48:
125:
34:
2025:(felled wood), a former type of forest use. Deciduous trees were cut to the stump - i.e. 30 to 50 centimetres above the ground - every 15 to 30 years. The wood was used mostly as firewood or in charcoal production. These deciduous trees (lime and hazel) regrew from the stump and could be cut down again after 15 or more years. As a result of new stems sprouting from the stump the trees grew bushy with numerous shoots on each stump. An example of a
1750:
1460:
1355:; the poor, pine-covered keuper soils south of the Odenwald were left beyond it however. Much of the beech and oak stock on nutrient-rich soil had to give way to agricultural fields and pasture land. At several places grassy and dwarf shrub heathlands emerged that have survived to the present day. The Romans also kept away from the plains with their unpredictable rivers. The alder (
19:
403:
forest is seen as an economic and ecological goal; herbivores roving over wide areas inflict economic damage and are therefore hunted. The grazing of wild megaherbivores is therefore limited, as a landscape conservation measure, to large nature reserves in which a species-rich and semi-open landscape is to be preserved and economic objectives are rated as less important.
356:, cannot be completely ruled out. The composition and dynamics of the old Central European forests must therefore be reconstructed from these relics, from forest research areas and natural forest cells after they have ceased to be used, and by comparison with forest types in similar climatic conditions that are still true virgin forests, especially the
67:
1331:) was more intensively used than in the unoccupied area. The construction of towns, such as Mainz, Trier, Cologne and Xanten, needed appropriate quantities of timber. A continual supply of large stocks of timber was needed for household heating and the operation of Roman baths with their extensive under-floor heating and hot water basins.
1292:. It may thus be deduced that at that time trackless low mountain ranges were still largely spared from human influence. But even on the plains there were still great, contiguous areas of forest. These were located especially between the settlement areas of the various Germanic tribes and were respected on both sides as a boundary.
926:
east and southeast Europe. Unlike much of
Scandinavia and Russia, the Carpathians remained ice-free. So some species were also able to survive here. But the classic refuge remained the Mediterranean region, where the sea made for a balanced climate and highly rugged mountain ranges partitioned different residual populations.
1977:
1086:). Most of these species were demanding, particularly in terms of their need for nutrients and warmth. The less shade-tolerant pine, in particular, was forced onto poorer sandy sites and moors. The oak, accompanied by the elm and lime, now formed the most predominant stands in Central Europe, the mixed oak forest.
1892:
of the soils, including those suitable for agricultural, in the wake of which, fields and settlements had to be abandoned. The result was a shortage of supply, especially in time of war. Given the devastating effects of overexploitation arising for the reasons set out above, territorial lords imposed
1884:
The consequences of medieval forest use may be summed up as follows: many cohesive forest areas were largely destroyed, due mainly to the felling of trees for firewood. Even the most remote forest areas were affected. What remained was a landscape whose devastation is still recognizable, for example,
1434:
Settlement patterns in the formerly occupied
Germania changed. Permanent settlements were abandoned in favor of semi-sedentary settlement forms. If the forest and soil became exhausted around a settlement, its population moved on. As the population density decreased a succession of forest communities
994:
More recent works are increasingly often using their own pollen zone systems in order to better reflect local circumstances. The process of reforestation is fairly broadly consistent, but there are some regional differences due to local circumstances which are not discussed here in detail. Due to the
1601:
Beekeeping in the Middle Ages was a major forest activity because honey was still the only sweetener for food until the 19th century. As a result, the rights for beekeeping were managed at a high level. This form of activity is mentioned, for example, in connexion with the
Nuremberg Imperial Forest.
934:
In the interglacials those species that had survived extinction gradually repopulated the region. These return migrations took place at different rates for different tree species. The determining factors for the speed with which tree species repopulated the clear areas, were e. g. the method of
1529:, the forest spread into Central Europe again. In areas cultivated during Roman colonization, the forest often regained a foothold. Only at the end of the Migration Period did the area of settlement increase again, and permanent settlements soon developed especially on agronomically suitable soils.
925:
Forest flora was pushed back slowly by climatic change. The refuges of the last ice age were probably but not exclusively in southern Europe. A few species on today's
Atlantic coast between England and France could also have survived the cold spell of the forest steppes. Another area of retreat was
1963:
by the use or sale of meat or fur from the animals killed. The hunting of deer is particularly necessary in
Central Europe, due to the absence of large carnivores. Without human intervention, certain plant species would be destroyed by selective feeding, which is already seriously endangering some
1559:
near rivers (such as B. am Rhein) remained unsettled due to the unpredictability of the river. Water meadow woods further from the river were used. After 800, the pace of settlement and deforestation faltered in
Central Europe. The population did not increase significantly due to epidemics and the
1299:
and woods on rich soils. Initial incursions were made in order to build the settlements themselves. Next woods were cleared for farming and grazing. Timber felling for heating led to the further thinning of natural stands of trees around the settlements. Various forms of use, such as wood pasture,
797:
Unlike, for example, the North
American continent where mountain ranges are oriented in a north-south direction, the east-west running ranges in Europe blocked the retreat of forest species in the face of advancing ice sheets. This barrier led to the extinction of several species in Europe. In the
402:
argues that larger densities of game should therefore be permitted, because it would create a half-open and diverse landscape. Apart from red and roe deer there are no large herds of herbivores today and they have few natural predators. In today's cultural landscape, the establishment of permanent
1697:
was carried out in all woods and forests. In woods that were closer to settlements greater care was taken to avoid forest fires and to use only lower value wood. In woods that were more distant from human habitation there were no such restrictions. Charcoal burning generally took place near small
1665:
Even today, wood is still an important source of energy for mankind. In
Central Europe it was replaced by coal during the course of the 19th century. In the Middle Ages there were two quite different uses for firewood from the forests - local and non-local. Locally there was only one requirement
1202:
beech trees were threatening the oak population in almost all areas. Aided by the humid, maritime climate of
Central Europe and an ability, even in old age, to add to its habitat, the beech (with its high crown plasticity) became the dominant tree species. On the drier sites (precipitation <
1592:
of sheep and goats. The latter in particular are able to destroy older trees thanks to their climbing skills. The grazing of goats in the forest was therefore forbidden in early forest regulations. But the prohibition was often ignored because sheep and goats, as domestic animals of the poorer
1656:
is one of the oldest forms of forest exploitation. The resin was collected from conifers, of which spruce and pine were preferred. Even this form of forest use caused considerable destruction. It hindered growth and weakened the vitality of entire stands of trees. As a result, early on resin
1442:
Roman colonization saw the first, drastic impact on the forest communities of
Central Europe. It left forest-free areas that did not recover from grazing; the species structure in many forest communities was disrupted by selective use, and introduced species became part of the vegetation.
