient). At 850 °C, 225 MJ are required (64% efficient). Above 850 °C, one begins to exceed the capacity of standard chromium steels to resist corrosion, and it's already no easy matter to design and implement an industrial scale chemical process to operate at such a high temperature point.
20:
28:
72:
materials used to construct the cells become conductive. Therefore, electrochemical reactions begin to occur, and the cell begins to function once it has reached the proper temperature and electricity is supplied while it is being fed with steam. The steam will eventually split into hydrogen (cathode) and oxygen (anode) according to the equations below:
497:. Since the electricity generation step has a fairly low efficiency and is eliminated, thermochemical production might reach higher efficiencies than HTE. However, large-scale thermochemical production will require significant advances in materials that can withstand high-temperature, high-pressure, highly corrosive environments.
376:
Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) are electrochemical devices that function at high temperatures and are used for high-temperature electrolysis. These cells' ingredients ensure that the device will function well both physically and electrochemically at high temperatures. Therefore, the selection
1170:
Kazuya Yamada, Shinichi Makino, Kiyoshi Ono, Kentaro
Matsunaga, Masato Yoshino, Takashi Ogawa, Shigeo Kasai, Seiji Fujiwara, and Hiroyuki Yamauchi "High Temperature Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production Using Solid Oxide Electrolyte Tubular Cells Assembly Unit", presented at AICHE Annual Meeting, San
466:
Obviously, the most notable advantage of HTE is that it provides an opportunity for which green hydrogen is prepared on a large scale, because it has the potential for zero emissions. The process provides an improved reaction kinetics for the splitting of water molecule. Part of the electricity
71:
The process utilizes energy (in the form of heat) from sources to convert water into steam, which is then passed into an electrolytic system (made up of two electrodes connected to the source of current, an electrolyte, and a membrane). At high temperatures (over 650 °C in most topologies), the
356:
because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity, and also because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures. In fact, at 2500 °C, electrical input is unnecessary because water breaks down to hydrogen and oxygen through
440:
fuel and general energy storage. It may become economical if cheap non-fossil fuel sources of heat (concentrating solar, nuclear, geothermal, waste heat) can be used in conjunction with non-fossil fuel sources of electricity (such as solar, wind, ocean, nuclear).
421:
Even with HTE, electrolysis is a fairly inefficient way to store energy. Significant conversion losses of energy occur both in the electrolysis process, and in the conversion of the resulting hydrogen back into power.
320:
227:
154:
905:
Zainal, Bidattul Syirat; Ker, Pin Jern; Mohamed, Hassan; Ong, Hwai Chyuan; Fattah, I.M.R.; Rahman, S.M. Ashrafur; Nghiem, Long D.; Mahlia, T M Indra (January 2024).
1520:
474:
Above 100 °C, the electrolysis of liquid water requires pressurization, and is therefore limited by the working pressures that can be reasonably attained.
522:
477:
creating materials that are both chemically and physically stable in conditions of intense oxidation and reduction, as well as high working temperatures.
1680:
456:
sources. HTE has been demonstrated in a laboratory at 108 kilojoules (electric) per gram of hydrogen produced, but not at a commercial scale.
1467:
531:
1352:
1258:
1016:
974:
810:
1202:
831:
1425:
658:"STEP Iron, a Chemistry of Iron Formation without CO 2 Emission: Molten Carbonate Solubility and Electrochemistry of Iron Ore Impurities"
1209:
540:
512:
1281:"Review—Challenges and Opportunities for Increased Current Density in Alkaline Electrolysis by Increasing the Operating Temperature"
1411:
1373:
233:
160:
330:
562:
506:
378:
1159:
Most austenitic steels, with chromium contents of at least 18%, can be used at temperatures up to 870°C and even higher.
480:
chemical and physical stability at low electrical conductivities, high working temperatures, and/or ionic concentrations.
78:
1711:
1570:
1481:
744:"Recent Advances in Solar Thermal Electrochemical Process (STEP) for Carbon Neutral Products and High Value Nanocarbons"
556:
1591:
1535:
1505:
1624:
570:
518:
has demonstration projects to test 3 nuclear facilities with high-temperature electrolysis in the United States at:
1495:
1460:
597:
382:
1445:
467:
requirement is replaced with heat, which makes it a bit cheaper because electricity is more expensive than heat.
629:
Hauch, A.; Ebbesen, S. D.; Jensen, S. H.; Mogensen, M. (2008). "Highly
Efficient high temperature electrolysis".
592:
515:
1563:
1332:
1706:
1558:
1525:
1453:
956:
361:. Such temperatures are impractical; proposed HTE systems operate between 100 °C and 850 °C.
353:
696:
27:
1292:
918:
868:
708:
580:
490:
429:
of hydrocarbons as an economical source of hydrogen, which produces carbon dioxide as a by-product.
