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pouch and a pair of caribou skin socks. Binford notes that all of these activities would have left evidence in the archaeological record, but that none of them would provide evidence for the primary reason that the hunters were in the area; to wait for prey. As he remarked, waiting for animals to hunt "represented 24% of the total man-hours of activity recorded; yet there is no recognisable archaeological consequences of this behaviour. No tools left on the site were used, and there were no immediate material "byproducts" of the "primary" activity. All of the other activities conducted at the site were essentially boredom reducers."
501:. The Law of Superposition indicates that layers of sediment further down will contain older artifacts than layers above. When archaeological finds are below the surface of the ground (as is most commonly the case), the identification of the context of each find is vital to enable the archaeologist to draw conclusions about the site and the nature and date of its occupation. It is the archaeologist's role to attempt to discover what contexts exist and how they came to be created. Archaeological stratification or sequence is the dynamic superimposition of single units of stratigraphy or contexts. The
328:, the king of Babylon, excavated a temple floor that was thousands of years old. During early Roman periods, Julius Caesar's men looted bronze artifacts, and by the medieval period, Europeans had begun digging up pots that had partially emerged from erosion, and weapons that had turned up on farmlands. Antiquarians excavated burial mounds in North America and North-West Europe, which sometimes involved destroying artifacts and their context, losing information about subjects from the past. Meticulous and methodical archaeological excavation took over from
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505:(physical location) of a discovery can be of major significance. Archaeological context refers to where an artifact or feature was found as well as what the artifact or feature was located near. Context is important for determining how long ago the artifact or feature was in use as well as what its function may have been. The cutting of a pit or ditch in the past is a context, whilst the material filling it will be another. Multiple fills seen in
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The use of sieving (screening) is more common on research-based excavations where more time is available. Some success has been achieved with the use of cement mixers and bulk sieving. This method allows the quick removal of context by shovel and mattock yet allows for a high retrieval rate. Spoil is
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to heavy duty earth-moving machinery. Machines are often used in what is called salvage or rescue archaeology in developer-led excavation when there are financial or time pressures. Using a mechanical excavator is the quickest method to remove soil and debris and to prepare the surface for excavation
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Understanding a site in modern archaeology is a process of grouping single contexts together in ever larger groups by virtue of their relationships. The terminology of these larger clusters varies depending on practitioner, but the terms interface, sub-group, group and land use are common. An example
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are the relationships created between contexts in time representing the chronological order they were created. An example would be a ditch and the back-fill of said ditch. The relationship of "the fill" context to the ditch "cut" context is "the fill" occurred later in the sequence, i.e., you have to
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There are two main types of trial excavation in professional archaeology both commonly associated with development-led excavation: the test pit or trench and the watching brief. The purpose of trial excavations is to determine the extent and characteristics of archaeological potential in a given area
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Development-led excavation – undertaken by professional archaeologists when the site is threatened by building development. This is normally funded by the developer, meaning that time pressure is present, as well as its being focused only on areas to be affected by building. The workforce involved is
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Following this preliminary process of defining the context, it is then recorded and removed. Often, owing to practical considerations or error, the process of defining the edges of contexts is not followed and contexts are removed out of sequence and un-stratigraphically. This is called "digging out
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The most dramatic change that occurred over time is the amount of recording and care taken to ensure preservation of artifacts and features. In the past, archaeological excavation involved random digging to unearth artifacts. Exact locations of artifacts were not recorded, and measurements were not
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in what was thought to be an Iron Age ditch feature could radically alter onsite thinking on the correct strategy for digging a site and save a lot of information being lost due to incorrect assumptions about the nature of the deposits which will be destroyed by the excavation process and in turn,
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Flotation is a process of retrieval that works by passing spoil onto the surface of water and separating finds that float from the spoil which sinks. This is especially suited to the recovery of environmental data stored in organic material such as seeds and small bones. Not all finds retrieval is
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spent a great deal of time in a certain area simply waiting for prey to arrive there, and that during this period, they undertook other tasks to pass the time, such as the carving of various objects, including a wooden mould for a mask, a horn spoon and an ivory needle, as well as repairing a skin
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representing "what you would see if you went back to a specific point in time". Often but not always a phase implies the identification of an occupation surface "old ground level" that existed at some earlier time. The production of phase interpretations is one of the first goals of stratigraphic
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Archaeological excavation is an unrepeatable process, since the same area of the ground cannot be excavated twice. Thus, archaeology is often known as a destructive science, where you must destroy the original evidence in order to make observations. To mitigate this, highly accurate and precise
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Archaeological material tends to accumulate in events. A gardener swept a pile of soil into a corner, laid a gravel path or planted a bush in a hole. A builder built a wall and back-filled the trench. Years later, someone built a pigsty onto it and drained the pigsty into the nettle patch. Later
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Research excavation – when time and resources are available to excavate the site fully and at a leisurely pace. These are now almost exclusively the preserve of academics or private societies who can muster enough volunteer labour and funds. The size of the excavation can also be decided by the
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and the soil processed through methods such as mechanical sieving or water flotation. Afterwards, digital methods are then used record the excavation process and its results. Ideally, data from the excavation should suffice to reconstruct the site completely in three-dimensional space.