2271:
Reinhard Mosandl: Geschichte der Wälder in Mitteleuropa im letzten Jahrtausend. Aktuelle Beiträge zum Verständnis der historischen Entwicklung. In Bernd Herrmann (editor): Beiträge zum Göttinger Umwelthistorischen Kolloquium 2008 - 2009. Universitätsverlag Göttingen, 2009. pp.91-114.
457:- also belonged to this group; but today, these species have very small populations in German-speaking countries and restricted to very small areas within the region, so these animals are currently protected. Forests were kept partly as game reserves, as so called "wildbann" forests (
1909:", an imminent or existing acute lack of wood as a raw material, has been a social problem since the 16th century. Due to the realization that coniferous forests naturally regenerate only with difficulty, the planting of conifer seeds was successfully attempted in the Middle Ages.
1210:
a mixed mountain forest developed as beech invaded it. The extremely shade-tolerant fir also succeeded in gaining a foothold in these forests and in several areas ousted the spruce and beech. It is possible that at this time the establishment of
1344:, over 500 kilometres long, which was predominantly a wooden rather than a stone redoubt, required a wide swathe to be cut through the forest from the Rhine to the Danube and wood was needed for construction of palisades and watchtowers.
1276:– a land, covered by horrid forests or loathsome bogs. Tacitus' Mediterranean homeland at that time had already been a cultural landscape for centuries, its forests cleared for fields, orchards and towns, to say nothing of the use of wood for
1283:
A land whose forests probably covered 70% of its surface, and which was climatically very different, clearly impressed Roman observers. This impression can be seen in the names they gave it. Mountain ranges like the Black Forest were called
942:
First to advance were woody pioneer species that were quick to spread, such as birch and pine. They were followed by heat-loving species such as oak and elm. Finally they were followed by slower migrating woody species that evolved into a
1644:
Usually the soil yielded crops for no longer than a year. It was then turned into grazing land until trees grew up again from the stumps or from seed. This form of agriculture had a considerable impact on the composition of forest trees.
1414:
The Romans gradually gave way to growing pressure from the Germanic tribes. First, settlements on the right bank of the Rhine were abandoned after the defeat of Varus. And from the 2nd century several tribes broke through the border (the
324:
Today's forest communities in central Europe are influenced by the usefulness of the individual tree species. Apart from a few remnants of "near-natural forest" the vast majority of today's Central European forests are either artificial
1223:
As a result of falling average temperatures the distribution areas, e.g. of the downy oak, became divided. From now on the influence of settled human forms of settlement becomes increasingly noticeable. This gives us our modern
1787:
in North Germany. Before salt was discovered it was surrounded by dense forests, but during the course of salt mining all the woods were cleared. Only a heath landscape remained, a countryside that was further devastated by
1618:) was practised from the 11th century and varied according to the region. This form of agriculture was established after the better soils had already been exploited for farming. This type of agricultural "intermediate use" (
1772:. That started an unrestrained extraction of this important economic commodity. Large quantities of wood were needed for the process of salt mining, both for the construction of galleries as well as for the boiling pans (
1585:, which had clearly negative consequences for forest tree communities. Unlike pigs, which preserved the character of the forest, large domestic animals destroyed the trees. "Overgrazed" forests quickly turned into scrub.
1489:. Deforestation to create arable land and provide construction timber and firewood was largely uncontrolled. These periods have affected the landscapes of Central Europe right up to the present and created our familiar
258:
Historical and contemporary human activity has profoundly influenced the composition of forests in the densely populated region of Central Europe. Remaining forest in Central Europe today is not generally considered
518:
and other ecologically significant factors, or the forest as a social space. The use of forest to provide a protective function is today the third major component alongside economic forestry for wood products and
473:
form of forest use, whereby cattle were driven into the forest for pasture. Depending on how intensively this was done, the forest was either thinned or died out. Woody plants that are not readily eaten, such as
1835:
the first taxes were imposed on forests for their use in the mining industry. Forests in mining regions enjoyed a special status and, early on, their primary use for mining purposes was firmly established.
1657:
collecting was restricted to stands that were not easily felled and transported i.e. those that were a long way from rivers. Because resin was a popular base material, such bans were ignored everywhere.
1366:
In selecting sites for their settlements, the Romans also avoided dense coniferous forests, although mixed forest areas may still have been attractive. They prized softwood, however, especially that of
329:
or whose present composition has arisen as a result of active or passive human intervention. By far the most common are commercial timber forests, which may be more or less near-natural, with
1964:
species. For the same reason the goal of ecological forest management, which is moving away from monocultures towards stable mixed forests, has been threatened by high levels of deer. Often
1666:
that had an unrestricted priority: the use of firewood for home fires. In addition, a range of industry processes required firewood as an energy source or as a raw material, for example:
1400:). These species had died out in North Europe during the ice age. The trees were valued for their fruit. In addition, the robust timber of sweet chestnuts was used in wine growing.
909:). By comparison, in North America there are over 80 species of oak. Other types lost considerably in their intraspecific genetic diversity during the return migration such as the
1968:
which, compared to other tree species is less robust, experiences problems trying to rejuvenate itself on most sites where it grows today after having been artificially planted.
