528:
distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. In elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks. Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired in order to achieve maximum purification. The speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. But for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix. Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference. In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings. Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than "peaks". Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentration.
274:) or salts to assist in the separation of the sample components. The composition of the mobile phase may be kept constant ("isocratic elution mode") or varied ("gradient elution mode") during the chromatographic analysis. Isocratic elution is typically effective in the separation of simple mixtures. Gradient elution is required for complex mixtures, with varying interactions with the stationary and mobile phases. This is the reason why in gradient elution the composition of the mobile phase is varied typically from low to high eluting strength. The eluting strength of the mobile phase is reflected by analyte retention times, as the high eluting strength speeds up the elution (resulting in shortening of retention times). For example, a typical gradient profile in reversed phase chromatography for might start at 5% acetonitrile (in water or aqueous buffer) and progress linearly to 95% acetonitrile over 5–25 minutes. Periods of constant mobile phase composition (plateau) may be also part of a gradient profile. For example, the mobile phase composition may be kept constant at 5% acetonitrile for 1–3 min, followed by a linear change up to 95% acetonitrile.
762:
interactions with the stationary phase's surface. Under these conditions, the smaller the size of the molecule, the more it is able to penetrate inside the pore space and the movement through the column takes longer. On the other hand, the bigger the molecular size, the higher the probability the molecule will not fully penetrate the pores of the stationary phase, and even travel around them, thus, will be eluted earlier. The molecules are separated in order of decreasing molecular weight, with the largest molecules eluting from the column first and smaller molecules eluting later. Molecules larger than the pore size do not enter the pores at all, and elute together as the first peak in the chromatogram and this is called total exclusion volume which defines the exclusion limit for a particular column. Small molecules will permeate fully through the pores of the stationary phase particles and will be eluted last, marking the end of the chromatogram, and may appear as a total penetration marker.
551:
materials, the stationary phases, packed inside the columns, are consisted mainly of porous granules of silica gel in various shapes, mainly spherical, at different diameters (1.5, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10 um), with varying pore diameters (60, 100, 150, 300, A), on whose surface are chemically bound various hydrocarbon ligands such as C3, C4, C8, C18. There are also polymeric hydrophobic particles that serve as stationary phases, when solutions at extreme pH are needed, or hybrid silica, polymerized with organic substances. The longer the hydrocarbon ligand on the stationary phase, the longer the sample components can be retained. Most of the current methods of separation of biomedical materials use C-18 type of columns, sometimes called by a trade names such as ODS (octadecylsilane) or RP-18 (Reversed Phase 18).
898:). This is a chromatographic technique which encompasses the mobile phase region between reversed-phase chromatography (RP) and organic normal phase chromatography (ONP). HILIC is used to achieve unique selectivity for hydrophilic compounds, showing normal phase elution order, using "reversed-phase solvents", i.e., relatively polar mostly non-aqueous solvents in the mobile phase. Many biological molecules, especially those found in biological fluids, are small polar compounds that do not retain well by reversed phase-HPLC. This has made hydrophilic interaction LC (HILIC) an attractive alternative and useful approach for analysis of polar molecules. Additionally, because HILIC is routinely used with traditional aqueous mixtures with polar organic solvents such as ACN and methanol, it can be easily coupled to MS.
812:) is an analytical technique for the separation and determination of ionic solutes in aqueous samples from environmental and industrial origins such as metal industry, industrial waste water, in biological systems, pharmaceutical samples, food, etc. Retention is based on the attraction between solute ions and charged sites bound to the stationary phase. Solute ions charged the same as the ions on the column are repulsed and elute without retention, while solute ions charged oppositely to the charged sites of the column are retained on it. Solute ions that are retained on the column can be eluted from it by changing the mobile phase composition, such as increasing its salt concentration and pH or increasing the column temperature, etc.
1403:
applications are the major users of HPLC, LC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This includes drug development and pharmacology, which is the scientific study of the effects of drugs and chemicals on living organisms, personalized medicine, public health and diagnostics. While urine is the most common medium for analyzing drug concentrations, blood serum is the sample collected for most medical analyses with HPLC. One of the most important roles of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS in the clinical lab is the
Newborn Screening (NBS) for metabolic disorders and follow-up diagnostics. The infants' samples come in the shape of dried blood spot (DBS), which is simple to prepare and transport, enabling safe and accessible diagnostics, both locally and globally.
207:, a sampler, a column, and a detector. The solvents are prepared in advance according to the needs of the separation, they pass through the degasser to remove dissolved gasses, mixed to become the mobile phase, then flow through the sampler, which brings the sample mixture into the mobile phase stream, which then carries it into the column. The pumps deliver the desired flow and composition of the mobile phase through the stationary phase inside the column, then directly into a flow-cell inside the detector. The detector generates a signal proportional to the amount of sample component emerging from the column, hence allowing for
1146:, two neighboring bands on a chromatogram). This factor is defined in terms of a ratio of the retention factors of a pair of neighboring chromatogram peaks, and may also be corrected for by the void volume of the column. The greater the separation factor value is over 1.0, the better the separation, until about 2.0 beyond which an HPLC method is probably not needed for separation. Resolution equations relate the three factors such that high efficiency and separation factors improve the resolution of component peaks in an HPLC separation.
981:
1114:) practically measures how sharp component peaks on the chromatogram are, as ratio of the component peak's area ("retention time") relative to the width of the peaks at their widest point (at the baseline). Peaks that are tall, sharp, and relatively narrow indicate that separation method efficiently removed a component from a mixture; high efficiency. Efficiency is very dependent upon the HPLC column and the HPLC method used. Efficiency factor is synonymous with plate number, and the 'number of theoretical plates'.
351:. After the introduction of porous layer particles, there has been a steady trend to reduced particle size to improve efficiency. However, by decreasing particle size, new problems arose. The practical disadvantages stem from the excessive pressure drop needed to force mobile fluid through the column and the difficulty of preparing a uniform packing of extremely fine materials. Every time particle size is reduced significantly, another round of instrument development usually must occur to handle the pressure.
335:, Josef Huber, and others in the 1960s that LC could be operated in the high-efficiency mode by reducing the packing-particle diameter substantially below the typical LC (and GC) level of 150 ÎĽm and using pressure to increase the mobile phase velocity. These predictions underwent extensive experimentation and refinement throughout the 60s into the 70s until these very days. Early developmental research began to improve LC particles, for example the historic Zipax, a superficially porous particle.
989:
earlier-eluting components. This also improves the peak shape for tailed peaks, as the increasing concentration of the organic eluent pushes the tailing part of a peak forward. This also increases the peak height (the peak looks "sharper"), which is important in trace analysis. The gradient program may include sudden "step" increases in the percentage of the organic component, or different slopes at different times – all according to the desire for optimum separation in minimum time.
844:(with respect to the functional groups in resins) concentration reduces the retention time, as it creates a strong competition with the solute ions. A decrease in pH reduces the retention time in cation exchange while an increase in pH reduces the retention time in anion exchange. By lowering the pH of the solvent in a cation exchange column, for instance, more hydrogen ions are available to compete for positions on the anionic stationary phase, thereby eluting weakly bound cations.
365:
1251:), or about 600 atmospheres. Modern HPLC systems have been improved to work at much higher pressures, and therefore are able to use much smaller particle sizes in the columns (<2 ÎĽm). These "ultra high performance liquid chromatography" systems or UHPLCs, which could also be known as ultra high pressure chromatography systems, can work at up to 120 MPa (17,405 lbf/in), or about 1200 atmospheres. The term "UPLC" is a trademark of the
1357:
the production of bulk drug materials. According to the
European pharmacopoeia, HPLC is used in only 15.5% of syntheses. However, it plays a role in 44% of syntheses in the United States pharmacopoeia. This could possibly be due to differences in monetary and time constraints, as HPLC on a large scale can be an expensive technique. An increase in specificity, precision, and accuracy that occurs with HPLC unfortunately corresponds to an increase in cost.
537:
1385:(GC-MS) circumvents the necessity for derivitizing with acetylating or alkylation agents, which can be a burdensome extra step. LC-MS has been used to detect a variety of agents like doping agents, drug metabolites, glucuronide conjugates, amphetamines, opioids, cocaine, BZDs, ketamine, LSD, cannabis, and pesticides. Performing HPLC in conjunction with mass spectrometry reduces the absolute need for standardizing HPLC experimental runs.
1163:
proportionally to the smaller or larger diameter used, both in the isocratic and in gradient modes. It determines the quantity of analyte that can be loaded onto the column. Larger diameter columns are usually seen in preparative applications, such as the purification of a drug product for later use. Low-ID columns have improved sensitivity and lower solvent consumption in the recent ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC).
248:
physical interactions with the adsorbent, the stationary phase. The velocity of each component depends on its chemical nature, on the nature of the stationary phase (inside the column) and on the composition of the mobile phase. The time at which a specific analyte elutes (emerges from the column) is called its retention time. The retention time, measured under particular conditions, is an identifying characteristic of a given analyte.
1067:
578:
analyte with the hydrophobic stationary phase relatively stronger. Similarly, an investigator can decrease retention time by adding more organic solvent to the mobile phase. RP-HPLC is so commonly used among the biologists and life science users, therefore it is often incorrectly referred to as just "HPLC" without further specification. The pharmaceutical industry also regularly employs RP-HPLC to qualify drugs before their release.
907:
1373:. This method is much more convenient. However, convenience comes at the cost of specificity and coverage of a wide range of drugs, therefore, HPLC has been used as well as an alternative method. As HPLC is a method of determining (and possibly increasing) purity, using HPLC alone in evaluating concentrations of drugs was somewhat insufficient. Therefore, HPLC in this context is often performed in conjunction with
6324:
6025:
5669:
668:(TFA) as additive to the mobile phase is widely used for complex mixtures of biomedical samples, mostly peptides and proteins, using mostly UV based detectors. They are rarely used in mass spectrometry methods, due to residues it can leave in the detector and solvent delivery system, which interfere with the analysis and detection. However, TFA can be highly effective in improving retention of analytes such as
977:
is lengthened and results in slowly eluting peaks to be broad, leading to reduced sensitivity. A stronger mobile phase would improve issues of runtime and broadening of later peaks but results in diminished peak separation, especially for quickly eluting analytes which may have insufficient time to fully resolve. This issue is addressed through the changing mobile phase composition of gradient elution.
6049:
5693:
1099:), the retention factor (kappa prime), and the separation factor (alpha). Together the factors are variables in a resolution equation, which describes how well two components' peaks separated or overlapped each other. These parameters are mostly only used for describing HPLC reversed phase and HPLC normal phase separations, since those separations tend to be more subtle than other HPLC modes (
1155:
1215:, reducing the particle diameter by half and keeping the size of the column the same, will double the column velocity and efficiency; but four times increase the backpressure. And the small particles HPLC also can decrease the width broadening. Larger particles are used in preparative HPLC (column diameters 5 cm up to >30 cm) and for non-HPLC applications such as
39:
31:
6061:
5705:
6037:
5681:
477:), and works effectively for separating analytes readily soluble in non-polar solvents. The analyte associates with and is retained by the polar stationary phase. Adsorption strengths increase with increased analyte polarity. The interaction strength depends not only on the functional groups present in the structure of the analyte molecule, but also on
493:, analytes interact with a solid surface rather than with the solvated layer of a ligand attached to the sorbent surface; see also reversed-phase HPLC below). Adsorption chromatography is still somewhat used for structural isomer separations in both column and thin-layer chromatography formats on activated (dried) silica or alumina supports.