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of a sub-group could be the three contexts that make up a burial: the grave cut, the body and the back-filled earth on top of the body. In turn sub-groups can be clustered together with other sub-groups by virtue of their stratigraphic relationship to form groups which in turn form "
734:"oversaw large, high-speed excavations, taking bulldozers to the site in a manner that shocked some of his colleagues but yielded valuable if tantalising information about what Durrington had looked like and how it might have been used." Machines are used primarily to remove modern
924:(which should be coming offsite earlier than contexts from early eras and phases). Spot dating also forms part of a confirmation process, of assessing the validity of the working hypothesis on the phasing of site during excavation. For example, the presence of an anomalous
549:". A sub-group burial could cluster with other sub-group burials to form a cemetery or burial group which in turn could be clustered with a building such as church to produce a "phase." A less rigorously defined combination of one or more contexts is sometimes called a
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by hand, taking care to avoid damaging archaeological deposits by accident or to make it difficult to identify later precisely where finds were located. The use of such machinery is often routine (as it is for instance with the
British archaeological television series
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Finds and artifacts that survive in the archaeological record are retrieved in the main by hand and observation as the context they survive in is excavated. Several other techniques are available depending on suitability and time constraints. Sieving (screening) and
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as a chronological record or "sequence" of the site. This Harris matrix is used for interpretation and combining contexts into ever larger units of understanding. This stratigraphic removal of the site is crucial for understanding the chronology of events on site.
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is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or "dig" is the area being studied. These locations range from one to several areas at a time during a project and can be conducted over a few weeks to several years.
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of phase". It is not good practice. After removing a context or if practical a set of contexts such as the case would be for features, the "isolate and dig" procedure is repeated until no man made remains are left on site and the site is reduced to
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work carried out post-excavation. The height above sea level of pertinent points on a context, such as the top and bottom of a wall are taken and added to plans sections and context sheets. Heights are recorded with a
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is sometimes thought of as a separate type of excavation but in practice tends to be a similar form of development-led practice. Various new forms of excavation terminology have appeared in recent years such as
616:. The process of interpretation in practice will have a bearing on excavation strategies on site so "phasing" a site is actively pursued during excavation where at all possible and is considered good practice.
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are cursory examination of trenches where the primary function of the trench is something other than archaeology, for example a trench cut for a gas pipe in a road. In the US, a method of evaluation called a
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dig a ditch first before you can back-fill it. A relationship that is later in the sequence is sometimes referred to as "higher" in the sequence and a relationship that is earlier "lower" though the term
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shoveled into cement mixers and water added to form a slurry which is then poured through a large screen mesh. The speed of this technique is offset by the damage it does to more fragile artifacts.
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to contemporaneous horizons whereas "digging in phase" is the process of stratigraphic removal of archaeological remains so as not to remove contexts that are earlier in time "lower in the sequence"
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726:) but can also be controversial as it can result in less discrimination in how the archaeological sequence on a site is recorded. One of the earliest uses of earth-moving machinery was at
856:, such as of a physical scene or of the interior structure of an object. The term is often used to include the processing, compression, storage, printing, and display of the images.