1532:
Two intensive periods of forest clearing can be distinguished. The first lasted from about 500 to about 800 and the second from about 1100 to about 1300, the beginning of the
1633:
The importance of these forms of economy increased during the pre-industrial period. They were constantly improved and formed an elaborate system of secondary forest uses (
935:
seed distribution, the duration of flowering, degree of frost resistance and their ability to absorb nutrients. The picture of these migrations can be reconstructed using
1947:). Wood eventually became so scarce that, in winter, fence posts, steps and all kinds of wooden objects, that were expendable in the short term, were burned as firewood.
1831:, mining is mentioned as early as the 10th century. Because mining needed such large quantities of wood, its regulation was an early consideration and, by the end of the
314:. As a result, during the period 1750-1850 forests in Central Europe had been decimated, causing a serious lack of timber. Some contemporary reports even spoke partly of
2339:
K. Jan Oosthoek, Richard Hölzl (eds.), Managing Northern Europe's Forests. Histories from the Age of Improvement to the Age of Ecology, Berghahn, Oxford/New York, 2018,
279:(human influence) and the extent of the original natural state from so long ago is difficult to estimate. It is believed that during glacial times during the ongoing
1637:), firewood and farming. For this, the trees were first cleared by fire or felling. After the soil had been worked with mattocks or ploughs, it was sown with rye,
1729:
lived. Glassworks needed a particularly large supply of wood and were often described in contemporary reports as "wood-eating businesses". Glassworks also needed
1034:) also gained a foothold again in Central Europe. Short-term fluctuations in temperature at the end of this phase stopped any further advancement of the forest.
1512:
also led to the strong afforestation of formerly agricultural lands, in many parts of Germany the population only recovered to its 1600 level by 1800 or later.
1435:
began again in many areas, which had been strongly influenced by the economies of the Roman settlers. The pollen analyses from this period show that the beech (
367:
in prehistoric times, only conjecture. According to many forest scientists and a number of hunters, perpetual forest structures, which are advantageous for the
1984:
Commercial forests today can be divided into various types, although due to the modern forestry industry, most people today only have mature forests in mind:
1540:
era, those areas that had already been developed by the Romans were resettled. Next, areas that were easily accessible and had fertile soils were colonized.
51:
510:) are those where the economic exploitation takes a low priority. The protection they offer may refer to location (e.g. unstable soils), to objects (
2494:
623:, 15th to 19th centuries, a period of cold weather affecting wood growth and consumption, which in the early 19th century contributed to a large
1606:
operations helped to protect the forest. Tree species such as lime, pussy willow, fir and also pine were particularly favoured by this type of work.
2350:
Richard Hölzl, Historicizing Sustainability. German scientific forestry in the 18th and 19th centuries", Science as Culture 19/4, 2010, pp. 431-460
185:
is characterised by thousands of years of exploitation by people. Thus a distinction needs to be made between the botanical natural history of the
2454:
2509:
1308:). In the vicinity of ore mining beech trees were probably felled over a wide area because fire from beech charcoal was needed to work metals.
2406:
2344:
2333:
2286:
Altes Holz in neuem Licht. Archäologische und dendrochronologische Untersuchungen an spätneolithischen Feuchtbodensiedlungen in Oberschwaben.
1943:
forests for centuries through grazing and to make straw. At the end of the 18th century, there were hardly any forests left in Germany (see
77:
146:
88:
2479:
1104:
During the Neolithic period more heat-loving deciduous shrubs spread out from their refuges in southern Europe back to Central Europe.
2474:
307:
1912:
Large quantities of wood were needed as a source of energy in private households and in early industrial production, for example, in
2438:
2391:
2377:
2362:
168:
106:
1439:) spread out widely again, both in the areas deserted by the Romans, and along the Pomeranian Baltic coast and to southern Sweden.
1500:, with its particularly cold periods from 1570 to 1630 and 1675 to 1715, which was associated with catastrophic crop failures and
2464:
1311:
Permanent towns and villages were, however, a rarity in Free Germania. Settlements would be abandoned after a period of time and
1382:
The Romans brought familiar species of tree with them to Germania from the Mediterranean region; these included sweet chestnut (
995:
migration rate (which for beech was about 260 metres/year) there is a temporal delay in the various phases from south to north.
2489:
357:
1338:
in 9 AD) the Romans switched to a defensive strategy. This, too, demanded large quantities of timber. The construction of the
2504:
1533:
253:
1844:
Building and construction timber was exported to various parts of Europe from an early date. Popular types of wood, such as
979:
has largely clarified how this return migration happened. For Central Europe, there were ten phases as a rule (according to
47:
1215:
came to an end however as human settlement spread across Central Europe and large herds of herbivores were roaming around.
1935:
huge quantities of timber were tied together to form rafts and exported to the Netherlands, where the wood was needed for
882:
463:), reserved for grand hunts by the nobility, and are probably better preserved in a relatively original state as a result.
310:
structures, the power over and ownership of forests was not at all clear for many centuries, which resulted in widespread
988:
1225:
1212:
292:
1375:), for construction and shipbuilding. Pine was felled in all accessible locations and transported over long distances (
283:
Central Europe was largely deforested and, in the period of "natural" re-emergence of the forest, since the end of the
2524:
2514:
2499:
1998:
387:
ensuring a correspondingly low density of these herbivores. Excessive stocks of deer do not only harm the forest as a
1885:
the treeless hill ridges, the moorland and the present distribution of tree species in the central European forests.
1097:
already placed a high demand for wood on local forests which were still small and a few in number. No later than the
139:
133:
2304:
2519:
2459:
1089:
In this time, people went through the transition from a nomadic wandering people to the sedentary lifestyle of the
748:
During these cold periods, the average temperature in Central Europe fell by up to 12 °C. The snowline in the
2529:
2288:
Diss. Joh. Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, 2007. Materialhefte zur Archäologie in Baden Württemberg, Stuttgart, 2010
1335:
1265:
955:
period and the onset of cooler climates, these species then retreated to their refuges again or simply died out.
1876:. This species of tree was hated by carters because their draught animals died from eating its poisonous fruit.
500:. The social function of European forests is increasingly seen as important, and competes with its classic uses.
150:
2484:
2262:
Helge Walentowski & Susanne Winter (2007): Naturnähe im Wirtschaftswald – was ist das? Tuexenia 27: 19–26.