1510:
1388:
544:
494:
1614:
1545:
1540:
1213:
1184:
1102:
1082:
19:
832:"Fact Sheet | Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021) | White Papers"
352:
High temperature electrolysis is more efficient economically than traditional room-temperature
1609:
1348:
1310:
1254:
1036:
1012:
970:
934:
884:
806:
771:
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742:
Ren, Jiawen; Yu, Ao; Peng, Ping; Lefler, Matthew; Li, Fang-Fang; Licht, Stuart (2019-11-19).
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1004:
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453:
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958:
5 High-temperature electrolysis: efficient and versatile solution for multiple applications
1500:
445:
394:
341:
1296:
922:
872:
743:
712:
444:
Possible supplies of cheap high-temperature heat for HTE are all nonchemical, including
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1344:
1250:
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1008:
437:
433:
1700:
1594:
1238:
1188:
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996:
609:
55:
1279:
Lohmann-Richters, F. P.; Renz, S.; Lehnert, W.; MĂĽller, M.; Carmo, M. (2021-11-01).
1477:
1142:
802:
493:
known to use heat to extract hydrogen from water. For instance, the thermochemical
790:
759:
1685:
1675:
449:
365:
358:
345:
1305:
1280:
930:
880:
720:
1515:
966:
857:"An overview of water electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production"
1314:
938:
907:"Recent advancement and assessment of green hydrogen production technologies"
906:
888:
856:
767:
728:
681:
657:
1639:
1634:
1131:
Final Report
Summary – WELTEMP (Water Electrolysis at Elevated Temperatures)
577:
426:
406:
775:
1066:
1049:
54:
from water at high temperatures or other products, such as iron or carbon
1619:
1604:
1050:"Hydrogen Production Technologies: Current State and Future Developments"
51:
1414:
PDF. Presentation: MARS 2020 Mission and
Instruments". November 6, 2014.
1629:
1599:
337:
1426:"NASA's Perseverance Mars Rover Extracts First Oxygen from Red Planet"
673:
1644:
642:
410:
390:
386:
1098:
1331:
Acar, Canan; Dincer, Ibrahim (2018-01-01), Dincer, Ibrahim (ed.),
329:
18:
1374:"3 Nuclear Power Plants Gearing up for Clean Hydrogen Production"
381:
is essential. One option being investigated for the process used
1654:
574:
566:
1449:
1237:
Elder, Rachael; Cumming, Denis; Mogensen, Mogens Bjerg (2015),
1185:"Steam heat: researchers gear up for full-scale hydrogen plant"
432:
HTE is of interest as a more efficient route to the production
997:"Hydrogen production by high-temperature steam electrolysis"
1389:"Oxygen-Generating Mars Rover to Bring Colonization Closer"
1037:
https://inldigitallibrary.inl.gov/sites/sti/sti/4480292.pdf
955:
Crema, Luigi; Testi, Matteo; Trini, Martina (2021-09-07),
315:{\displaystyle {\ce {Anode: 2OH^{-}-> H2O + (1/2)O2}}}
308:
271:
185:
142:
126:
103:
31:
Decarbonization of
Economy via hydrogen produced from HTE
1119:
695:
Licht, Stuart; Cui, Baochen; Wang, Baohui (2013-09-01).
425:
At current hydrocarbon prices, HTE can not compete with
1048:
Kalamaras, Christos M.; Efstathiou, Angelos M. (2013).
222:{\displaystyle {\ce {Cathode: 2H2O ->2H + 2OH^{-}}}}
364:
If one assumes that the electricity used comes from a
284:
565:
was used to produce 5.37 grams of oxygen per hour on
470:
However, HTE technology suffered limitations due to:
377:
of materials for the electrodes and electrolyte in a
236:
163:
81:
149:{\displaystyle {\ce {Overall: 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2}}}
1663:
1584:
1488:
1083:"Hydrogen production via solid electrolytic routes"
797:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 937–939,
334:Theoretical thermal water splitting efficiencies.
314:
221:
148:
1120:Hi2h2 - High temperature electrolysis using SOEC
1143:"Stainless Steel - High Temperature Resistance"
855:Shiva Kumar, S.; Lim, Hankwon (November 2022).
793:, in Drioli, Enrico; Giorno, Lidietta (eds.),
1461:
8:
697:"STEP carbon capture – The barium advantage"
583:rover, using zirconia electrolysis devices.
16:Technique for producing hydrogen from water
1468:
1454:
1446:
1081:Badwal, SPS; Giddey S; Munnings C (2012).
523:Nine Mile Point Nuclear Generating Station
393:steam/Hydrogen electrodes, and d Oxide of
1304:
1065:
656:Licht, Stuart; Wu, Hongjun (2011-12-22).
307:
302:
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92:
82:
80:
1681:Standard electrode potential (data page)
911:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
569:from atmospheric carbon dioxide for the
26:
1412:The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE)
1171:Francisco, California, November 2006.
621:
60:
1285:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
610:U.S. DOE high-temperature electrolysis
450:concentrating solar thermal collectors
1326:
1324:
23:High-temperature electrolysis schema.