741:). The separation process is based on the ability of sample molecules to permeate through the pores of gel spheres, packed inside the column, and is dependent on the relative size of analyte molecules and the respective pore size of the absorbent. The process also relies on the absence of any interactions with the packing material surface.
834:. Polystyrene resins allow cross linkage, which increases the stability of the chain. Higher cross linkage reduces swerving, which increases the equilibration time and ultimately improves selectivity. Cellulose and dextran ion exchangers possess larger pore sizes and low charge densities making them suitable for protein separation.
117:. The output of the detector is a graph, called a chromatogram. Chromatograms are graphical representations of the signal intensity versus time or volume, showing peaks, which represent components of the sample. Each sample appears in its respective time, called its retention time, having area proportional to its amount.
646:, to control the pH. Buffers serve multiple purposes: control of pH which affects the ionization state of the ionizable analytes, affect the charge upon the ionizable silica surface of the stationary phase in between the bonded phase linands, and in some cases even act as ion pairing agents to neutralize analyte charge.
200:
2.1–4.6 mm diameter, and 30–250 mm length. Also HPLC columns are made with smaller adsorbent particles (1.5–50 μm in average particle size). This gives HPLC superior resolving power (the ability to distinguish between compounds) when separating mixtures, which makes it a popular chromatographic technique.
1342:
Large numbers of samples can be automatically injected onto an HPLC system, by the use of HPLC autosamplers. In addition, HPLC autosamplers have an injection volume and technique which is exactly the same for each injection, consequently they provide a high degree of injection volume precision. It is
1227:
Many stationary phases are porous to provide greater surface area. Small pores provide greater surface area while larger pore size has better kinetics, especially for larger analytes. For example, a protein which is only slightly smaller than a pore might enter the pore but does not easily leave once
1106:
Void volume is the amount of space in a column that is occupied by solvent. It is the space within the column that is outside of the column's internal packing material. Void volume is measured on a chromatogram as the first component peak detected, which is usually the solvent that was present in the
870:
This chromatographic process relies on the capability of the bonded active substances to form stable, specific, and reversible complexes thanks to their biological recognition of certain specific sample components. The formation of these complexes involves the participation of common molecular forces
688:
As a rule, in most cases RP-HPLC columns should be flushed with clean solvent after use to remove residual acids or buffers, and stored in an appropriate composition of solvent. Some biomedical applications require non metallic environment for the optimal separation. For such sensitive cases there is
626:
in their structure) are less retained, as they are better integrated into water. The interactions with the stationary phase can also affected by steric effects, or exclusion effects, whereby a component of very large molecule may have only restricted access to the pores of the stationary phase, where
527:
is rather limited, and is mostly used for preparative chromatography. The basic principle is based on a molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) which is used to compete effectively for binding sites, and thus displace all molecules with lesser affinities. There are
460:
Normal–phase chromatography was one of the first kinds of HPLC that chemists developed, but has decreased in use over the last decades. Also known as normal-phase HPLC (NP-HPLC), this method separates analytes based on their affinity for a polar stationary surface such as silica; hence it is based on
684:
as these will hydrolyze the underlying silica particle and dissolve it. There are selected brands of hybrid or enforced silica based particles of RP columns which can be used at extreme pH conditions. The use of extreme acidic conditions is also not recommended, as they also might hydrolyzed as well
1402:
Medical use of HPLC typically use mass spectrometer (MS) as the detector, so the technique is called LC-MS or LC-MS/MS for tandem MS, where two types of MS are operated sequentially. When the HPLC instrument is connected to more than one detector, it is called a hyphenated LC system. Pharmaceutical
1062:
in chromatography is the number of peaks that can be separated within a retention window for a specific pre-defined resolution factor, usually ~1. It could also be envisioned as the runtime measured in number of peaks' average widths. The equation is shown in the Figure of the performance criteria.
976:
In isocratic elution, peak width increases with retention time linearly according to the equation for N, the number of theoretical plates. This can be a major disadvantage when analyzing a sample that contains analytes with a wide range of retention factors. Using a weaker mobile phase, the runtime
4338:
Sundström, Mira; Pelander, Anna; Angerer, Verena; Hutter, Melanie; Kneisel, Stefan; Ojanperä, Ilkka (2013-10-01). "A high-sensitivity ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HR-TOFMS) method for screening synthetic cannabinoids and other
1356:
HPLC has many applications in both laboratory and clinical science. It is a common technique used in pharmaceutical development, as it is a dependable way to obtain and ensure product purity. While HPLC can produce extremely high quality (pure) products, it is not always the primary method used in
1207:
particles (very small beads). These particles come in a variety of sizes with 5 ÎĽm beads being the most common. Smaller particles generally provide more surface area and better separations, but the pressure required for optimum linear velocity increases by the inverse of the particle diameter
1045:
The plate count N as a criterion for system efficiency was developed for isocratic conditions, i.e., a constant mobile phase composition throughout the run. In gradient conditions, where the mobile phase changes with time during the chromatographic run, it is more appropriate to use the parameter
199:
because operational pressures are significantly higher (around 50–1400 bar), while ordinary liquid chromatography typically relies on the force of gravity to pass the mobile phase through the packed column. Due to the small sample amount separated in analytical HPLC, typical column dimensions are
866:
High performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) works by passing a sample solution through a column packed with a stationary phase that contains an immobilized biologically active ligand. The ligand is in fact a substrate that has a specific binding affinity for the target molecule in the sample
774:
of purified proteins. SEC is used primarily for the analysis of large molecules such as proteins or polymers. SEC works also in a preparative way by trapping the smaller molecules in the pores of a particles. The larger molecules simply pass by the pores as they are too large to enter the pores.
630:
Retention time increases with more hydrophobic (non-polar) surface area of the molecules. For example, branched chain compounds can elute more rapidly than their corresponding linear isomers because their overall surface area is lower. Similarly organic compounds with single C–C bonds frequently
617:
Structural properties of the analyte molecule can play an important role in its retention characteristics. In theory, an analyte with a larger hydrophobic surface area (C–H, C–C, and generally non-polar atomic bonds, such as S-S and others) can be retained longer as it does not interact with the
488:
The use of more polar solvents in the mobile phase will decrease the retention time of analytes, whereas more hydrophobic solvents tend to induce slower elution (increased retention times). Very polar solvents such as traces of water in the mobile phase tend to adsorb to the solid surface of the
42:
Schematic representation of an HPLC unit (1) solvent reservoirs, (2) solvent degasser, (3) gradient valve, (4) mixing vessel for delivery of the mobile phase, (5) high-pressure pump, (6) switching valve in "inject position", (6') switching valve in "load position", (7) sample injection loop, (8)
581:
RP-HPLC operates on the principle of hydrophobic interactions, which originates from the high symmetry in the dipolar water structure and plays the most important role in all processes in life science. RP-HPLC allows the measurement of these interactive forces. The binding of the analyte to the
247:
The sample mixture to be separated and analyzed is introduced, in a discrete small volume (typically microliters), into the stream of mobile phase percolating through the column. The components of the sample move through the column, each at a different velocity, which are a function of specific
992:
In isocratic elution, the retention order does not change if the column dimensions (length and inner diameter) change – that is, the peaks elute in the same order. In gradient elution, however, the elution order may change as the dimensions or flow rate change. if they are no scaled down or up
577:
With such stationary phases, retention time is longer for lipophylic molecules, whereas polar molecules elute more readily (emerge early in the analysis). A chromatographer can increase retention times by adding more water to the mobile phase, thereby making the interactions of the hydrophobic
443:
The polar analytes diffuse into a stationary water layer associated with the polar stationary phase and are thus retained. The stronger the interactions between the polar analyte and the polar stationary phase (relative to the mobile phase) the longer the elution time. The interaction strength
1595:
Gerber, F.; Krummen, M.; Potgeter, H.; Roth, A.; Siffrin, C.; Spoendlin, C. (2004). "Practical aspects of fast reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography using 3ÎĽm particle packed columns and monolithic columns in pharmaceutical development and production working under current good
675:
Reversed phase columns are quite difficult to damage compared to normal silica columns, thanks to the shielding effect of the bonded hydrophobic ligands; however, most reversed phase columns consist of alkyl derivatized silica particles, and are prone to hydrolysis of the silica at extreme pH
343:
and did not require leak-free seals or check valves for steady flow and good quantitation. Hardware milestones were made at Dupont IPD (Industrial
Polymers Division) such as a low-dwell-volume gradient device being utilized as well as replacing the septum injector with a loop injection valve.
1406:
Other methods of detection of molecules that are useful for clinical studies have been tested against HPLC, namely immunoassays. In one example of this, competitive protein binding assays (CPBA) and HPLC were compared for sensitivity in detection of vitamin D. Useful for diagnosing vitamin D
550:
Reversed phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) is the most widespread mode of chromatography. It has a non-polar stationary phase and an aqueous, moderately polar mobile phase. In the reversed phase methods, the substances are retained in the system the more hydrophobic they are. For the retention of organic
1393:
Similar assays can be performed for research purposes, detecting concentrations of potential clinical candidates like anti-fungal and asthma drugs. This technique is obviously useful in observing multiple species in collected samples, as well, but requires the use of standard solutions when
1162:
The internal diameter (ID) of an HPLC column is an important parameter. It can influence the detection response when reduced due to the reduced lateral diffusion of the solute band. It can also affect the separation selectivity, when flow rate and injection volumes are not scaled down or up
3851:
Nobilis, Milan; Pour, Milan; Senel, Petr; PavlĂk, Jan; Kunes, JirĂ; Voprsalová, Marie; Kolárová, Lenka; Holcapek, Michal (2007-06-15). "Metabolic profiling of a potential antifungal drug, 3-(4-bromophenyl)-5-acetoxymethyl-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-one, in mouse urine using high-performance liquid
761:
The separation principle in SEC is based on the fully, or partially penetrating of the high molecular weight substances of the sample into the porous stationary-phase particles during their transport through column. The mobile-phase eluent is selected in such a way that it totally prevents
154:. As mentioned, HPLC relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid and a sample mixture through a column filled with adsorbent, leading to the separation of the sample components. The active component of the column, the adsorbent, is typically a granular material made of solid particles (
988:
By starting from a weaker mobile phase and strengthening it during the runtime, gradient elution decreases the retention of the later-eluting components so that they elute faster, giving narrower (and taller) peaks for most components, while also allowing for the adequate separation of
299:
The choice of mobile phase components, additives (such as salts or acids) and gradient conditions depends on the nature of the column and sample components. Often a series of trial runs is performed with the sample in order to find the HPLC method which gives adequate separation.