1427:. Pollen analyses from this period show that agriculture came to a standstill in many areas. Abandoned Roman
1194:
the average temperature fell further. Beech trees advanced into the hitherto oak-dominated woods. During the
2469:
2329:
2243:
37:
33:
1783:
How disastrous the extraction of salt was for some landscapes is illustrated by the example of the town of
1988:
1793:
1390:
1094:
1000:
300:
228:
is generally used both geographically and ecologically to describe the area that lies roughly between the
1581:
As well as swine, large livestock (cattle and horses) were also driven into the forest creating areas of
1379:). Thus, the natural mountain forest in parts of the Alps, the Black Forest and the Vosges was divided.
1312:
1161:
346:
81:
that states a Knowledge (XXG) editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
608:- continued long after the Middle Ages, though in terms of area no longer relevant by the 20th century)
586:) (as early as the Middle Ages, regulated pine industry in the late 15th century?), earlier regulated
2121:
1509:
1340:
1229:
629:
614:
515:
399:
353:
296:
1792:
agriculture. During the 20th century much of the area to the southwest of LĂĽneburg became a British
1741:, the most important raw material for glassmaking; the remaining 10% for the actual glass smelting.
2426:
1423:). In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples finally overwhelmed the last remnants of the
1351:
and to inclose fertile soils. For example, the fertile Wetterau, opposite the Mainz was within the
1050:, birch and pine were the dominant species. From this time there were no more cold periods. Hazel (
975:
epoch, the forests began to return, about 11 700 years ago, to the treeless, post-glacial steppes.
738:
664:
321:
During the late 19th and 20th centuries a huge amount of artificial reforestation was implemented.
284:
1827:
in the shape of rivers and streams. Smelting was carried out in the vicinity of the shaft. In the
1347:
The Roman engineers were careful, as far as possible, to follow the shape of the terrain with the
1769:
1490:
1476:
1199:
1120:) enriched existing stocks. The average temperatures were now 2-3 °C higher than today. The
1011:
496:
activities in the forests of Central Europe increased during the 20th century as a result of the
264:
23:
1481:
288:
781:. The vegetation of this period is referred to as Dryas flora, after its flagship species, the
565:
Forest development in the Middle Ages - pre-industrial uses, destruction, first regulated uses
490:. These communities later reduced as areas were reforested or as agricultural use intensified.
2434:
2402:
2387:
2373:
2358:
2340:
2226:
2211:
2003:
1917:
1889:
1861:
1753:
1737:, who supplied important fuel for the manufacture of glass. 90% of the wood was used to make
1468:
1328:
1324:
948:
587:
511:
503:
416:
368:
2273:
1160:
In the late interglacial the climated became cooler and wetter. For the first time since the
1761:
1694:
1667:
1653:
1589:
1526:
1505:
1408:
1249:
1172:
944:
771:
598:
545:
388:
311:
214:
197:—and the onset of the period of sedentary settlement which began at the latest in the
1749:
1459:
2164:
2065:
1869:
1730:
1675:
1556:
1544:
1384:
1360:
1296:
1207:
1164:
1137:
1129:
1067:
1054:) spread rapidly and found favourable growing conditions beneath the open stands of pine.
815:
742:
497:
268:
190:
429:
is probably the earliest form of forest use. Among the most important species hunted are
1244:
with the expansion of agriculture and the smelting of metals. This increased during the
2231:
2194:
2131:
2030:
1849:
1497:
1376:
1315:
set in. This enabled a return of vegetation to something resembling its natural state.
1269:
1149:
984:
799:
782:
708:
620:
604:
Historical agricultural forms of use (leaf and pine needle gathering for animal straw,
536:
260:
225:
202:
55:
2323:
271:. The oldest evidence of human and forest interaction in Central Europe is the use of
2448:
2216:
2174:
2108:
1944:
1940:
1603:
1396:
1004:
823:
648:
624:
479:
459:
446:
364:
349:
that are neither currently used for forestry nor were exploited in historical times.
338:
27:
2050:, a forest with two tree storeys, is a transitional form between high and low forest
1066:, average temperatures rose markedly. Phytosociologically this was the start of the
2237:
2221:
2184:
2073:
2053:
1936:
1932:
1865:
1857:
1722:
1622:) had numerous variants, something that is reflected in the names they were given:
1582:
1548:
1245:
980:
952:
660:
605:
541:
470:
466:
412:
205:- and thus the use of the forest by people, which is covered by the disciplines of
1547:
ranges remained empty at this early stage. The first permanent settlements in the
759:, with a thickness of up to 3,000 m, was a relatively narrow, ice-free belt.
752:
dropped by 1,200 metres to 1,400 metres. Between the Alpine glaciers and the
737:, which ended, in central Europe, around 12,000 years ago. (For details, see the
267:
created over thousands of years which consists almost exclusively of replacement
2097:
1913:
1832:
1824:
1784:
1726:
1703:
1683:
1671:
1537:
1486:
1141:
1015:
972:
894:
886:
881:
species only three were able to return to Germany and Central Europe from their
851:
753:
730:
656:
483:
210:
194:
2306:
Ecological Systems of the Geobiosphere: 3 Temperate and Polar Zonobiomes of ...
189:
in pre- and proto-historical times—which falls mainly into the fields of
1853:
1734:
1416:
1368:
1191:
1180:
1063:
1047:
976:
964:
936:
910:
843:
703:
493:
487:
450:
237:
18:
1893:
official regulations for the use of woodland, a case in point being the 1579
762:
Central Europe was unforested at this time, except for local wooded areas of
2016:
1959:
pay fees to the landowner in whose forest they hunt. These fees are covered
1894:
1860:
was especially prized because of its outstanding properties, especially its
1777:
1765:
1638:
1428:
1277:
1121:
1098:
1090:
1043:
902:
807:
756:
733:
epoch that followed, these fluctuations culminated in a number of extensive
697:
644:
594:
438:
391:, but also prevent the natural regeneration of the forest through selective
376:
241:
229:
198:
2309:, by Heinrich Walter, Siegmar-W. Breckle, pp. 21-22. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
1721:
was highly prized during the Middle Ages and was correspondingly valuable.