7:
950:
948:
900:
898:
1339:, Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 1–40,
662:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
561:High temperature electrolysis with
1585:Materials produced by electrolysis
1345:10.1016/b978-0-12-809597-3.00304-7
1251:10.1016/b978-0-444-62746-9.00011-6
1009:10.1016/b978-1-78242-361-4.00008-x
541:Prairie Island Nuclear Power Plant
501:United States Department of Energy
14:
532:Davis–Besse Nuclear Power Station
961:, De Gruyter, pp. 219–268,
348:to hydrogen is 70-85% efficient
50:) is a technology for producing
1239:"High Temperature Electrolysis"
1203:"Nuclear hydrogen R&D plan"
1149:. AZO Materials. 8 January 2002
791:"High-Temperature Electrolysis"
1521:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide
1245:, Elsevier, pp. 183–209,
1003:, Elsevier, pp. 225–253,
803:10.1007/978-3-662-44324-8_2122
563:solid oxide electrolyser cells
294:
281:
258:
191:
109:
1:
1387:Wall, Mike (August 1, 2014).
1001:Compendium of Hydrogen Energy
748:Accounts of Chemical Research
507:Next Generation Nuclear Plant
379:solid oxide electrolyser cell
36:High-temperature electrolysis
1571:Electrochemical fluorination
1482:Standard electrode potential
1337:Comprehensive Energy Systems
1212:. March 2004. Archived from
1087:WIREs Energy and Environment
760:10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00405
557:In-situ resource utilization
1625:Hydrogen evolution reaction
1424:Potter, Sean (2021-04-21).
1054:Conference Papers in Energy
571:Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment
1728:
1496:Betts electrolytic process
1243:Carbon Dioxide Utilisation
931:10.1016/j.rser.2023.113941
881:10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.127
789:Valderrama, CĂ©sar (2016),
721:10.1016/j.jcou.2013.03.006
701:Journal of CO2 Utilization
598:High-pressure electrolysis
554:
504:
383:yttria-stabilized zirconia
1333:"3.1 Hydrogen Production"
967:10.1515/9783110596274-013
795:Encyclopedia of Membranes
461:Advantages and Challenges
1306:10.1149/1945-7111/ac34cc
593:Office of Nuclear Energy
516:Office of Nuclear Energy
1506:Castner–Kellner process
1489:Electrolytic processes
489:There are hundreds of
349:
336:60% efficient at 1000°
316:
223:
150:
32:
24:
1526:Electrolysis of water
491:thermochemical cycles
333:
317:
224:
151:
30:
22:
1536:Hall–Héroult process
1476:Articles related to
1210:U.S. Dept. of Energy
385:(YSZ) electrolytes,
234:
161:
79:
1712:Hydrogen production
1511:Chloralkali process
1297:2021JElS..168k4501L
1067:10.1155/2013/690627
995:Mougin, J. (2015),
923:2024RSERv.18913941Z
873:2022EnRep...813793S
713:2013JCOU....2...58L
668:(50): 25138–25147.
545:Red Wing, Minnesota
495:sulfur-iodine cycle
413:oxygen electrodes.
310:
273:
187:
144:
128:
105:
44:steam electrolysis,
1615:Electrolysed water
1546:Kolbe electrolysis
1541:Hofmann voltameter
436:, to be used as a
417:Economic potential
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1354:978-0-12-814925-6
1260:978-0-444-62746-9
1187:(Press release).
1018:978-1-78242-361-4
976:978-3-11-059627-4
812:978-3-662-44324-8
754:(11): 3177–3187.
674:10.1021/jp2078715
637:(20): 2331–2340.
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446:nuclear reactors
434:"green" hydrogen
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867:: 13793–13813.
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1093:(5): 473–487.
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861:Energy Reports
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1219:on 2013-09-24
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1707:Electrolysis
1645:Sodium metal
1595:(extraction)
1555:Dow process
1478:electrolysis
1433:. Retrieved
1429:
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1396:. Retrieved
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354:electrolysis
351:
346:hydrocarbons
70:
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1686:Electrology
1676:Gas cracker
366:heat engine
359:thermolysis
1701:Categories
1516:Downs cell
1435:2021-04-22
1398:2014-11-05
1360:2024-04-14
1266:2024-04-14
1223:2008-05-09
1024:2024-04-14
982:2024-04-14
917:: 113941.
841:2024-04-14
818:2024-04-14
604:References
555:See also:
527:Oswego, NY
505:See also:
454:geothermal
326:Efficiency
1592:Aluminium
1564:Magnesium
1393:Space.com
1315:0013-4651
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939:1364-0321
889:2352-4847
768:0001-4842
729:2212-9820
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682:1932-7447
616:Footnotes
578:Mars 2020
551:Mars ISRU
427:pyrolysis
407:Strontium
372:Materials
259:⟶
254:−
214:−
192:⟶
110:⟶
67:Principle
1664:See also
1620:Fluorine
1605:Chlorine
1173:abstract
1153:6 August
1147:azom.com
776:31697061
587:See also
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1559:Bromine
1293:Bibcode
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