162:, polymers, etc.), 1.5–50 μm in size, on which various reagents can be bonded. The components of the sample mixture are separated from each other due to their different degrees of interaction with the adsorbent particles. The pressurized liquid is typically a mixture of solvents (
281:, hydrophobic interactions in reversed-phase HPLC). Depending on their affinity for the stationary and mobile phases, analytes partition between the two during the separation process taking place in the column. This partitioning process is similar to that which occurs during a
1299:(CAD). A kind of commonly utilized detector includes refractive index detectors, which provide readings by measuring the changes in the refractive index of the eluant as it moves through the flow cell. In certain cases, it is possible to use multiple detectors, for example
211:
analysis of the sample components. The detector also marks the time of emergence, the retention time, which serves for initial identification of the component. More advanced detectors, provide also additional information, specific to the analyte's characteristics, such as
191:
The liquid chromatograph is complex and has sophisticated and delicate technology. In order to properly operate the system, there should be a minimum basis for understanding of how the device performs the data processing to avoid incorrect data and distorted results.
3505:
Gerber, Frederic (May 2004). "Practical aspects of fast reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography using 3 ÎĽm particle packed columns and monolithic columns in pharmaceutical development and production working under current good manufacturing practice".
4382:
Gelb, Michael H.; Basheeruddin, Khaja; Burlina, Alberto; Chen, Hsiao-Jan; Chien, Yin-Hsiu; Dizikes, George; Dorley, Christine; Giugliani, Roberto; Hietala, Amy; Hong, Xinying; Kao, Shu-Min; Khaledi, Hamid; Klug, Tracy; Kubaski, Francyne; Liao, Hsuan-Chieh (2022).
4066:
D'Ovidio, Cristian; Locatelli, Marcello; Perrucci, Miryam; Ciriolo, Luigi; Furton, Kenneth G.; Gazioglu, Isil; Kabir, Abuzar; Merone, Giuseppe Maria; de Grazia, Ugo; Ali, Imran; Catena, Antonio Maria; Treglia, Michele; Marsella, Luigi T.; Savini, Fabio (2023).
182:
play a major role in the separation process by influencing the interactions taking place between sample components and adsorbent. These interactions are physical in nature, such as hydrophobic (dispersive), dipole–dipole and ionic, most often a combination.
489:
stationary phase forming a stationary bound (water) layer which is considered to play an active role in retention. This behavior is somewhat peculiar to normal phase chromatography because it is governed almost exclusively by an adsorptive mechanism (
778:
This technique is widely used for the molecular weight determination of polysaccharides. SEC is the official technique (suggested by
European pharmacopeia) for the molecular weight comparison of different commercially available low-molecular weight
431:
with water as the strong component. Partition HPLC has been used historically on unbonded silica or alumina supports. Each works effectively for separating analytes by relative polar differences. HILIC bonded phases have the advantage of separating
875:, electrostatic interaction, dipole-dipole interaction, hydrophobic interaction, and the hydrogen bond. An efficient, biospecific bond is formed by a simultaneous and concerted action of several of these forces in the complementary binding sites.
1124:) measures how long a component of the mixture stuck to the column, measured by the area under the curve of its peak in a chromatogram (since HPLC chromatograms are a function of time). Each chromatogram peak will have its own retention factor (
1394:
information about species identity is sought out. It is used as a method to confirm results of synthesis reactions, as purity is essential in this type of research. However, mass spectrometry is still the more reliable way to identify species.
672:, in applications utilizing other detectors such as UV-VIS, as it is a fairly strong organic acid. The effects of acids and buffers vary by application but generally improve chromatographic resolution when dealing with ionizable components.
867:
solution. The target molecule binds to the ligand, while the other molecules in the sample solution pass through the column, having little or no retention. The target molecule is then eluted from the column using a suitable elution buffer.
4497:
Arunkumar, Nivethitha; Langan, Thomas J.; Stapleton, Molly; Kubaski, Francyne; Mason, Robert W.; Singh, Rajendra; Kobayashi, Hironori; Yamaguchi, Seiji; Suzuki, Yasuyuki; Orii, Kenji; Orii, Tadao; Fukao, Toshiyuki; Tomatsu, Shunji (2020).
338:
The 1970s brought about many developments in hardware and instrumentation. Researchers began using pumps and injectors to make a rudimentary design of an HPLC system. Gas amplifier pumps were ideal because they operated at constant
108:
Each component in the sample interacts differently with the adsorbent material, causing different migration rates for each component. These different rates lead to separation as the species flow out of the column into a specific
3771:
Kolmonen, Marjo; Leinonen, Antti; Pelander, Anna; Ojanperä, Ilkka (2007-02-28). "A general screening method for doping agents in human urine by solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry".
452:(electrostatic) interactions can also increase retention. Use of more polar solvents in the mobile phase will decrease the retention time of the analytes, whereas more hydrophobic solvents tend to increase retention times.
266:, whereby the mobile phases used, include any miscible combination of water or buffers with various organic solvents (the most common are acetonitrile and methanol). Some HPLC techniques use water-free mobile phases (see
1407:
deficiencies in children, it was found that sensitivity and specificity of this CPBA reached only 40% and 60%, respectively, of the capacity of HPLC. While an expensive tool, the accuracy of HPLC is nearly unparalleled.
1169:
Analytical scale columns (4.6 mm) have been the most common type of columns, though narrower columns are rapidly gaining in popularity. They are used in traditional quantitative analysis of samples and often use a
3815:
Pelander, Anna; Ojanperä, Ilkka; Laks, Suvi; Rasanen, Ilpo; Vuori, Erkki (2003-11-01). "Toxicological screening with formula-based metabolite identification by liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry".
239:
and user software control the HPLC instrument and provide data analysis. Some models of mechanical pumps in an HPLC instrument can mix multiple solvents together at a ratios changing in time, generating a composition
847:
This form of chromatography is widely used in the following applications: water purification, preconcentration of trace components, ligand-exchange chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography of proteins, high-pH
1107:
sample mixture; ideally the sample solvent flows through the column without interacting with the column, but is still detectable as distinct from the HPLC solvent. The void volume is used as a correction factor.
3598:
Merone, Giuseppe M.; Tartaglia, Angela; Rossi, Sandra; Santavenere, Francesco; Bassotti, Elisa; D'Ovidio, Cristian; Bonelli, Martina; Rosato, Enrica; de Grazia, Ugo; Locatelli, Marcello; Savini, Fabio (2021).
3367:
765:
In biomedical sciences it is generally considered as a low resolution chromatography and thus it is often reserved for the final, "polishing" step of the purification. It is also useful for determining the
4620:"Competitive Protein-binding assay-based Enzyme-immunoassay Method, Compared to High-pressure Liquid Chromatography, Has a Very Lower Diagnostic Value to Detect Vitamin D Deficiency in 9–12 Years Children"
2231:
2339:
Hung, L. B.; Parcher, J. F.; Shores, J. C.; Ward, E. H. (1988). "Theoretical and experimental foundation for surface-coverage programming in gas–solid chromatography with an adsorbable carrier gas".
411:. Partition chromatography uses a retained solvent, on the surface or within the grains or fibers of an "inert" solid supporting matrix as with paper chromatography; or takes advantage of some
4728:
3728:
Weinmann, W.; Renz, M.; Vogt, S.; Pollak, S. (2000-01-01). "Automated solid-phase extraction and two-step derivatisation for simultaneous analysis of basic illicit drugs in serum by GC/MS".
1095:
separation, but describes how well HPLC separates a mixture into two or more components that are detected as peaks (bands) on a chromatogram. The HPLC parameters are the: efficiency factor(
910:
At the ARS Natural
Products Utilization Research Unit in Oxford, MS., a support scientist (r) extracts plant pigments that will be analyzed by a plant physiologist (l) using an HPLC system.
6241:
1020:
tests, as can be seen in the USP Pharmacopaeia, which are a set of quantitative criteria, which test the suitability of the HPLC system to the required analysis at any step of it.
255:, and surface chemistry. The use of smaller particle size packing materials requires the use of higher operational pressure ("backpressure") and typically improves chromatographic
3207:
Horváth, Cs.; Preiss B.A.; Lipsky S.R. (1967). "Fast liquid chromatography. Investigation of operating parameters and the separation of nucleotides on pellicular ion exchangers".
1812:"Temperature and eluent composition effects on enantiomer separation of carvedilol by high-performance liquid chromatography on immobilized amylose-based chiral stationary phases"
582:
stationary phase is proportional to the contact surface area around the non-polar segment of the analyte molecule upon association with the ligand on the stationary phase. This
1038:
The ratio between the retention factors, k', of every two adjacent peaks in the chromatogram is used in the evaluation of the degree of separation between them, and is called
933:
The mobile phase composition does not have to remain constant. A separation in which the mobile phase composition is changed during the separation process is described as a
1939:
1530:
3689:"Screening and confirmation of 62 drugs of abuse and metabolites in urine by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry"
3364:
4764:
1534:
97:, which flows through the system, collecting the sample mixture on the way, delivering it into a cylinder, called the column, filled with solid particles, made of
5743:
1016:
The theory of high performance liquid chromatography-HPLC is, at its core, the same as general chromatography theory. This theory has been used as the basis for
606:
10 J/cm) and to the hydrophobic surface of the analyte and the ligand respectively. The retention can be decreased by adding a less polar solvent (methanol,
308:
Prior to HPLC, scientists used benchtop column liquid chromatographic techniques. Liquid chromatographic systems were largely inefficient due to the flow rate of
2246:
328:
and thermally unstable at the high temperatures of GC. As a result, alternative methods were hypothesized which would soon result in the development of HPLC.
4865:
984:
A schematic of gradient elution. Increasing mobile phase strength sequentially elutes analytes having varying interaction strength with the stationary phase.
6236:
1378:
1300:
5972:
4870:
751:—separation of synthetic polymers (aqueous or organic soluble). GPC is a powerful technique for polymer characterization using primarily organic solvents.
277:
The chosen composition of the mobile phase depends on the intensity of interactions between various sample components ("analytes") and stationary phase (
2986:
500:
HPLC because of poor reproducibility of retention times due to the presence of a water or protic organic solvent layer on the surface of the silica or
259:(the degree of peak separation between consecutive analytes emerging from the column). Sorbent particles may be ionic, hydrophobic or polar in nature.
6231:
3047:
1382:
775:
Larger molecules therefore flow through the column quicker than smaller molecules: that is, the smaller the molecule, the longer the retention time.
6099:
4618:
Zahedi Rad, Maliheh; Neyestani, Tirang Reza; Nikooyeh, Bahareh; Shariatzadeh, Nastaran; Kalayi, Ali; Khalaji, Niloufar; Gharavi, Azam (2015-01-01).
2567:
Zhang, Chenhua; Rodriguez, Elliott; Bi, Cong; Zheng, Xiwei; Suresh, Doddavenkatana; Suh, Kyungah; Li, Zhao; Elsebaei, Fawzi; Hage, David S. (2018).
2369:
244:
in the mobile phase. Most HPLC instruments also have a column oven that allows for adjusting the temperature at which the separation is performed.
4848:
1182:
757:—separation of water-soluble biopolymers. GFC uses primarily aqueous solvents (typically for aqueous soluble biopolymers, such as proteins, etc.).
423:(HILIC; a sub-technique within HPLC), this method separates analytes based on differences in their polarity. HILIC most often uses a bonded polar
1027:, or retention parameter, which is the experimental measurement of the capacity ratio, as shown in the Figure of Performance Criteria as well. t
6185:
5995:
4044:
614:
uses this effect by automatically reducing the polarity and the surface tension of the aqueous mobile phase during the course of the analysis.