576:
Common use of the forests by adjacent settlements such as those around the
303:, about 7 500 years ago, began to change the forested landscape massively.
2115:
2077:
1820:
1812:
1756:
is the site of former salt extraction and was previously a forested area.
1699:
1593:
sections of the population, contributed significantly to their survival.
1420:
1195:
1113:
1019:
968:
726:
685:
678:
640:
577:
570:
552:
434:
430:
420:
392:
384:
380:
276:
272:
478:, spread. As a result, in many places, clear, park-like countryside and
2413:
Waldgeschichte des Alterthums. Ein Handbuch fĂĽr akademische Vorlesungen
2144:
2038:
2012:
1956:
1906:
1873:
1789:
1565:
1561:
1501:
1464:
1323:
The forest in Roman-occupied Germania (the Roman provinces of Germania
867:
734:
689:
530:
475:
442:
426:
372:
352:
Even with these, certain types of human influence, for example, forest
280:
218:
206:
1976:
874:) became extinct during the Quaternary glaciations in Central Europe.
291:(about 11 700 years BP), people began to play a part transforming the
2370:
Der Wald. Wald und Weidwerk in Geschichte und Gegenwart – Erster Teil
1965:
1925:
1804:
1738:
1679:
814:) became extinct. The following cold period led to the extinction of
767:
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636:
326:
315:
186:
41:
1864:, which was popular in the manufacture of weapons. In order to make
1725:
often had small settlements tied to them, where the families of the
1334:
After the conquest of all Germania had failed (due to the defeat of
1485:
was followed by a period of forest clearance in the Early and High
1718:
1241:
1105:
859:
835:
774:
330:
46:
32:
17:
345:. "Ancient forests" in Central Europe refer to the few remaining
2431:
Der unterirdische Wald. Energiekrise und Industrielle Revolution
1921:
1888:
The dwindling forests that did not regenerate themselves led to
1828:
1816:
1552:
778:
749:
693:
454:
342:
233:
1252:
period especially in the densely populated southwestern areas.
1845:
1808:
1363:
away from the rivers, however, were turned into grazing land.
1079:
1071:
878:
334:
118:
60:
1101:, the forest was being deliberately managed to produce logs.
445:
and some smaller mammals. In the past large carnivores - the
395:
by the animals and therefore hinder its natural development.
2083:
Next, there are a variety of obsolete special uses, such as
2064:), or grazing forest, is an ancient form of use, as well as
1504:, led to the desettlement of large areas of land into which
1203:
500 mm/yr) in the east the hornbeam assumed this role.
1038:
Pre-interglacial (Preboreal) and early interglacial (Boreal)
363:
There is almost no data on the density and the influence of
1928:(in pit construction to support tunnels against collapse).
1508:
spread. The destruction during and in the aftermath of the
78:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
1807:
required three natural conditions: first, the presence of
2240:, about forest development in England in the Middle Ages
2384:
Geschichte des Waldes. Von der Urzeit bis zur Gegenwart
1780:
or salines. These took the largest proportion of wood.
84:
2423:), Trowitzsch & Sohn, Frankfurt an der Oder, 1886
1070:. Previous tree species were displaced, especially by
590:
in southwestern Germany and especially in Switzerland?
371:
and the ecology, cannot be established without strong
2355:
Forstgeschichte. Ein Grundriss fĂĽr Studium und Praxis
1010:
This covers pollen zones I-III (approx 12,400 to the
1536:. Especially during the first clearance period, the
1014:) and roughly corresponds to the period of the late
725:
Unusual climatic extremes began to occur during the
568:
Royal privileges over forest use legislated through
2029:can still be seen, for example, in Lindholz in the
1698:rivers and streams that were used to transport the
1551:for example only appear from about 1000, and the
1240:The first intensive use of forests began in the
1022:(Holocene) included various species of willow (
1274:"terra aut silvis horrida aut paludibus foeda"
663:, some to London), naval construction (in the
2399:Holz. Wie ein Naturstoff Geschichte schreibt.
1710:) were exclusively used to produce charcoal.
1555:was only traversable by difficult footpaths.
1046:stage, corresponding to the beginning of the
8:
275:about 500 thousand years ago. The degree of
1972:Typical types of European commercial forest
1768:were transferred into the ownership of the
983:), which are called pollen zones and given
560:Forests during the period of mass migration
1624:Hackwald, Hauberge, Reutberge, Birkenberge
169:Learn how and when to remove this message
107:Learn how and when to remove this message
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
1975:
1748:
1458:
132:This article includes a list of general
2255:
1872:, entire stands of yew were cleared in
1300:favoured mast-bearing trees like oaks (
1219:Post interglacial period (Sub-Atlantic)
613:Forest development from the end of the
729:epoch, four million years ago. In the
635:Effects of preindustrial forest uses (
593:Effects of preindustrial forest uses (
2336:, Mainz, 2011, retrieved 18 May 2011.
2334:Leibniz Institute of European History
1516:Forest development in the Middle Ages
7:
2087:, which were only local or regional.
1811:; second, large forests, needed for
1995:) with a single, high tree storey.
1848:and conifers are recorded as being
684:Industrialization: substitution of
512:avalanche protection of settlements
183:history of Central European forests
2072:) or forest fields, as a combined
1630:are the most common designations.
963:In the most recent section of the
557:Forests in Roman occupied Germania
138:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2234:, especially the history section.
1236:Iron Age to Roman-Germanic period
1140:arose in the marshy lowlands and
667:huge oak forests were lost), ...)
375:measures to cull the present-day
2495:Forests and woodlands of Germany
2353:Karl Hasel / Ekkehard Schwartz:
1980:An even-aged forest in the mist.
1588:Particularly disastrous was the
1475:The expansion of the forests as
632:- recovery of population decline
123:
65:
2092:Development of forest ownership
1796:, causing further destruction.
1431:and manors became forest land.