792:. Depending on time constraints and importance contexts may also be photographed, but in this case a grouping of contexts and their associations are the purpose of the photography.
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taken. Modern archaeological excavation has evolved to include removal of thin layers of sediment sequentially and recording of measurements about artifacts' locations in a site.
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of the site one layer at a time. This keeps the timeline of the material remains consistent with one another. This is done usually though mechanical means where artifacts can be
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limit the site's potential for revealing information for post-excavation specialists. Or anomalous information could show up errors in excavation such as "undercutting".
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By separating a site into these basic, discrete units, archaeologists are able to create a chronology for activity on a site and describe and interpret it. Stratigraphic
776:(as well as earlier in Winchester and York) and has become the de facto recording system in many parts of the world and is especially suited to the complexities of deep
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In stratigraphic excavation, the goal is to remove some or, preferably, all archaeological deposits and features in the reverse order they were created and construct a
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in 1967. An old road through the henge was to be straightened and improved and was going to cause considerable damage to the archaeology. Rosemary Hill describes how
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highlighted the fact that the archaeological evidence left at a site may not be entirely indicative of the historical events that actually took place there. Using an
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Discrete, discernible "edges" that are formed by being completely separated from the surrounding surface and therefore stratigraphically later than its surroundings
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Stratigraphic excavation involves a process of cleaning or "troweling back" the surface of the site and isolating contexts and edges which are definable as either:
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interpretation and excavation. Digging "in phase" is not quite the same as phasing a site. Phasing a site represents reducing the site either in excavation or
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information on the contexts being removed from the archaeological record. This can provide advance warning of potential discoveries to come by virtue of
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419:. It is by analysis of this sequence or record that excavation is intended to permit interpretation, which should lead to discussion and understanding.
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623:" is something that arrived later to the phase in the strata, for example modern pipework or the 16th-century bottles left by treasure-hunters at
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300:. Basic information about the development of the site may be drawn from this work, but to understand finer details of a site, excavation via
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generally more skilled, however, and pre-development excavations also provide a comprehensive record of the areas investigated.
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done during excavation and some, especially flotation, may take place post-excavation from samples taken during excavation.
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still, the original wall blew over and so on. Each event, which may have taken a short or long time to accomplish, leaves a
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some of which have been criticized within the profession as jargon created to cover up for falling standards of practice.
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Binford, Lewis (1978). "Dimensional analysis of behaviour & site structure: learning from an Eskimo hunting stand".
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1976:
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Van Horn, D.M.; J. R. Murray; R. S. White (1986). "Some
Techniques for Mechanical Excavation in Salvage Archaeology".
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are used to maximize the recovery of small items such as small shards of pottery or flint flakes, or bones and seeds.
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before extensive excavation work is undertaken. This is usually conducted in development-led excavations as part of
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812:(abbr. T.B.M). Samples of deposits from contexts are sometimes also taken, for later environmental analysis or for
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Reuben Thorpe – Which way is up? Context formation and transformation: The life and deaths of a hot bath in Beirut
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Before excavating, the presence or absence of archaeological remains can often be suggested by, non-intrusive
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Principles of
Archaeological Stratigraphy and Practices of Archaeological Stratigraphy as authorised free PDF
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does not itself imply a context needs to be physically higher or lower. It is more useful to think of this
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on a development funded site in London. Note "out of phase" pipe intrusion left in for practical reasons
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Adrian
Chadwick – Archaeology at the Edge of Chaos: Further Towards Reflexive Excavation Methodologies
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and use by the public and archaeological researchers. Digital imaging or digital image acquisition is
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is that trial trenches are actively dug for the purpose of revealing archaeological potential whereas
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285:(evidence of human activity through organic remains such as animal bones, pollen, or charcoal), and
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in part relies on accurate excavation and in this sense the two activities become interdependent.
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Discrete, discernible "edges" (as in 1.) and have boundaries dictated by the limit of excavation
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other contexts that have a latter physical stratigraphic relationship to them as defined by the
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One important role of finds retrieval during excavation is the role of specialists to provide
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barrow-digging around the early to mid-nineteenth century and is still being perfected today.