3656:
Pesce, Amadeo; Rosenthal, Murray; West, Robert; West, Cameron; Crews, Bridgit; Mikel, Charles; Almazan, Perla; Latyshev, Sergey (2010-06-01).
2931:
1084:. Of course, they can be put in practice through analysis of HPLC chromatograms, although rate theory is considered the more accurate theory.
3658:"An evaluation of the diagnostic accuracy of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry versus immunoassay drug testing in pain patients"
2551:
2448:
2406:
2201:
2010:
1985:
1732:
1469:
4843:
4187:"A review of high performance liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric urinary methods for anticancer drug exposure of health care workers"
3908:"A review on bioanalytical method development and validation of anticancer drugs by using lc/ms/ms and its applications on routine analysis"
1280:
631:
elute later than those with a C=C or even triple bond, as the double or triple bond makes the molecule more compact than a single C–C bond.
213:
4904:
2115:
Solid-Core or Fully Porous
Columns in Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography—Which Way to Go for Better Efficiency of the Separation?
1431:
927:
618:
water structure. On the other hand, analytes with higher polar surface area (as a result of the presence of polar groups, such as -OH, -NH
515:
bonded phases which demonstrate improved reproducibility, and due to a better understanding of the range of usefulness of the technique.
4757:
2078:
1755:"Porous polymer monolithic column with surface-bound gold nanoparticles for the capture and separation of cysteine-containing peptides"
5736:
2840:
1035:
is the time it takes for a non-retained substance to elute through the system without any retention, thus it is called the Void Time.
941:
in water, and end at 90% methanol in water after 20 minutes. The two components of the mobile phase are typically termed "A" and "B";
6065:
5709:
3093:
3412:
2810:
2471:"USP compendial methods for analysis of heparin: chromatographic determination of molecular weight distributions for heparin sodium"
2122:
1640:
404:
1177:
Narrow-bore columns (1–2 mm) are used for applications when more sensitivity is desired either with special UV-vis detectors,
4671:
L. R. Snyder, J.J. Kirkland, and J. W. Dolan, Introduction to Modern Liquid
Chromatography, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2009.
2569:"High performance affinity chromatography and related separation methods for the analysis of biological and pharmaceutical agents"
375:
Partition chromatography was one of the first kinds of chromatography that chemists developed, and is barely used these days. The
2469:
Mulloy, Barbara; Heath, Alan; Shriver, Zachary; Jameison, Fabian; Al Hakim, Ali; Morris, Tina S.; Szajek, Anita Y. (2014-08-01).
419:
interaction with the stationary phase. Analyte molecules partition between a liquid stationary phase and the eluent. Just as in
6175:
1421:
1334:
range. Other methods to detect neurotransmitters include liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, ELISA, or radioimmunoassays.
324:
was impossible. GC was ineffective for many life science and health applications for biomolecules, because they are mostly non-
6358:
6215:
6041:
6002:
5768:
5588:
4750:
4733:
3330:
Xiang, Yanqiao; Liu, Yansheng; Lee, Milton L. (2006). "Ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography using elevated temperature".
3070:
1441:
1263:
HPLC detectors fall into two main categories: universal or selective. Universal detectors typically measure a bulk property (
627:
the interactions with surface ligands (alkyl chains) take place. Such surface hindrance typically results in less retention.
132:, separating the components of a complex biological sample, or of similar synthetic chemicals from each other), and medical (
3888:
2858:"Isocratic and gradient elution chromatography: A comparison in terms of speed, retention reproducibility and quantitation"
2744:"Isocratic and gradient elution chromatography: A comparison in terms of speed, retention reproducibility and quantitation"
1166:
Larger ID columns (over 10 mm) are used to purify usable amounts of material because of their large loading capacity.
6348:
6205:
6200:
6029:
5729:
5031:
4785:
2272:"Separation of the higher monoamino-acids by counter-current liquid-liquid extraction: the amino-acid composition of wool"
950:
849:
721:
545:
497:
392:
263:
4553:
Skogvold, Hanne
Bendiksen; Rootwelt, Helge; Reubsaet, Léon; Elgstøen, Katja Benedikte Prestø; Wilson, Steven Ray (2023).
3159:
282:
6092:
4677:
L. R. Snyder, J.J. Kirkland, and J. L. Glajch, Practical HPLC Method
Development, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
996:
The driving force in reversed phase chromatography originates in the high order of the water structure. The role of the
424:
4554:
347:
While instrumentation developments were important, the history of HPLC is primarily about the history and evolution of
6308:
6301:
6155:
5773:
5308:
4795:
3657:
792:
524:
256:
3385:
2987:
https://www.usp.org/sites/default/files/usp/document/harmonization/gen-chapter/harmonization-november-2021-m99380.pdf
1239:
vary in pressure capacity, but their performance is measured on their ability to yield a consistent and reproducible
650:
is commonly added in mass spectrometry to improve detection of certain analytes by the formation of analyte-ammonium
4128:"Applications of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry based metabolomics in predictive and personalized medicine"
6145:
5946:
5234:
5205:
5185:
5138:
6294:
6210:
6124:
5849:
5839:
4823:
1416:
1070:
The quantitative parameters and equations which determine the extent of performance of the chromatographic system
872:
400:
384:
325:
3293:"The van Deemter equation: Assumptions, limits, and adjustment to modern high performance liquid chromatography"
1135:
for the retention factor of the first peak). This factor may be corrected for by the void volume of the column.
5920:
5880:
5578:
5494:
5133:
1296:
1075:
980:
3687:
Tsai, I.-Lin; Weng, Te-I.; Tseng, Yufeng J.; Tan, Happy Kuy-Lok; Sun, Hsiao-Ju; Kuo, Ching-Hua (2013-12-01).
3436:
6353:
6327:
6140:
6119:
6085:
6009:
5890:
5798:
5516:
5427:
5390:
5274:
5200:
5021:
5004:
4947:
1292:
861:
554:
The most common RP stationary phases are based on a silica support, which is surface-modified by bonding RMe
225:
4702:
3601:"Fast Quantitative LC-MS/MS Determination of Illicit Substances in Solid and Liquid Unknown Seized Samples"
3172:
Xiang, Y.; Liu Y.; Lee M.L. (2006). "Ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography using elevated temperature".
1275:
between the mobile phase and mobile phase with solute while selective detectors measure a solute property (
1187:
Capillary columns (under 0.3 mm) are used almost exclusively with alternative detection means such as
638:
since it can change the hydrophobic character of the ionizable analyte. For this reason most methods use a
220:, which can provide insight on its structural features. These detectors are in common use, such as UV/Vis,
6267:
5988:
5434:
5422:
5313:
5178:
4952:
4818:
4555:"Dried blood spot analysis with liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry: Trends in clinical chemistry"
1330:
and others in neurochemical analysis research applications. The HPLC-ECD detects neurotransmitters to the
1216:
203:
The schematic of an HPLC instrument typically includes solvents' reservoirs, one or more pumps, a solvent-
66:
used to separate, identify, and quantify specific components in mixtures. The mixtures can originate from
4444:"Clinical Application of LC–MS/MS in the Follow-Up for Treatment of Children with Methylmalonic Aciduria"
320:(LC), however, it was obvious that gas phase separation and analysis of very polar high molecular weight
6257:
6160:
6150:
5788:
5583:
5480:
5465:
5395:
5318:
5150:
5100:
5009:
4934:
4833:
4683:
S. Ahuja and M.W. Dong (ed), Handbook of
Pharmaceutical Analysis by HPLC, Elsevier/Academic Press, 2005.
2365:
1426:
1248:
1203:
Most traditional HPLC is performed with the stationary phase attached to the outside of small spherical
376:
317:
151:
5685:
3952:
4243:
3000:
2857:
2790:
1892:
1714:
444:
depends on the functional groups part of the analyte molecular structure, with more polarized groups (
17:
6277:
6195:
5844:
5808:
5760:
5752:
5573:
5528:
5303:
5123:
5053:
4810:
4790:
4680:
S. Ahuja and H. T. Rasmussen (ed), HPLC Method Development for Pharmaceuticals, Academic Press, 2007.
3983:
3781:
2580:
2153:"Rapid liquid-chromatographic separation of steroids on columns heavily loaded with stationary phase"
2038:
1891:
Kadlecová, Zuzana; KalĂková, KvÄ›ta; Folprechtová, Denisa; TesaĹ™ová, Eva; Gilar, Martin (2020-08-16).
1366:
1240:
1092:
1080:
1074:
The parameters are largely derived from two sets of chromatographic theory: plate theory (as part of
771:
665:
380:
271:
63:
3971:
2005:. RSC chromatography monographs. Royal Society of Chemistry. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
469:
type of interactions) with the sorbent surface. NP-HPLC uses a non-polar, non-aqueous mobile phase (
6262:
5885:
5596:
5550:
5475:
5448:
5346:
5328:
5281:
5219:
5115:
5095:
4964:
4959:
4860:
1940:"Ten Common-Sense Corollaries in Pharmaceutical Analysis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography"
662:, is often added to the mobile phase if mass spectrometry is used to analyze the column effluents.
504:
chromatographic media. This layer changes with any changes in the composition of the mobile phase (
348:
270:
below). The aqueous component of the mobile phase may contain acids (such as formic, phosphoric or
83:
6048:
5692:
2117:. Advances in Chromatography. Vol. 55 (1 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 185–203.
481:. The effect of steric hindrance on interaction strength allows this method to resolve (separate)
364:
6272:
6180:
6165:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5778:
5673:
5639:
5501:
5470:
5351:
5293:
4991:
4974:
4969:
4924:
4887:
4877:
4838:
4600:
4535:
4479:
4364:
4320:
4025:
3933:
3753:
3292:
2893:
2833:
High-Performance Gradient Elution: The Practical Application of the Linear-Solvent-Strength Model
2771:
2743:
2533:
2514:
1695:
1577:
1436:
1252:
1142:) is a relative comparison on how well two neighboring components of the mixture were separated (
767:
332:
313:
71:
2637:"Understanding and manipulating the separation in hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography"
2428:
2386:
251:
Many different types of columns are available, filled with adsorbents varying in particle size,
3907:
3160:
Fast and Ultrafast HPLC on sub-2 μm Porous Particles — Where Do We Go From Here? – LC-GC Europe
5981:
5956:
5951:
5941:
5854:
5813:
5793:
5654:
5619:
5602:
5540:
5458:
5453:
5381:
5366:
5336:
5257:
5224:
5195:
5190:
5165:
5155:
5075:
5063:
4942:
4855:
4651:
4592:
4584:
4527:
4519:
4471:
4463:
4424:
4406:
4356:
4312:
4304:
4263:
4224:
4206:
4167:
4149:
4108:
4090:
4017:
4009:
3925:
3869:
3833:
3797:
3745:
3710:
3669:
3638:
3620:
3523:
3487:
3418:
3408:
3347:
3312:
3273:
3265:
3224:
3189:
3141:
3028:
3020:
2969:
2951:
2885:
2877:
2836:
2806:
2797:, 75 years of Chromatography a Historical Dialogue, vol. 17, Elsevier, pp. 151–158,
2763:
2724:
2706:
2664:
2656:
2614:
2596:
2547:
2506:
2498:
2444:
2427:
Kazakevich, Yuri; LoBrutto, Rosario (2007-01-22), Kazakevich, Yuri; LoBrutto, Rosario (eds.),
2402:
2385:
LoBrutto, Rosario; Kazakevich, Yuri (2007-01-22), Kazakevich, Yuri; LoBrutto, Rosario (eds.),
2328:
2301:
2197:
2174:
2118:
2006:
1981:
1920:
1912:
1849:
1831:
1792:
1774:
1728:
1687:
1679:
1636:
1613:
1569:
1524:
1465:
1374:
1307:
1288:
1284:
1272:
1188:
1171:
590:-chain versus the complex of both. The energy released in this process is proportional to the
482:
229:
2075:
1549:
586:
effect is dominated by the force of water for "cavity-reduction" around the analyte and the C
6053:
5961:
5697:
5614:
5269:
5128:
5105:
5058:
4999:
4641:
4631:
4574:
4566:
4511:
4455:
4414:
4396:
4348:
4294:
4255:
4214:
4198:
4157:
4139:
4098:
4080:
3999:
3991:
3915:
3861:
3825:
3789:
3737:
3700:
3628:
3612:
3554:
3515:
3477:
3467:
3339:
3304:
3255:
3216:
3181:
3131:
3012:
2959:
2943:
2869:
2798:
2755:
2714:
2698:
2648:
2604:
2588:
2539:
2490:
2482:
2436:
2394:
2348:
2291:
2283:
2164:
2046:
1904:
1867:
1839:
1823:
1782:
1766:
1720:
1669:
1605:
1561:
1343:
possible to enable sample stirring within the sampling-chamber, thus promoting homogeneity.