1018:. Pioneer species in the early
959:Most recent post-glacial period
318:-like landscapes at that time.
2455:Central European mixed forests
1955:In places like Germany today,
1058:Middle interglacial (Atlantic)
254:Central European mixed forests
1:
2510:Forests of the Czech Republic
1572:Forest use in the Middle Ages
1560:invasion of foreign peoples (
1156:Late interglacial (Subboreal)
1128:) returned to Germany again.
877:In addition, of the numerous
1213:potential natural vegetation
293:potential natural vegetation
2372:. Aula, Wiebelsheim, 2003,
1521:Proportion of forested land
1280:and maritime construction.
1268:described "Free Germania" (
582:Nuremberg Imperial Forest (
54:forest in central Bohemia,
2546:
2480:Economic history of Europe
2357:, Kessel, Remagen, ²2002,
1534:crisis of the 14th century
1295:Settlement areas included
1093:. The great houses of the
601:, naval construction, ...)
251:
2475:History of Central Europe
1266:Publius Cornelius Tacitus
1525:With the turmoil of the
1272:) in the 1st century as
989:Blytt–Sernander sequence
469:is an early historical,
423:in Central Europe today.
2465:History of paleontology
2330:European History Online
2274:preview at Google Books
2244:Wood-pasture hypothesis
2151:Waldinteressentenschaft
1856:from the 13th century.
1477:villages were abandoned
1319:Roman-occupied Germania
1228:which is controlled by
951:). With the end of the
153:more precise citations.
2490:Flora of Middle Europe
2433:. Beck, Munich, 1989,
2411:August Seidensticker:
2386:. Beck, Munich, 1998,
1981:
1794:military training area
1757:
1472:
1391:Aesculus hippocastanum
1095:Linear Pottery culture
804:Aesculum hippocastanum
770:which were covered by
301:Linear Pottery Culture
87:by rewriting it in an
58:
44:
30:
22:Handewitter Forest in
2505:Environmental history
2401:Oekom, Munich, 2007,
1979:
1752:
1462:
1313:biological succession
1187:) are evident again.
433:, various species of
252:Further information:
50:
36:
21:
2322:Bernd-Stefan Grewe:
2122:Territorial lordship
1991:from "core growth" (
1920:, the production of
1897:Forest regulations.
1682:with its associated
1230:altitudinal zonation
999:Late Arctic period,
647:, charcoal burning,
516:habitat conservation
482:were created in the
400:megaherbivore theory
360:on the Caspian Sea.
2427:Rolf Peter Sieferle
1852:down rivers to the
1770:territorial princes
1491:cultural landscapes
1455:and the Middle Ages
1388:), horse chestnut (
1256:Forests in Germania
739:last glacial period
721:Effects of ice ages
665:Battle of Trafalgar
524:Historical Overview
407:Forms of forest use
285:last glacial period
2525:Forests of Belarus
2515:Forests of Romania
2500:Forestry in Europe
2159:Waldgenossenschaft
2157:Forest community (
2126:Landesherrlichkeit
2006:called plenterwald
2004:Uneven-aged forest
1982:
1840:Timber and rafting
1758:
1473:
1062:At the end of the
625:shortage of timber
548:settlement period
504:Protection forests
265:cultural landscape
89:encyclopedic style
76:is written like a
59:
45:
31:
24:Schleswig-Holstein
2520:Forests of Poland
2460:History of botany
2407:978-3-86581-049-6
2382:Hansjörg Küster:
2368:Richard B. Hilf:
2345:978-1-78533-600-3
2227:Cyclic succession
2212:Forest in Germany
2161:e.g. Haingeraide)
2015:or woodland from
1862:flexural strength
1723:Forest glassworks
1602:The existence of
1564:in the north and
1510:Thirty Years' War
1126:Quercus pubescens
949:cyclic succession
655:) (exploitation,
630:Thirty Years' War
615:Thirty Years' War
588:selection cutting
417:forest management
369:forestry industry
297:Neolithic farmers
179:
178:
171:
117:
116:
109:
38:Białowieża Forest
2537:
2530:Flora of Austria
2397:Joachim Radkau:
2310:
2302:
2289:
2282:
2276:
2269:
2263:
2260:
2136:Private forest (
2080:form of land use
2054:Pasture woodland
1999:Even-aged forest
1764:the majority of
1762:Late Middle Ages
1731:charcoal burners
1695:Charcoal burning
1690:Charcoal burning
1668:charcoal burning
1654:Resin collecting
1649:Resin collecting
1614:Forest tillage (
1590:woodland grazing
1557:Riparian forests
1527:Migration Period
1506:secondary forest
1409:Migration Period
1297:riparian forests
1177:Carpinus betulus
1064:Middle Stone Age
945:climax community
930:Return migration
798:early ice ages,
787:Dryas octopetala
599:charcoal burning
551:Forests in free
358:Hyrcanian Forest
312:overexploitation
215:cultural studies
174:
167:
163:
160:
154:
149:this article by
140:inline citations
127:
126:
119:
112:
105:
101:
98:
92:
69:
68:
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2545:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2534:
2485:Climate history
2445:
2444:
2332:, publ. by the
2319:
2314:
2313:
2303:
2292:
2284:Nils Bleicher:
2283:
2279:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2208:
2165:Communal forest
2094:
2066:forest farmland
2013:coppiced forest
1974:
1953:
1939:. Farmers have
1903:
1882:
1870:English longbow
1842:
1802:
1747:
1716:
1706:earthen kilns (
1692:
1676:salt production
1663:
1651:
1620:Zwischennutzung
1612:
1599:
1579:
1574:
1568:in the south).