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from each context are bagged and labeled with their context number and site code for later
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is the most easily understood grouping for the layman as it implies a near contemporaneous
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Site
Phasing and Higher order grouping guidelines for Anglo-Lebanese Excavations in Beirut
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281:(non-portable modifications to the site itself such as post molds, burials, and hearths),
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Excavation involves the recovery of several types of data from a site. This data includes
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This describes the use in excavations of various types and sizes of machines from small
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The first instance of archaeological excavation took place in the sixth century BC when
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involves the study of how deposits occurs layer by layer. It is largely based on the
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is used which is a specified half meter square line of trial trenches dug by hand.
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1303:"Learning Archaeology: Excavation: Choosing a Site: Development Led Excavation"
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During excavation, archaeologists often use stratigraphic excavation to remove
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digital methods can be used to record the excavation process and its results.
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Conservation
Practices on Archaeological Excavations: Principles and Methods
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1333:"What is Test Pit Excavation for Soil Evaluation and what is Its Purpose?"
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1966:
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1495:"Learning Archaeology: Excavation: Recording: Stratigraphy: Cut / Fills"
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would mean multiple contexts. Structural features, natural deposits and
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Excavation in phase has reduced this site to the occupation level of a
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1125:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 61–63.
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Digital tools used by field archaeologists during excavation include
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1598:"PBS' Time Team America to Debut July 8 with Dig on Roanoke Island"
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Record
Checking Guidance for Anglo-Lebanese Excavations in Beirut
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mechanical diggers are sometimes nicknamed "big yellow trowels".
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Discovering our past : a brief introduction to archaeology
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Discovering our past : a brief introduction to archaeology
344:
There are two basic types of modern archaeological excavation:
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72:
31:
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Exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains
1154:
Reeves, D.M. (1936), "Aerial photography and archaeology",
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Excavations at the Roman city of
Sanisera, Menorca, Spain
1109:(4th ed.). Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
411:. This layer cake of events is often referred to as the
152:
2013:
Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites
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1985:
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
1681:Digitization: Advances in Archaeological Practice"
1798:Archaeological Sites: Conservation and Management
654:Excavation initially involves the removal of any
537:term as it relates to the contexts position in a
433:comparison, he looked at how hunters amongst the
1398:. Sharer, Robert J. (Sixth ed.). New York.
289:(relationships among the other types of data).
277:(portable objects made or modified by humans),
1675:Roosevelt; Cobb; Moss; Olson; Ünlüsoy (2015).
1875:
8:
1762:, 3rd. ed., London : Museum of London,
100:. There might be a discussion about this on
66:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2069:
1882:
1868:
1860:
1426:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1245:. Oxford University Press. pp. 8–12.
1047:"Archaeology 101: Artifact versus Feature"
493:In archaeology, especially in excavating,
1779:Corrado Pedeli and Stefano Pulga (2013).
1696:
1600:. First Colony Foundation. Archived from
805:or total station by relation to the site
193:Learn how and when to remove this message
175:Learn how and when to remove this message
159:, without removing the technical details.
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
476:Stratification at an excavation site in
1746:Techniques of archaeological excavation
1652:Techniques of Archaeological Excavation
1365:"Archaeology 101: Reading Stratigraphy"
1205:. Oxford University Press. p. 18.
1077:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1071:Ashmore, Wendy; Sharer, Robert (2013).
1011:
899:Sieving during an excavation in Sweden.
1419:
1251:10.1093/actrade/9780199657438.001.0001
1242:Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction
1211:10.1093/actrade/9780199657438.001.0001
1202:Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction
920:redeposited in contexts higher in the
376:planning. The main difference between
245:Excavations at the cave of Santa Ana (
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1045:Emery, Katy Meyers (4 October 2011).
157:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
1234:
1232:
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1192:
1024:Archaeological Excavations in Greece
1843:Hammer, F. – Post Excavation Manual
1800:, Los Angeles: Getty Publications,
1783:, Los Angeles: Getty Publications,
1748:, 3rd ed., London : Batsford,
1721:"What is Archaeological Flotation?"