1268:
1117:
1088:
1063:
In this equation tg is the gradient time and w(ave) is the average peaks width at the base.
681:
669:
647:
643:
611:
462:
437:
1066:
536:
5555:
5511:
5506:
5400:
5376:
5210:
5173:
5026:
5016:
4899:
4723:
3456:"Automated device for continuous stirring while sampling in liquid chromatography systems"
3371:
2373:
2082:
1204:
1158:
Tubing on a nano-liquid chromatography (nano-LC) system, used for very low flow capacities
966:
837:
In general, ion exchangers favor the binding of ions of higher charge and smaller radius.
639:
591:
167:
75:
4069:"LC-MS/MS Application in Pharmacotoxicological Field: Current State and New Applications"
312:
being dependent on gravity. Separations took many hours, and sometimes days to complete.
288:
In the example using a water/acetonitrile gradient, the more hydrophobic components will
93:
It relies on high pressure pumps, which deliver mixtures of various solvents, called the
4686:
Y. V. Kazakevich and R. LoBrutto (ed.), HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists, Wiley, 2007.
4103:
4068:
3987:
3785:
2584:
2042:
906:
6108:
5834:
5439:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5362:
5358:
5341:
5298:
5229:
5090:
5085:
5070:
4882:
4800:
4646:
4619:
4419:
4384:
4219:
4186:
4162:
4127:
3633:
3600:
3482:
3455:
2964:
2719:
2687:"Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC)—a powerful separation technique"
2609:
2568:
2296:
2271:
1844:
1811:
1810:
Panella, Cristina; Ferretti, Rosella; Casulli, Adriano; Cirilli, Roberto (2019-10-01).
1787:
1754:
1488:
1311:
478:
416:
236:
196:
139:
102:
4689:
U. D. Neue, HPLC Columns: Theory, Technology, and Practice, Wiley-VCH, New York, 1997.
4299:
4282:
2802:
1724:
1674:
1657:
1295:
can be used. A universal detector that complements UV-Vis absorbance detection is the
292:(come off the column) later, then, once the mobile phase gets richer in acetonitrile (
6342:
5900:
5644:
5533:
5489:
5214:
5048:
5043:
5036:
4914:
4718:
4604:
4483:
4324:
4029:
3937:
2321:
1699:
1327:
738:
466:
217:
143:
4539:
4499:
4368:
3757:
3244:"Fast analysis in liquid chromatography using small particle size and high pressure"
2897:
2775:
1581:
511:
Recently, partition chromatography has become popular again with the development of
5936:
5859:
5521:
5371:
5286:
5262:
5252:
5244:
5145:
5080:
4979:
4828:
1212:
1192:
1178:
962:
915:
701:
the metal, the shape of the peak for the 2,2'-bipy will be distorted (tailed) when
607:
428:
171:
124:, during the production process of pharmaceutical and biological products), legal (
114:
4385:"Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry in Newborn Screening Laboratories"
4202:
3865:
2518:
1306:
When used with an electrochemical detector (ECD) the HPLC-ECD selectively detects
3616:
3559:
3542:
3519:
3343:
3308:
3185:
2873:
2759:
2652:
1908:
1609:
540:
A chromatogram of complex mixture (perfume water) obtained by reversed phase HPLC
5829:
4919:
2169:
2152:
1513:
1370:
1195:
capillaries, rather than the stainless steel tubing that larger columns employ.
1023:
This relation is also represented as a normalized unit-less factor known as the
970:
841:
816:
734:
659:
655:
583:
408:
396:
321:
179:
87:
4459:
4259:
4144:
3472:
3136:
3119:
3016:
1827:
1719:, Journal of Chromatography Library, vol. 16, Elsevier, pp. 169–186,
407:
for their development of the technique, which was used for their separation of
331:
Following on the seminal work of Martin and Synge in 1941, it was predicted by
296:, in a mobile phase becomes higher eluting solution), their elution speeds up.
5895:
5803:
5545:
4515:
4352:
4085:
3793:
2702:
2486:
2440:
2398:
1331:
831:
694:
496:
Partition- and NP-HPLC fell out of favor in the 1970s with the development of
474:
221:
147:
98:
30:
4636:
4588:
4523:
4467:
4443:
4410:
4308:
4267:
4210:
4153:
4094:
4013:
3929:
3624:
3422:
3269:
3145:
3024:
2955:
2881:
2710:
2660:
2600:
2502:
1916:
1835:
1778:
1683:
1573:
949:
is the "strong" solvent which rapidly elutes the solutes from the column. In
448:, hydroxyl-) and groups capable of hydrogen bonding inducing more retention.
5864:
5607:
4909:
4774:
4289:. Advancement and Applications of Mass Spectrometry in Laboratory Medicine.
3242:
Nguyen, Dao T.-T.; Guillarme, Davy; Rudaz, Serge; Veuthey, Jean-Luc (2006).
2686:
2636:
2470:
1664:. Advancement and Applications of Mass Spectrometry in Laboratory Medicine.
1512:
Chaitali Dattatray Harde1, Dr. Amol Navnath Khedkar, Vaishnavi Sanjay Sake.
1323:
1319:
823:
449:
412:
388:
38:
4655:
4596:
4570:
4531:
4475:
4428:
4360:
4316:
4242:
Hernández, FĂ©lix; Sancho, Juan V.; Ibáñez, MarĂa; Guerrero, Carlos (2007).
4228:
4171:
4112:
4021:
3873:
3852:
chromatography with UV photodiode-array and mass spectrometric detection".
3837:
3801:
3749:
3714:
3673:
3642:
3527:
3491:
3351:
3316:
3277:
3260:
3243:
3193:
3048:"The Impact of Column Hardware on Efficiency in Liquid Chromatography (LC)"
3032:
2973:
2911:
Dolan, John W. (2014). "LC Method Scaling, Part II: Gradient Separations".
2889:
2767:
2728:
2668:
2618:
2510:
2305:
1924:
1853:
1796:
1716:
Chapter 5 Silica columns–packing procedures and performance characteristics
1691:
1617:
1154:
3741:
3228:
3001:"Peak capacity in gradient ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)"
2543:
2178:
1565:
945:
is the "weak" solvent which allows the solute to elute only slowly, while
689:
a test for the metal content of a column is to inject a sample which is a
5629:
4004:
3920:
3705:
3688:
2494:
1369:
in various samples. The most common method of drug detection has been an
1315:
1255:, but is sometimes used to refer to the more general technique of UHPLC.
1244:
938:
685:
as corrode the inside walls of the metallic parts of the HPLC equipment.
340:
309:
252:
241:
208:
204:
175:
4742:
4579:
4401:
3220:
2352:
5721:
5649:
4500:"Newborn screening of mucopolysaccharidoses: past, present, and future"
4283:"After another decade: LC–MS/MS became routine in clinical diagnostics"
3995:
2592:
1658:"After another decade: LC–MS/MS became routine in clinical diagnostics"
827:
780:
737:
based on differences in their molecular size (actually by a particle's
698:
690:
651:
501:
289:
94:
79:
3829:
2947:
2332:
2287:
1893:"Method for evaluation of ionic interactions in liquid chromatography"
1770:
1753:
Xu, Yan; Cao, Qing; Svec, Frantisek; Fréchet, Jean M.J. (2010-04-15).
4737:
2232:"Milestones in Chromatography: The Birth of Partition Chromatography"
2050:
709:
599:
433:
159:
110:
3407:. Haddad, P. R., Jackson, P. E. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.
4244:"Antibiotic residue determination in environmental waters by LC-MS"
3454:
Markovitch, Omer; Ottelé, Jim; Veldman, Obe; Otto, Sijbren (2020).
47:, IR, UV), (11) data acquisition, (12) waste or fraction collector.
4185:
Mathias, Patricia I.; Connor, Thomas H.; B'Hymer, Clayton (2017).
3541:
Siddiqui, Masoom Raza; AlOthman, Zeid A.; Rahman, Nafisur (2013).
1211:
According to the equations of the column velocity, efficiency and
1153:
905:
819:
702:
512:
420:
368:
37:
29:
6077:
3906:
Tallam, Anil Kumar; Alapati, Sahithi; Nuli, Mohana Vamsi (2023).
1961:
Snyder, Lloyd R.; Kirkland, Joseph J.; Glajch, Joseph L. (2012).
43:
pre-column (guard column), (9) analytical column, (10) detector (
5624:
2029:
Karger, Barry L. (1997). "HPLC: Early and Recent Perspectives".
1236:
918:
composition remains constant throughout the procedure is termed
676:
conditions in the mobile phase. Most types of RP columns should
610:) into the mobile phase to reduce the surface tension of water.
67:
6081:
5725:
4746:
2113:
Levin, Shulamit (2017). Grinberg, Nelu; Carr, Peter W. (eds.).
1633:
Forensic Applications of High Performance Liquid Chromatography
128:, detecting performance enhancement drugs in urine), research (
5634:
4674:
M.W. Dong, Modern HPLC for practicing scientists. Wiley, 2006.
705:
178:) and is referred to as a "mobile phase". Its composition and
4043:
Gu, Chunang (Christine); Russell, David; Yehl, Peter (2016).
2864:. 19th International Symposium on MicroScale Bioseparations.