1523:
1518:
1482:Völkerwanderung
1457:
1453:Völkerwanderung
1449:
1437:Fagus sylvatica
1412:
1405:Völkerwanderung
1385:Castanea sativa
1357:Alnus glutinosa
1321:
1263:
1258:
1238:
1221:
1208:Central Uplands
1169:Fagus sylvatica
1158:
1134:Alnus glutinosa
1068:Atlantic period
1060:
1040:
1008:
987:as part of the
977:Pollen analysis
961:
937:pollen analysis
932:
923:
795:
772:frost-resistant
743:climate history
723:
677:Development of
670:Wood shortage (
617:to the present
526:
498:leisure society
409:
289:WĂĽrm glaciation
263:, but rather a
256:
250:
191:natural history
175:
164:
158:
155:
145:Please help to
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128:
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85:help improve it
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2470:Forest history
2467:
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2443:
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2415:, 2 vols. (I:
2409:
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2232:Slash-and-burn
2229:
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2214:
2207:
2204:
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2195:Federal forest
2192:
2182:
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2148:
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2132:Secularisation
2129:
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2031:Havelland Luch
2009:
2008:
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1973:
1970:
1952:
1949:
1902:
1899:
1881:
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1868:, such as the
1841:
1838:
1819:for producing
1801:
1798:
1754:LĂĽneburg Heath
1746:
1743:
1715:
1712:
1691:
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1647:
1611:
1610:Forest tillage
1608:
1598:
1595:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1545:Central Upland
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1498:Little Ice Age
1496:The so-called
1469:LĂĽneburg Heath
1456:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1411:
1402:
1394:) and walnut (
1320:
1317:
1270:Germania magna
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1237:
1234:
1220:
1217:
1157:
1154:
1150:Harz Mountains
1148:) reached the
1059:
1056:
1039:
1036:
1026:), but birch (
1007:
997:
985:Roman numerals
960:
957:
931:
928:
922:
919:
800:horse chestnut
794:
791:
783:mountain avens
722:
719:
718:
717:
716:
715:
709:Forest dieback
706:
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682:
675:
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633:
627:
621:Little Ice Age
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558:
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539:
537:Neolithization
533:
529:Effect of the
525:
522:
521:
520:
501:
491:
480:juniper heaths
464:
460:Wildbannforste
424:
408:
405:
365:megaherbivores
261:natural forest
249:
246:
226:Central Europe
203:Central Europe
177:
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56:Czech Republic
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2363:3-935638-26-4
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2238:Royal forests
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2217:German Forest
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2210:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
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2175:Church forest
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2109:Wildbannforst
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1994:
1990:
1987:
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1985:
1978:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1945:Deforestation
1942:
1941:overexploited
1938:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1900:
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1867:
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1859:
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1834:
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1826:
1823:; and third,
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1810:
1806:
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1766:salt deposits
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1604:honey hunting
1597:Honey pasture
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1397:Juglans regia
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1318:
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1304:) and beech (
1303:
1298:
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1271:
1267:
1261:Free Germania
1260:
1255:
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1247:
1243:
1242:Celtic period
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1227:
1218:
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1201:
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1123:
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1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
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1005:Younger Dryas
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891:Quercus robur
888:
885:, namely the
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873:
869:
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861:
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849:
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833:
829:
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824:umbrella pine
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702:Discovery of
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649:dairy farming
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428:
425:
422:
418:
414:
411:
410:
406:
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401:
396:
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390:
386:
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366:
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359:
355:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
322:
319:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
295:. Sedentary,
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
255:
247:
245:
243:
239:
235:
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200:
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192:
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173:
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162:
152:
148:
142:
141:
135:
130:
121:
120:
111:
108:
100:
90:
86:
80:
79:
74:This article
72:
63:
62:
57:
53:
49:
43:
39:
35:
29:
28:North Germany
25:
20:
16:
2430:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2398:
2383:
2369:
2354:
2324:
2305:
2285:
2280:
2267:
2258:
2222:Mitteleuropa
2198:
2188:
2185:State forest
2178:
2169:Kommunalwald
2168:
2158:
2150:
2143:
2137:
2125:
2114:
2107:
2101:
2084:
2074:agricultural
2069:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2037:
2026:
2022:
1992:
1983:
1960:
1954:
1937:shipbuilding
1933:Black Forest
1930:
1911:
1904:
1887:
1883:
1843:
1803:
1782:
1773:
1759:
1727:glassblowers
1717:
1707:
1693:
1684:hammer mills
1664:
1652:
1643:
1634:
1632:
1628:Schiffelland
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1600:
1587:
1583:wood pasture
1580:
1577:Wood pasture
1549:Black Forest
1542:
1531:
1524:
1495:
1480:
1474:
1452:
1441:
1436:
1433:
1424:
1413:
1404:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1381:
1372:
1365:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1339:
1333:
1322:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1289:
1286:Silva Abnoba
1285:
1282:
1273:
1264:
1239:
1222:
1205:
1189:
1184:
1176:
1168:
1162:last ice age
1159:
1145:
1133:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1103:
1088:
1083:
1075:
1061:
1051:
1041:
1031:
1030:) and pine (
1027:
1023:
1009:
993:
981:Franz Firbas
967:period, the
962:
953:interglacial
941:
933:
924:
914:
907:Q. pubescens
906:
898:
890:
883:refuge areas
876:
871:
863:
855:
848:Liriodendron
847:
839:
832:Cryptomeria
831:
827:
819:
811:
803:
796:
786:
761:
754:Scandinavian
747:
724:
712:
671:
661:Black Forest
657:timber rafts
652:
606:wood pasture
583:
569:
507:
471:agroforestry
467:Silvopasture
458:
413:Silviculture
397:
362:
351:
323:
320:
305:
257:
223:
182:
180:
165:
156:
137:
103:
94:
75:
52:Křivoklátsko
15:
2179:Kirchenwald
2098:Common land
1989:High forest
1914:glassmaking
1833:Middle Ages
1825:water power
1735:ash burners
1704:Middle Ages
1672:glassmaking
1616:Waldfeldbau
1538:Carolingian
1487:Middle Ages
1479:during the
1447:Middle Ages
1290:Mons Abnoba
1190:During the
1146:Picea abies
1020:postglacial
1016:Paleolithic
973:postglacial
895:sessile oak
887:English oak
856:Pseudotsuga
852:Douglas fir
844:tulip trees
836:arborvitaes
828:Sciadopitys
812:Liquidambar
793:Extinctions
731:Pleistocene
713:Waldsterben
704:fertilizers
653:Holländerei
535:Effects of
484:Middle Ages
269:communities
211:archaeology
195:Paleobotany
151:introducing
2449:Categories
2421:Nach Cäsar
2317:Literature
2250:References
2199:Bundeswald
2189:Landeswald
2138:Privatwald
2048:Mittelwald
1961:inter alia
1854:Baltic Sea
1774:Sudpfannen
1714:Glassworks
1641:or wheat.