1474:Archaeological Institute of America
1654:(2nd ed.). London: Batsford.
1442:"Dating Techniques In Archaeology"
772:was developed in the 1970s by the
25:
1363:Brock, Terry (16 February 2010).
1122:Archaeology: Discovering our past
47:This article has multiple issues.
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2444:
2443:
947:
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77:
36:
1847:NIOSH Safety and Health Topic:
1392:Ashmore, Wendy (4 March 2013).
759:Single context recording system
55:or discuss these issues on the
1698:10.1179/2042458215Y.0000000004
1629:. Profile Books. p. 201.
1369:MSU Campus Archaeology Program
1051:MSU Campus Archaeology Program
707:Excavation at the site of the
460:in the excavation area in the
1:
1758:Westman, Andrew (Ed.) (1994)
1725:Zagora Archaeological Project
2028:electrical resistance survey
1685:Journal of Field Archaeology
1547:Journal of Field Archaeology
1239:Bahn, Paul (1 August 2012).
1199:Bahn, Paul (1 August 2012).
1796:and Richard Mackay (2013).
1524:Archaeology Skills Passport
1446:www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk
964:Archaeological field survey
367:Development-led archaeology
209:Excavations at the site of
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1917:Johann Joachim Winckelmann
1760:Archaeological site manual
1520:"Stratigraphic Excavation"
1119:Sharer, Robert J. (2003).
1107:Archaeology: down to earth
994:Relationship (archaeology)
762:
489:Stratigraphy (archaeology)
486:
2439:
1998:Philosophy of archaeology
1559:10.1179/jfa.1986.13.2.239
1105:Kelly&Thomas (2011).
1849:Trenching and Excavation
846:unmanned aerial vehicles
770:Single context recording
765:Single context recording
662:Stratigraphic excavation
424:processual archaeologist
298:ground-penetrating radar
1623:Hill, Rosemary (2009).
1279:Encyclopedia Britannica
738:and for the control of
413:archaeological sequence
349:director as it goes on.
2482:Methods in archaeology
1744:Barker, Philip (1993)
1499:www.pastperfect.org.uk
1307:www.pastperfect.org.uk
974:Archaeological section
900:
712:
709:Battle at the Harzhorn
651:
601:Archaeological horizon
593:
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484:
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287:archaeological context
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2008:Archaeological ethics
2003:Archaeological diving
1993:Archaeological theory
1020:"What Is Excavation?"
984:Feature (archaeology)
898:
706:
699:Mechanical excavation
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579:
564:
475:
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244:
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1947:Augustus Pitt Rivers
1942:William Henry Holmes
1907:Archaeological sites
1313:on 25 September 2020
989:Forensic archaeology
834:relational databases
694:Tools and techniques
614:law of superposition
499:Law of Superposition
360:Strip map and sample
90:confusing or unclear
1937:John Lloyd Stephens
1927:Heinrich Schliemann
969:Archaeological plan
854:digital photography
780:and the process of
744:British archaeology
732:Geoffrey Wainwright
619:An "intrusion" or "
513:are also contexts.
431:ethnoarchaeological
215:Atapuerca Mountains
98:clarify the article
2461:History portal
2023:geophysical survey
1727:. 6 September 2019
1604:on 17 October 2013
1351:American Antiquity
1156:American Antiquity
999:Spit (archaeology)
935:Dating methodology
901:
713:
652:
594:
574:
485:
470:
374:Project management
355:Rescue archaeology
259:
239:
223:
18:Historical digging
2469:
2468:
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2386:
2369:Pseudoarchaeology
1986:Method and theory
1806:978-1-60606-124-4
1789:978-1-60606-158-9
1405:978-0-07-803491-6
1260:978-0-19-965743-8
1220:978-0-19-965743-8
1084:978-0-07-803491-6
979:Cut (archaeology)
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814:scientific dating
778:urban archaeology
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1957:Mortimer Wheeler
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378:Trial trenching
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1691:(3): 325–346.
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1553:(2): 239–244.
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1573:"How to dig?"