1550:"Reversed Phase Stationary Phases in Pharmaceutical Sciences"
4692:
M. C. McMaster, HPLC, a practical user's guide, Wiley, 2007.
3543:"Analytical techniques in pharmaceutical analysis: A review"
3094:"Using Volumetric Flow to Scaleup Chromatographic Processes"
3972:"Current developments in LC-MS for pharmaceutical analysis"
1554:
Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies
830:
ion exchangers (gels), and controlled-pore glass or porous
635:
1058:
as a measure for the system efficiency. The definition of
3405:
Principles and practice of modern chromatographic methods
3120:"Recent innovations in UHPLC columns and instrumentation"
2989:, CHROMATOGRAPH, Stage 4 Harmonization (December 1, 2022)
2218:
Dynamics of Chromatography, Part I. Principles and Theory
461:
analyte ability to engage in polar interactions (such as
90:, etc., which have been dissolved into liquid solutions.
4045:"Application of LCMS in small-molecule drug development"
3588:, 2004. 27th ed. The USP Convention Inc., Rockville, MD.
2932:"A new form of chromatogram employing two liquid phases"
195:
HPLC is distinguished from traditional ("low pressure")
4709:
1002:
reduce the retarding strength of the aqueous component.
558:
SiCl, where R is a straight chain alkyl group such as C
136:, detecting vitamin D levels in blood serum) purposes.
2085:. Chromatography Online. Avanstar Communications Inc.
1031:
is the retention time of the specific component and t
440:
and neutral solutes in a single chromatographic run.
508:, moisture level) causing drifting retention times.
6286:
6250:
6224:
6133:
5970:
5929:
5873:
5822:
5759:
5566:
5327:
5243:
5164:
5114:
4990:
4933:
4809:
3046:Zelenyánszki, Dóra; Felinger, Attila (2020-10-01).
1303:normally combines UV-Vis with a mass spectrometer.
961:is an organic solvent miscible with water, such as
852:of carbohydrates and oligosaccharides, and others.
3576:, 2002. fourth ed., Council of Europe, Strasbourg.
3071:"LC Method Scaling, Part II: Gradient Separations"
2532:Fritz, James S.; Gjerde, Douglas T. (2000-04-25).
2320:
1514:"Review on High Performance Liquid Chromatography"
1460:Kazakevich, Yuri; LoBrutto, Rosario, eds. (2007).
3092:Jensen, Ole Elvang; Kidal, Steffen (2006-03-01).
3005:Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis
2097:Dynamics of Chromatography: Principles and Theory
1980:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
1042:, α, as shown in the Performance Criteria graph.
262:The most common mode of liquid chromatography is
2930:Martin, A. J. P.; Synge, R. L. M. (1941-12-01).
1868:"Molecular Interaction of HPLC Stationary Phase"
1656:Seger, Christoph; Salzmann, Linda (2020-08-01).
267:
3118:Walter, Thomas H.; Andrews, Richard W. (2014).
1181:detection or with other detection methods like
6242:Pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
3887:Gu, Jatin; Patel, Kumar; Shah, Dhiren (2016).
3437:"Electrochemical Detection (ECD) Fundamentals"
2194:HPLC columns: theory, technology, and practice
6093:
5737:
4758:
2856:Schellinger, Adam P.; Carr, Peter W. (2006).
2742:Schellinger, Adam P.; Carr, Peter W. (2006).
1365:This technique is also used for detection of
892:hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography
634:Another important factor is the mobile phase
8:
4624:International Journal of Preventive Medicine
1529:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1247:may reach as high as 60 MPa (6000
532:Reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RP-LC)
4442:Wang, Yanyun; Sun, Yun; Jiang, Tao (2019).
4389:International Journal of Neonatal Screening
3970:Beccaria, Marco; Cabooter, Deirdre (2020).
3291:Gritti, Fabrice; Guiochon, Georges (2013).
1078:), and the rate theory of chromatography /
957:is often water or an aqueous buffer, while
937:. For example, a gradient can start at 10%
6100:
6086:
6078:
5744:
5730:
5722:
4765:
4751:
4743:
4281:Seger, Christoph; Salzmann, Linda (2020).
2685:Buszewski, Bogusław; Noga, Sylwia (2012).
2680:
2678:
1533:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1283:) by simply responding to the physical or
4645:
4635:
4578:
4418:
4400:
4298:
4218:
4161:
4143:
4102:
4084:
4003:
3919:
3704:
3632:
3558:
3481:
3471:
3259:
3135:
2963:
2831:Snyder, Lloyd R.; Dolan, John W. (2006).
2718:
2608:
2295:
2168:
2024:
2022:
1843:
1786:
1673:
1631:Bayne, Shirley; Carlin, Michelle (2017).
1287:of the solute. HPLC most commonly uses a
1087:They are analogous to the calculation of
4727:) is being considered for deletion. See
2789:Ettre, L. S.; Zlatkis, A., eds. (1979),
2220:. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. p. 281.
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
1065:
979:
535:
363:
316:(GC) at the time was more powerful than
6237:Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
3730:International Journal of Legal Medicine
3162:. Lcgceurope.com. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
2435:(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 263–279,
2393:(1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 139–239,
2368:. Sacheminc.com. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
1452:
1379:liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
1183:liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
120:HPLC is widely used for manufacturing (
6186:Micellar electrokinetic chromatography
6171:High-performance liquid chromatography
5996:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
4341:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2691:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2475:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2323:High performance liquid chromatography
1965:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
1522:
1000:is to reduce this high order and thus
421:hydrophilic interaction chromatography
52:High-performance liquid chromatography
18:High performance liquid chromatography
5784:High-performance liquid chromatograph
3953:"HPLC in Pharmaceutical Applications"
3113:
3111:
3100:. BioPharm International-03-01-2006.
2630:
2628:
2108:
2106:
998:organic component of the mobile phase
930:who was one of the pioneers of HPLC.
744:Two types of SEC are usually termed:
427:and a mobile phase made primarily of
7:
6232:Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
6036:
5680:
2270:Martin, A J P; Synge, R L M (1941).
2151:Karger, B. L.; Berry, L. V. (1971).
2074:Henry, Richard A. (1 February 2009)
2001:Hanai, Toshihiko; Hanai, T. (1999).
1483:
1481:
1383:gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
1103:, ion exchange and size exclusion).
6060:
5704:
4250:. Pharmaceutical-residue analysis.
4248:TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry
4126:Zhou, Juntuo; Zhong, Lijun (2022).
1464:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.
884:Aqueous normal-phase chromatography
879:Aqueous normal-phase chromatography
755:Gel filtration chromatography (GFC)
749:Gel permeation chromatography (GPC)
60:high-pressure liquid chromatography
4132:Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences
2999:Wren, Stephen A. C. (2005-06-15).
2433:HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists
2391:HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists
2141:. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
2076:"The Early Days of HPLC at Dupont"
1816:Journal of Pharmaceutical Analysis
1462:HPLC for pharmaceutical scientists
733:) separates polymer molecules and
708:are present on the surface of the
654:. A volatile organic acid such as
285:but is continuous, not step-wise.
25:
4731:to help reach a consensus. ›
4300:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2020.03.004
3077:. LCGC North America-03-01-2014.
2795:Journal of Chromatography Library
2635:McCalley, David V. (2017-11-10).
1963:Practical HPLC Method Development
1675:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2020.03.004
1291:; however, a wide range of other
1271:) by measuring a difference of a
405:Richard Laurence Millington Synge
27:Technique in analytical chemistry
6323:
6322:
6059:
6047:
6035:
6024:
6023:
5703:
5691:
5679:
5668:
5667:
3693:Journal of Analytical Toxicology
3158:Majors, Ronald E.. (2010-09-07)
2319:Lindsay, S.; Kealey, D. (1987).
1713:Unger, K. K., ed. (1979-01-01),
1548:Levin, Shulamit (January 2004).
815:Types of ion exchangers include
371:partition technique useful range
6176:Capillary electrochromatography
2429:"Size-Exclusion Chromatography"
1422:Capillary electrochromatography
6216:Two-dimensional chromatography
5769:Atomic absorption spectrometer
4049:European Pharmaceutical Review
3124:Trends in Analytical Chemistry
1978:HPLC: a practical user's guide
1442:Micellar liquid chromatography
902:Isocratic and gradient elution
379:principle has been applied in
1:
6206:Size-exclusion chromatography
6201:Reversed-phase chromatography
5032:Interface and colloid science
4786:Glossary of chemical formulae
4704:HPLC Chromatography Principle
4559:Journal of Separation Science
4203:10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.06.028
3866:10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.02.045
3365:1290 Infinity Quaternary Pump
3248:Journal of Separation Science
2803:10.1016/s0301-4770(08)60645-4
2031:Journal of Chemical Education
1725:10.1016/S0301-4770(08)60809-X
1191:. They are usually made from
951:reversed-phase chromatography
850:anion-exchange chromatography
727:Size-exclusion chromatography
722:Size-exclusion chromatography
716:Size-exclusion chromatography
546:Reversed-phase chromatography
3912:Journal of Integral Sciences
3617:10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03310
3560:10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.04.016
3547:Arabian Journal of Chemistry
3520:10.1016/j.chroma.2004.02.056
3344:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.11.118
3309:10.1016/j.chroma.2013.06.032
3186:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.11.118
2874:10.1016/j.chroma.2006.01.047
2760:10.1016/j.chroma.2006.01.047
2653:10.1016/j.chroma.2017.06.026
2245:(5): 506–512. Archived from
1976:McMaster, Marvin C. (2007).
1909:10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461301
1610:10.1016/j.chroma.2004.02.056
697:. Because the 2,2'-bipy can
34:A modern self-contained HPLC
6309:Journal of Chromatography B
6302:Journal of Chromatography A
6191:Normal-phase chromatography
6156:Displacement chromatography
5774:Flame emission spectrometer
5309:Bioorganometallic chemistry
4796:List of inorganic compounds
4191:Journal of Chromatography B
3854:Journal of Chromatography B
3586:United States Pharmacopoeia
3332:Journal of Chromatography A
3297:Journal of Chromatography A
3174:Journal of Chromatography A
2862:Journal of Chromatography A
2748:Journal of Chromatography A
2641:Journal of Chromatography A
2372:September 15, 2008, at the
2366:Displacement Chromatography
2216:Giddings, J. Calvin (1965)
2196:. New York, NY: Wiley VCH.
1897:Journal of Chromatography A
1635:(1st ed.). CRC Press.
1598:Journal of Chromatography A
1398:Medical and health sciences
798:Ion-exchange chromatography
793:Ion-exchange chromatography
787:Ion-exchange chromatography
525:displacement chromatography
519:Displacement chromatography
456:Normal–phase chromatography
399:in chemistry was earned by
268:normal-phase chromatography
58:), formerly referred to as
6375:
6146:Argentation chromatography
5235:Dynamic covalent chemistry
5206:Enantioselective synthesis
5186:Physical organic chemistry
5139:Organolanthanide chemistry
4460:10.1007/s12325-019-00955-0
4339:drugs of abuse in urine".
4260:10.1016/j.trac.2007.01.012
4145:10.3389/fmolb.2022.1049016
3951:O'Driscoll, Aimee (2021).
3574:The European Pharmacopoeia
3473:10.1038/s42004-020-00427-5
3386:"Trademarks : Waters"
3137:10.1016/j.trac.2014.07.016
3054:. LCGC Europe-10-01-2020.
3017:10.1016/j.jpba.2004.12.028
1946:. LCGC Europe-08-01-2018.