1417:Marcomanni
1377:by rafting
1373:Abies alba
1369:silver fir
1278:home fires
1226:life zones
1200:1000 B. C.
1192:Bronze Age
1185:Abies alba
1181:silver fir
1048:Mesolithic
965:Quaternary
915:Abies alba
899:Q. petraea
681:from 1700:
584:Reichswald
508:Schutzwald
494:Recreation
488:modern era
451:brown bear
377:herbivores
238:Baltic Sea
134:references
2417:Vor Cäsar
2070:Waldäcker
2036:See also
2021:Like the
2017:coppicing
1993:Kernwachs
1895:Hohenlohe
1813:pit props
1778:saltworks
1776:) of the
1745:Saltworks
1708:Erdmeiler
1702:. In the
1639:buckwheat
1543:The high
1122:downy oak
1099:Neolithic
1091:Neolithic
1044:Preboreal
911:white fir
903:downy oak
808:sweet gum
757:ice sheet
698:crude oil
659:from the
645:saltworks
595:saltworks
571:wildbanns
439:wild boar
419:dominate
389:commodity
273:hand axes
242:Black Sea
230:North Sea
224:The term
199:Neolithic
159:June 2024
97:June 2024
2206:See also
2116:Markwald
2102:Allmende
2078:forestry
2062:Hudewald
2058:Hutewald
1821:charcoal
1815:and the
1785:LĂĽneburg
1700:charcoal
1661:Firewood
1635:Lohrinde
1429:castella
1421:Lombards
1329:Inferior
1325:Superior
1250:Germanic
1196:Iron Age
1173:hornbeam
1118:Fraxinus
1012:9,500 BC
969:Holocene
735:ice ages
727:Pliocene
686:charcoal
679:forestry
641:smelting
578:Markwald
553:Germania
546:Germanic
531:ice ages
519:hunting.
435:red deer
431:roe deer
421:forestry
393:browsing
385:roe deer
354:browsing
277:hemeroby
248:Overview
240:and the
2419:, II.:
2145:Hauberg
2085:Lohwald
2039:Hauberg
2027:Hauwald
2023:Hauwald
2011:Low or
1957:hunters
1931:In the
1924:and in
1918:tanning
1907:Holznot
1901:Holznot
1890:erosion
1880:Summary
1874:Austria
1790:plaggen
1760:In the
1566:Magyars
1562:Normans
1502:disease
1467:on the
1465:juniper
1302:Quercus
1206:In the
1198:, from
1076:Quercus
1052:Corylus
1042:In the
1001:Allerød
921:Refuges
868:hickory
860:Hemlock
820:Sequoia
816:sequoia
690:lignite
672:Holznot
476:juniper
443:red fox
427:Hunting
373:hunting
327:forests
306:Due to
299:of the
281:ice age
219:ecology
207:history
201:era in
147:improve
83:Please
2437:
2405:
2390:
2376:
2361:
2343:
1966:spruce
1926:mining
1850:rafted
1805:Mining
1739:potash
1680:mining
1407:- the
1288:, not
1179:) and
1142:spruce
1112:) and
1078:) and
1028:Betula
901:) and
866:) and
850:) and
806:) and
768:tundra
764:steppe
637:mining
514:), to
379:, the
347:stands
339:spruce
316:desert
308:feudal
287:, the
236:, the
232:, the
187:forest
136:, but
42:Poland
1951:Today
1800:Mines
1719:Glass
1425:Limes
1361:carrs
1353:limes
1349:limes
1341:limes
1336:Varus
1306:Fagus
1246:Roman
1165:beech
1138:carrs
1130:Alder
1106:Maple
1084:Ulmus
1032:Pinus
1024:Salix
947:(see
872:Carya
864:Tsuga
840:Thuja
775:birch
542:Roman
331:beech
2435:ISBN
2403:ISBN
2388:ISBN
2374:ISBN
2359:ISBN
2341:ISBN
2325:Wald
2076:and
1922:soot
1866:bows
1829:Harz
1817:wood
1809:ores
1733:and
1678:and
1626:and
1553:Harz
1419:and
1327:and
1110:Acer
1003:and
779:pine
777:and
766:and
750:Alps
741:and
694:coal
486:and
455:wolf
453:and
447:lynx
415:and
398:The
383:and
343:pine
341:and
333:and
234:Alps
217:and
193:and
181:The
2060:or
1858:Yew
1846:oak
1171:),
1114:ash
1080:elm
1072:oak
971:or
917:).
893:),
879:oak
858:).
842:),
834:),
822:),
789:).
745:.)
711:or
688:by
381:red
335:oak
2451::
2429::
2328:,
2293:^
2140:)
1916:,
1686:.
1674:,
1670:,
1493:.
1463:A
1359:)
1232:.
1152:.
1136:)
991:.
939:.
830:,
696:,
692:,
643:,
639:,
597:,
449:,
441:,
437:,
337:,
244:.
221:.
213:,
209:,
40:,
26:,
2441:.
2394:.
2365:.
2347:.
2201:)
2197:(
2191:)
2187:(
2181:)
2177:(
2171:)
2167:(
2128:)
2124:(
2104:)
2100:(
2068:(
2056:(
2042:.
2033:.
1905:"
1471:.
1371:(
1248:-
1183:(
1175:(
1167:(
1144:(
1132:(
1124:(
1116:(
1108:(
1082:(
1074:(
913:(
905:(
897:(
889:(
870:(
862:(
854:(
846:(
838:(
826:(
818:(
810:(
802:(
785:(
674:)
651:(
544:-
506:(
172:)
166:(
161:)
157:(
143:.
110:)
104:(
99:)
95:(
91:.
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