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1275:"Archaeology"
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1162:(2): 102–07,
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1132:0-7674-2727-0
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668:Harris matrix
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582:Romano-Celtic
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556:
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548:
542:
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539:Harris matrix
536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
518:relationships
514:
512:
508:
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500:
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490:
483:
479:
474:
467:
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427:Lewis Binford
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304:can be used.
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168:
165:February 2016
158:
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148:
145:This article
143:
134:
133:
124:
121:
113:
110:February 2016
103:
102:the talk page
99:
93:
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86:This article
84:
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69:
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59:
54:
53:
48:
43:
34:
33:
30:
19:
2299:Archaeometry
2273:Experimental
2207:Near Eastern
2166:Near Eastern
2161:Mesopotamian
2115:Contemporary
2044:
1932:Arthur Evans
1797:
1780:
1759:
1745:
1729:. Retrieved
1724:
1715:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1670:
1651:
1645:
1625:
1618:
1606:. Retrieved
1602:the original
1592:
1580:. Retrieved
1577:Past Perfect
1576:
1567:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1528:. Retrieved
1523:
1514:
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1489:
1477:. Retrieved
1473:
1449:. Retrieved
1445:
1436:
1394:
1372:. Retrieved
1368:
1358:
1350:
1345:
1336:
1327:
1315:. Retrieved
1311:the original
1306:
1282:. Retrieved
1278:
1269:
1241:
1201:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1121:
1114:
1106:
1101:
1073:
1066:
1054:. Retrieved
1050:
1040:
1028:. Retrieved
1023:
1014:
911:
902:
876:
863:
823:
806:
768:
753:
721:
714:
684:
673:
665:
653:
620:
618:
609:
595:
543:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
502:
495:stratigraphy
492:
458:Stratigraphy
421:
405:
370:
343:
334:
323:
306:
291:
272:
266:
260:
189:
171:
162:
146:
116:
107:
96:Please help
87:
63:
56:
50:
49:Please help
46:
29:
2379:Transgender
2304:Battlefield
2080:Prehistoric
2040:Burnt layer
1977:George Bass
1891:Archaeology
1679:Destruction
1582:4 September
914:spot dating
908:Spot Dating
850:open access
803:dumpy level
584:temple (56
511:inhumations
330:antiquarian
267:excavation
263:archaeology
251:Extremadura
211:Gran Dolina
2402:by country
2334:Industrial
2329:Indigenous
2278:Underwater
2224:Calceology
2146:Australian
2124:Geographic
2110:Historical
2045:Excavation
1626:Stonehenge
1608:10 October
1470:"Glossary"
1353:. 40: 335.
1337:Metro Pits
1006:References
807:temporary
736:overburden
625:Sutton Hoo
464:Cemetery (
462:Kerameikos
340:Motivation
313:spot dated
296:, such as
92:to readers
52:improve it
2339:Landscape
2212:Osteology
2095:Classical
1707:109818432
1422:cite book
1414:821067667
1184:164041261
1093:821067667
873:Flotation
867:flotation
809:benchmark
788:and/or a
750:Recording
723:Time Team
711:(Germany)
326:Nabonidus
275:artifacts
213:, in the
58:talk page
2476:Category
2449:Category
2431:Journals
2349:Mortuary
2344:Maritime
2319:Funerary
2314:Feminist
2309:Conflict
2287:Thematic
2202:Medieval
2156:Egyptian
2151:Oceanian
2136:American
2100:Medieval
2090:Biblical
1967:Max Uhle
1141:50802481
941:See also
928:pottery
926:medieval
922:sequence
717:backhoes
478:Augsburg
435:Nunamiut
397:Concepts
302:augering
283:ecofacts
279:features
2409:Periods
2244:Virtual
2229:Digital
2131:African
2033:Sondage
1899:History
1731:29 July
1530:31 July
1504:29 July
1479:29 July
1451:29 July
1374:21 July
1317:21 July
1284:13 July
1056:21 July
882:Sieving
790:section
688:natural
656:topsoil
631:Methods
557:Phasing
551:feature
507:section
503:context
482:Germany
438:Iñupiat
409:context
320:History
247:Cáceres
237:, 1960s
151:Please
88:may be
2398:Sites
2324:Gender
2187:Aerial
2171:Nubian
2018:Survey
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