1828:10.1016/j.jpha.2019.04.002
1289:UV-Vis absorbance detector
1172:UV-Vis absorbance detector
926:). The word was coined by
914:A separation in which the
859:
856:Bioaffinity chromatography
790:
719:
543:
6318:
6295:Biomedical Chromatography
6211:Thin-layer chromatography
6115:
6019:
5850:Ion mobility spectrometry
5840:Electroanalytical methods
5663:
4824:Electroanalytical methods
4781:
4516:10.1038/s10038-020-0744-8
4504:Journal of Human Genetics
4353:10.1007/s00216-013-7272-8
4086:10.3390/molecules28052127
3794:10.1016/j.aca.2006.12.028
3508:Journal of Chromatography
2703:10.1007/s00216-011-5308-5
2487:10.1007/s00216-014-7940-3
2441:10.1002/9780470087954.ch6
2399:10.1002/9780470087954.ch4
2170:10.1093/clinchem/17.8.757
2095:Giddings, Calvin (1965).
1596:manufacturing practice".
1417:History of chromatography
873:Van der Waals interaction
594:of the eluent (water: 7.3
401:Archer John Porter Martin
385:thin layer chromatography
5579:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
5495:Supramolecular chemistry
5134:Organometallic chemistry
4729:templates for discussion
4637:10.4103/2008-7802.161069
3460:Communications Chemistry
1297:charged aerosol detector
1293:chromatography detectors
1076:partition chromatography
993:according to the change
393:liquid–liquid separation
360:Partition chromatography
283:liquid–liquid extraction
6141:Affinity chromatography
6010:Analytical Biochemistry
5799:Melting point apparatus
5517:Combinatorial chemistry
5428:Food physical chemistry
5391:Environmental chemistry
5275:Bioorthogonal chemistry
5201:Retrosynthetic analysis
5022:Chemical thermodynamics
5005:Spectroelectrochemistry
4948:Computational chemistry
2139:The Chemistry of Silica
2003:HPLC: a practical guide
862:Affinity chromatography
395:applications. The 1952
304:History and development
6287:Prominent publications
6268:Kovats retention index
5989:Analytica Chimica Acta
5589:of element discoveries
5435:Agricultural chemistry
5423:Carbohydrate chemistry
5314:Bioinorganic chemistry
5179:Alkane stereochemistry
5124:Coordination chemistry
4953:Mathematical chemistry
4819:Instrumental chemistry
4706:, Application – 2020.
4571:10.1002/jssc.202300210
3889:"APPLICATION OF LC-MS"
3774:Analytica Chimica Acta
3261:10.1002/jssc.200600189
3098:BioPharm International
2835:. Wiley Interscience.
1938:Dong, Michael (2018).
1217:solid-phase extraction
1159:
1071:
985:
911:
541:
372:
142:can be described as a
48:
35:
6359:Scientific techniques
6258:Distribution constant
6161:Electrochromatography
6151:Column chromatography
5881:Coning and quartering
5789:Infrared spectrometer
5584:Timeline of chemistry
5481:Post-mortem chemistry
5466:Clandestine chemistry
5396:Atmospheric chemistry
5319:Biophysical chemistry
5151:Solid-state chemistry
5101:Equilibrium chemistry
5010:Photoelectrochemistry
4734:Liquid Chromatography
4287:Clinical Biochemistry
3742:10.1007/s004149900098
2544:10.1002/9783527613243
2538:(1 ed.). Wiley.
2387:"Reversed-Phase HPLC"
2192:Neue, Uwe D. (1997).
1662:Clinical Biochemistry
1566:10.1081/JLC-120030606
1427:Column chromatography
1157:
1069:
983:
909:
860:Further information:
791:Further information:
720:Further information:
680:be used with aqueous
544:Further information:
539:
377:partition coefficient
367:
318:liquid chromatography
197:liquid chromatography
41:
33:
6349:Hungarian inventions
6278:Van Deemter equation
6196:Paper chromatography
6003:Analytical Chemistry
5845:Gravimetric analysis
5809:Optical spectrometer
5753:Analytical chemistry
5574:History of chemistry
5529:Chemical engineering
5304:Bioorganic chemistry
5054:Structural chemistry
4791:List of biomolecules
3921:10.37022/jis.v6i1.51
3818:Analytical Chemistry
3605:Analytical Chemistry
3403:K., Robards (1994).
3209:Analytical Chemistry
3069:Dolan, John (2014).
1759:Analytical Chemistry
1241:volumetric flow rate
1093:paper chromatography
1081:Van Deemter equation
924:constant composition
772:quaternary structure
666:Trifluoroacetic acid
381:paper chromatography
272:trifluoroacetic acid
226:diode array detector
64:analytical chemistry
62:, is a technique in
6263:Freundlich equation
5597:The central science
5551:Ceramic engineering
5476:Forensic toxicology
5449:Chemistry education
5347:Radiation chemistry
5329:Interdisciplinarity
5282:Medicinal chemistry
5220:Fullerene chemistry
5096:Microwave chemistry
4965:Molecular mechanics
4960:Molecular modelling
4448:Advances in Therapy
4402:10.3390/ijns8040062
3988:2020Ana...145.1129B
3786:2007AcAC..585...94K
3611:(49): 16308–16313.
3221:10.1021/ac60256a003
2936:Biochemical Journal
2585:2018Ana...143..374Z
2353:10.1021/ac00162a003
2276:Biochemical Journal
2043:1997JChEd..74...45K
1381:(LC-MS) instead of
1138:Separation factor (
1110:Efficiency factor (
658:, or most commonly
349:particle technology
6225:Hyphenated methods
6181:Ion chromatography
6166:Gas chromatography
5916:Separation process
5911:Sample preparation
5640:Chemical substance
5502:Chemical synthesis
5471:Forensic chemistry
5352:Actinide chemistry
5294:Clinical chemistry
4975:Molecular geometry
4970:Molecular dynamics
4925:Elemental analysis
4878:Separation process
3996:10.1039/C9AN02145K
3706:10.1093/jat/bkt083
3370:2015-11-20 at the
3075:LCGC North America
2913:LCGC North America
2593:10.1039/C7AN01469D
2535:Ion Chromatography
2230:Ettre, C. (2001).
2137:Iler, R.K. (1979)
2081:2020-08-01 at the
1560:(7–9): 1353–1376.
1437:Ion chromatography
1253:Waters Corporation
1160:
1072:
1040:selectivity factor
1018:system-suitability
986:
912:
806:ion chromatography
768:tertiary structure
693:of 2,2'- and 4,4'-
602:/cm, methanol: 2.2
542:
483:structural isomers
373:
314:Gas chromatography
146:process involving
99:adsorbent material
49:
36:
6336:
6335:
6075:
6074:
5957:Standard addition
5952:Internal standard
5942:Calibration curve
5855:Mass spectrometry
5814:Spectrophotometer
5794:Mass spectrometer
5779:Gas chromatograph
5719:
5718:
5655:Quantum mechanics
5620:Chemical compound
5603:Chemical reaction
5541:Materials science
5459:General chemistry
5454:Amateur chemistry
5382:Photogeochemistry
5367:Stellar chemistry
5337:Nuclear chemistry
5258:Molecular biology
5225:Polymer chemistry
5196:Organic synthesis
5191:Organic reactions
5156:Ceramic chemistry
5146:Cluster chemistry
5076:Chemical kinetics
5064:Molecular physics
4943:Quantum chemistry
4856:Mass spectrometry
4347:(26): 8463–8474.
3830:10.1021/ac030162o
3824:(21): 5710–5718.
3254:(12): 1836–1848.
3215:(12): 1422–1428.
2948:10.1042/bj0351358
2942:(12): 1358–1368.
2553:978-3-527-29914-0
2481:(20): 4815–4823.
2450:978-0-471-68162-5
2408:978-0-471-68162-5
2347:(11): 1090–1096.
2288:10.1042/bj0350091
2203:978-0-471-19037-0
2012:978-0-85404-515-0
1987:978-0-471-75401-5
1771:10.1021/ac1002646
1734:978-0-444-41683-4
1471:978-0-471-68162-5
1375:mass spectrometry
1308:neurotransmitters
1285:chemical property
1281:UV-Vis absorbance
1273:physical property
1189:mass spectrometry
1150:Internal diameter
1134:
890:) is also called
230:mass spectrometry
16:(Redirected from
6366:
6326:
6325:
6273:Retention factor
6102:
6095:
6088:
6079:
6063:
6062:
6051:
6039:
6038:
6027:
6026:
5962:Isotope dilution
5746:
5739:
5732:
5723:
5707:
5706:
5695:
5683:
5682:
5671:
5670:
5615:Chemical element
5270:Chemical biology
5129:Magnetochemistry
5106:Mechanochemistry
5059:Chemical physics
5000:Electrochemistry
4905:Characterization
4767:
4760:
4753:
4744:
4660:
4659:
4649:
4639:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4582:
4565:(15): e2300210.
4550:
4544:
4543:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4454:(6): 1304–1313.
4439:
4433:
4432:
4422:
4404:
4379:
4373:
4372:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4302:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4222:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4147:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4088:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4007:
3982:(4): 1129–1157.
3967:
3961:
3960:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3923:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3812:
3806:
3805:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3708:
3684:
3678:
3677:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3636:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3485:
3475:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3381:
3375:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3338:(1–2): 198–202.
3327:
3321:
3320:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3263:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3180:(1–2): 198–202.
3169:
3163:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3139:
3115:
3106:
3105:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3043:
3037:
3036:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2967:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2722:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2632:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2382:
2376:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2341:J. Am. Chem. Soc
2336:
2326:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2299:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2251:
2236:
2227:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2172:
2148:
2142:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2110:
2101:
2100:
2099:. Marcel Dekker.
2092:
2086:
2072:
2055:
2054:
2051:10.1021/ed074p45
2026:
2017:
2016:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1847:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1790:
1765:(8): 3352–3358.
1750:
1744:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1677:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1528:
1520:
1518:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1489:"Chromatography"
1485:
1476:
1475:
1457:
1269:refractive index
1132:
1118:Retention factor
1089:retention factor
1025:retention factor
935:gradient elution
670:carboxylic acids
648:Ammonium formate
644:sodium phosphate
612:Gradient elution
605:
597:
463:hydrogen-bonding
425:stationary phase
103:stationary phase
21:
6374:
6373:
6369:
6368:
6367:
6365:
6364:
6363:
6339:
6338:
6337:
6332:
6314:
6282:
6246:
6220:
6129:
6111:
6106:
6076:
6071:
6015:
5966:
5925:
5869:
5818:
5761:Instrumentation
5755:
5750:
5720:
5715:
5659:
5562:
5556:Polymer science
5512:Click chemistry
5507:Green chemistry
5401:Ocean chemistry
5377:Biogeochemistry
5323:
5239:
5211:Total synthesis
5174:Stereochemistry
5160:
5110:
5027:Surface science
5017:Thermochemistry
4986:
4929:
4900:Crystallography
4805:
4777:
4771:
4732:
4699:
4668:
4666:Further reading
4663:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4441:
4440:
4436:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4125:
4124:
4120:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4042:
4041:
4037:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3950:
3949:
3945:
3905:
3904:
3900:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3814:
3813:
3809:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3727:
3726:
3722:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3584:
3580:
3572:
3568:
3553:: S1409–S1421.
3540:
3539:
3535:
3504:
3503:
3499:
3453:
3452:
3448:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3415:
3402:
3401:
3397:
3383:
3382:
3378:
3372:Wayback Machine
3363:
3359:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3157:
3153:
3117:
3116:
3109:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3045:
3044:
3040:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2985:
2981:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2843:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2791:"Csaba Horváth"
2788:
2787:
2783:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2684:
2683:
2676:
2634:
2633:
2626:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2374:Wayback Machine
2364:
2360:
2338:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2282:(1–2): 91–121.
2269:
2268:
2264:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2234:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2150:
2149:
2145:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2112:
2111:
2104:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2083:Wayback Machine
2073:
2058:
2028:
2027:
2020:
2013:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1497:
1495:
1487:
1486:
1479:
1472:
1459:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1413:
1400:
1391:
1363:
1354:
1349:
1340:
1261:
1234:
1225:
1201:
1152:
1056:
1034:
1030:
1014:
1009:
904:
881:
864:
858:
840:An increase in
795:
789:
724:
718:
640:buffering agent
625:
621:
603:
595:
592:surface tension
589:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
548:
534:
521:
458:
362:
357:
333:Calvin Giddings
306:
189:
76:pharmaceuticals
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6372:
6370:
6362:
6361:
6356:
6354:Chromatography
6351:
6341:
6340:
6334:
6333:
6331:
6330:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6313:
6312:
6305:
6298:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6281:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6254:
6252:
6248:
6247:
6245:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6228:
6226:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6127:
6122:
6116:
6113:
6112:
6109:Chromatography
6107:
6105:
6104:
6097:
6090:
6082:
6073:
6072:
6070:
6069:
6057:
6045:
6033:
6020:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6013:
6006:
5999:
5992:
5985:
5977:
5975:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5933:
5931:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5877:
5875:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5835:Chromatography
5832:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5765:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5751:
5749:
5748:
5741:
5734:
5726:
5717:
5716:
5714:
5713:
5701:
5689:
5677:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5600:
5593:
5592:
5591:
5581:
5576:
5570:
5568:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5526:
5525:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5499:
5498:
5497:
5486:
5485:
5484:
5483:
5478:
5468:
5463:
5462:
5461:
5456:
5445:
5444:
5443:
5442:
5440:Soil chemistry
5432:
5431:
5430:
5425:
5418:Food chemistry
5415:
5413:Carbochemistry
5410:
5408:Clay chemistry
5405:
5404:
5403:
5398:
5387:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5379:
5369:
5363:Astrochemistry
5359:Cosmochemistry
5356:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5342:Radiochemistry
5333:
5331:
5325:
5324:
5322:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5299:Neurochemistry
5296:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5267:
5266:
5265:
5260:
5249:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5232:
5230:Petrochemistry
5227:
5222:
5217:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5170:
5168:
5162:
5161:
5159:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5131:
5126:
5120:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5091:Spin chemistry
5088:
5086:Photochemistry
5083:
5078:
5073:
5071:Femtochemistry
5068:
5067:
5066:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5040:
5039:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5007:
4996:
4994:
4988:
4987:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4956:
4955:
4945:
4939:
4937:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4896:
4895:
4890:
4883:Chromatography
4880:
4875:
4874:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4826:
4821:
4815:
4813:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4803:
4801:Periodic table
4798:
4793:
4788:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4762:
4755:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4716:
4714:
4712:
4698:
4697:External links
4695:
4694:
4693:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4678:
4675:
4672:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4610:
4545:
4510:(7): 557–567.
4489:
4434:
4374:
4330:
4273:
4254:(6): 466–485.
4234:
4177:
4118:
4058:
4035:
3962:
3943:
3898:
3879:
3860:(1–2): 10–19.
3843:
3807:
3763:
3736:(4): 229–235.
3720:
3699:(9): 642–651.
3679:
3668:(3): 273–281.
3662:Pain Physician
3648:
3590:
3578:
3566:
3533:
3497:
3446:
3428:
3413:
3395:
3390:www.waters.com
3376:
3357:
3322:
3283:
3234:
3199:
3164:
3151:
3107:
3084:
3061:
3058:(10): 498–504.
3038:
3011:(2): 337–343.
2991:
2979:
2922:
2903:
2868:(2): 253–266.
2848:
2842:978-0470055519
2841:
2823:
2811:
2781:
2754:(2): 253–266.
2734:
2697:(1): 231–247.
2674:
2624:
2579:(2): 374–391.
2559:
2552:
2524:
2461:
2449:
2419:
2407:
2377:
2358:
2311:
2262:
2222:
2209:
2202:
2184:
2143:
2130:
2123:
2102:
2087:
2056:
2018:
2011:
1993:
1986:
1968:
1953:
1930:
1883:
1872:www.imtakt.com
1859:
1822:(5): 324–331.
1802:
1745:
1733:
1705:
1648:
1641:
1623:
1604:(2): 127–133.
1587:
1540:
1504:
1477:
1470:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1399:
1396:
1390:
1387:
1362:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1312:norepinephrine
1260:
1257:
1233:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1200:
1197:
1151:
1148:
1054:
1032:
1028:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
903:
900:
880:
877:
857:
854:
788:
785:
759:
758:
752:
717:
714:
623:
619:
587:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
533:
530:
520:
517:
498:reversed-phase
479:steric factors
457:
454:
417:hydrogen donor
361:
358:
356:
353:
305:
302:
264:reversed phase
237:microprocessor
224:array (PDA) /
188:
185:
140:Chromatography
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6371:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6346:
6344:
6329:
6321:
6320:
6317:
6311:
6310:
6306:
6304:
6303:
6299:
6297:
6296:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6285:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6223:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6132:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6117:
6114:
6110:
6103:
6098:
6096:
6091:
6089:
6084:
6083:
6080:
6068:
6067:
6058:
6056:
6055:
6050:
6046:
6044:
6043:
6034:
6032:
6031:
6022:
6021:
6018:
6012:
6011:
6007:
6005:
6004:
6000:
5998:
5997:
5993:
5991:
5990:
5986:
5984:
5983:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5974:
5969:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5947:Matrix effect
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5934:
5932:
5928:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5906:Pulverization
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5872:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5747:
5742:
5740:
5735:
5733:
5728:
5727:
5724:
5712:
5711:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5694:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5678:
5676:
5675:
5666:
5665:
5662:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5645:Chemical bond
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5606:
5605:
5604:
5601:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5587:
5586:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5565:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5543:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5534:Stoichiometry
5532:
5531:
5530:
5527:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5500:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5491:
5490:Nanochemistry
5488:
5487:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5451:
5450:
5447:
5446:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5433:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5420:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5357:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5326:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5284:
5283:
5280:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5215:Semisynthesis
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5180:
5177:
5176:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5167:
5163:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5117:
5113:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5049:Sonochemistry
5047:
5045:
5044:Cryochemistry
5042:
5038:
5037:Micromeritics
5035:
5034:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4993:
4989:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4954:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4932:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4915:Wet chemistry
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4808:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4783:
4780:
4776:
4768:
4763:
4761:
4756:
4754:
4749:
4748:
4745:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4726:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4696:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4665:
4657:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4614:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4546:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4493:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4438:
4435:
4430:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4378:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4334:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4235:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4181:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4122:
4119:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4062:
4059:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4039:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4006:
4005:11392/2479221
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3947:
3944:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3902:
3899:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3847:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3811:
3808:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3780:(1): 94–102.
3779:
3775:
3767:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3683:
3680:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3652:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3594:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3567:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3514:(2): 127–33.
3513:
3509:
3501:
3498:
3493:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3450:
3447:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3414:9780080571782
3410:
3406:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3361:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3085:
3081:(3): 188–193.
3080:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2980:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2923:
2919:(3): 188–193.
2918:
2914:
2907:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2844:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2824:
2814:
2812:9780444417541
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:1721.1/104914
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2462:
2452:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2324:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2252:on 2016-03-04
2248:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2205:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2163:(8): 757–64.
2162:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2126:
2124:9781315158075
2120:
2116:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1950:(8): 432–436.
1949:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1884:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1806:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1736:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1642:9780429251962
1638:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1591:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1515:
1508:
1505:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1432:Csaba Horváth
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1367:illicit drugs
1360:
1358:
1352:Manufacturing
1351:
1346:
1344:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1328:acetylcholine
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:Pump pressure
1231:
1229:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1199:Particle size
1198:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1068:
1064:
1061:
1060:peak capacity
1057:
1053:
1050:
1049:peak capacity
1043:
1041:
1036:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1003:
999:
994:
990:
982:
978:
974:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
931:
929:
928:Csaba Horvath
925:
921:
917:
908:
901:
899:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
876:
874:
868:
863:
855:
853:
851:
845:
843:
838:
835:
833:
829:
825:
821:
818:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
794:
786:
784:
782:
776:
773:
769:
763:
756:
753:
750:
747:
746:
745:
742:
740:
739:Stokes radius
736:
732:
728:
723:
715:
713:
711:
707:
704:
700:
696:
692:
686:
683:
679:
673:
671:
667:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
628:
615:
613:
609:
601:
593:
585:
579:
575:
552:
547:
538:
531:
529:
526:
518:
516:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
467:dipole-dipole
464:
455:
453:
451:
447:
441:
439:
435:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
370:
366:
359:
354:
352:
350:
345:
342:
336:
334:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
303:
301:
297:
295:
291:
286:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
265:
260:
258:
254:
249:
245:
243:
238:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
218:mass spectrum
215:
210:
206:
201:
198:
193:
186:
184:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:mass transfer
141:
137:
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
106:
104:
101:, called the
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
84:environmental
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
46:
40:
32:
19:
6307:
6300:
6293:
6190:
6170:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6008:
6001:
5994:
5987:
5980:
5973:publications
5937:Chemometrics
5921:Sub-sampling
5860:Spectroscopy
5783:
5708:
5696:
5684:
5672:
5522:Biosynthesis
5372:Geochemistry
5287:Pharmacology
5263:Cell biology
5253:Biochemistry
5081:Spectroscopy
4980:VSEPR theory
4892:
4829:Spectroscopy
4773:Branches of
4722:
4703:
4627:
4623:
4613:
4580:10852/105845
4562:
4558:
4548:
4507:
4503:
4492:
4451:
4447:
4437:
4392:
4388:
4377:
4344:
4340:
4333:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4194:
4190:
4180:
4135:
4131:
4121:
4076:
4072:
4061:
4052:
4048:
4038:
3979:
3975:
3965:
3956:
3946:
3911:
3901:
3892:
3882:
3857:
3853:
3846:
3821:
3817:
3810:
3777:
3773:
3766:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3696:
3692:
3682:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3608:
3604:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3573:
3569:
3550:
3546:
3536:
3511:
3507:
3500:
3463:
3459:
3449:
3440:
3431:
3404:
3398:
3389:
3379:
3360:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3251:
3247:
3237:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3177:
3173:
3167:
3154:
3127:
3123:
3101:
3097:
3087:
3078:
3074:
3064:
3055:
3051:
3041:
3008:
3004:
2994:
2982:
2939:
2935:
2925:
2916:
2912:
2906:
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817:polystyrene
660:formic acid
656:acetic acid
584:solvophobic
523:The use of
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322:biopolymers
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1259:Detectors
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310:solvents
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