History of Eritrea - Knowledge (XXG)

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local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of a long history of a strong landowning peasantry and the virtual absence of serfdom in most parts of Eritrea, the bulk of Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians. This combined with Eriteans who had a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition, was the reason why the British administration left the country and the Eritreans finally won that fight. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea's independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The Emperor pressured Eritrea's elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the Federation and join the Imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order.

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several bullets at him while he was praying. The reason for the killing was that they had asked him to abandon the Muslim League and join the Unionist Party (UP), but he refused. The killing sparked an outrage among Muslims in Asmara. A well organised funeral procession was arranged and attended by youth and Muslim dignitaries. The procession passed through three main streets before they reached the street where the UP Office was located. According to the Mufti, then the UP members started first to throw stones at the procession which was followed by three grenades and then chaos followed. There was open confrontation between both sides and many were killed and injured from both sides. The police intervened by firing live ammunition, but the confrontations continued. Despite all this, the procession continued to the cemetery where the body was buried. The riots then spread to other areas and took a dangerous sectarian form. Many properties were also looted and burned. On Wednesday, the British Military Administration (BMA) declared a curfew, but the riots continued.

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Eritrea and Ethiopia by the assignment of an independent, UN-associated body known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries and issue a final and binding ruling. The peace agreement would be completed with the implementation of the Border Commission's ruling, which would also end the task of the peacekeeping mission. After extensive study, the Commission issued a final border ruling in April 2002, which awarded some territory to each side, but Badme (the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea. The commission's decision was rejected by Ethiopia. The border question remains in dispute, with Ethiopia refusing to withdraw its military from positions in the disputed areas, including Badme, while a "difficult" peace remains in place.

938: 2459:. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles mainly to Christian highlanders in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents in early 1967, the imperial secret police of Ethiopia also set up a wide network of informants in Eritrea and conducted disappearances, intimidations and assassinations among the same populace driving several prominent political figures into exile. Imperial police fired live ammunition killing scores of youngsters during several student demonstrations in Asmara in this time. The imperial army also actively perpetrated massacres until the ousting of the Emperor by the Derg in 1974. 2692: 2369: 1087: 5415: 1725: 2298:

side took an oath in front of the eight-member committee. To prevent further violence in other areas, the committee of both sides decided to visit the Muslim and Christian cemeteries and laid flowers on the graveyards of the victims of both sides. More than 62 persons were killed and more than 180 were injured and the damage on the properties was huge. This way the riots, which the Ethiopian Liaison Officer played a big role to ignite, was brought to an end by the wise religious leaders and elders of both sides.

1485: 2346:, contend that, "religious tensions here and there...were exploited by the British, most Eritreans (Christians and Moslems) were united in their goal of freedom and independence." Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. Pleas in Eritrea for a referendum for independence were received by the American, British and Ethiopian government, and a confidential American memo estimated around 75% of Eritreans supported the Independence Party. 950: 2515: 2463: 2502:, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not renew its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions. In 1980 the 216: 2286:

the free movement of the UNC in areas controlled by the independence bloc supporters. The shifta attempted to prevent the rural population that supported independence from having an audience with the UNC. They targeted transportation and communication systems. Telephone lines connecting Asmara with major cities of the predominantly areas pro-independence areas of the western lowlands and Masswa were continuously cut.

1972: 117: 785: 569: 2310:. "The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province. The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard." The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. 5812: 2130: 633: 2482:(EPLF). The leadership of this multi-ethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces. By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and 1922:

The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.

65: 24: 2443:(ELF), which led the Eritrean independence struggle during the 1960s. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as 1906:. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the 1876: 2579:. The result of the referendum was 99.83% for Eritrea's independence. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on 27 April 1993. The government was reorganized and the National Assembly was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The assembly chose Isaias Afewerki as president. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the 1332: 1434: 1693: 919: 2555:

A high-level U.S. delegation was also present in Addis Ababa for the July 1–5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia.

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On Saturday 25 February, the Copts met at the main church and Muslims at the grand mosque and discussed ways to end the violence. Both sides agreed to take an oath to prevent violence against each other. Each side appointed a four-member committee to oversee the agreements. Later 31 members from each

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Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. There are only two main Christian-Muslim conflicts reported in Asmara, Eritrea (the Ethiopians supported by the Unionist Party played a big role in it), one

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where Italy launched an effort to expand its possessions from Eritrea into the more fertile Abyssinian hinterland. Menelik would later renounce the Wuchale Treaty as he had been tricked by the translators to agree to making the whole of Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. However, he was forced by

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The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Some scholars have contended that the issue was a religious issue, between the Muslim lowland population desiring independence while the highland Christian

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Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens.

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claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred

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The UN Commission (UNC) arrived in Eritrea on February 9 and began its months-long inquiry 5 days later. Unionist Shifta activities supported by Ethiopia increased after its arrival, they became daring, better planned, better coordinated and innovative. The main target of the shifta was to disrupt

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In May 1991 the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Afewerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative

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Resolution 390A (V) of 2 December 1950. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police,

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On Thursday, the BMA administrator called for a meeting that included the Mufti and Abuna Marcos and asked them to calm the people and ask for reconciliation and both agreed. The wise men from both sides accepted the call, but the looting of properties of Muslim merchants continued for three more

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An active Muslim League local leader, from Mai Derese, Bashai Nessredin Saeed was killed by the Unionist Shifta while praying, on February 20. According to an account of the incident written by Mufti Sheikh Ibrahim Al Mukhtar, at 07:30 in the evening of a Monday that date 5 shifta came and fired

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convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF expressed its commitment to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human

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civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region. Artefacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and

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within Eritrea, running along the length of the disputed border between the two states and patrolled by UN troops. Ethiopia was to withdraw to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities in May 1998. The Algiers agreement called for a final demarcation of the disputed border area between

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culture, another community that flourished in the Nile Valley around the same period, were also found at other local archaeological sites in the Barka valley belonging to the Gash Group. According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the

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coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian,

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In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British military administration continued for the remainder of World War II until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines, with the Muslim

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The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly on 2 December 1950 adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating the British military administration of Eritrea no later than 15 September 1952. The British military

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on 25 and 26 March 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on 10 July. On 11 September 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution. The

1453:, whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614. Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by Sahama's reign. However, Kobishchanov suggests that the Axum kingdom retained hegemony over the Arabian ports until at least as late as 702. 2660:

were briefly severed during the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 due to a dispute over Djibouti's intimate relation with Ethiopia during the war but were restored and normalized in 2000. Relations are again tense due to a renewed border dispute. Similarly, Eritrea and

2498:, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, putting approximately a third of the Ethiopian Army out of action and prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around 2454:

The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of

2923:, accusing it of arming and providing financial aid to militia groups in southern Somalia's conflict zones. On July 16, 2012, a United Nations Monitoring Group reported that "it had found no evidence of direct Eritrean support for militia groups in the past year." 1786:

to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 to occupy the highlands and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and received recognition from

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2008 January – UN extends mandate of peacekeepers on Ethiopia-Eritrea border for six months. UN Security Council demands Eritrea lift fuel restrictions imposed on UN peacekeepers at the Eritrea-Ethiopia border area. Eritrea declines, saying troops must leave

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almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%). The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in

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period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa. After the revolutional fight by the Eritreans, the Italians left Eritrea.

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arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986 the Derg launched eight unsuccessful major offensives against the independence movement. In 1988 the EPLF captured

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as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although

4600: 2317:(UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the absence of Allied agreement and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination. It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, 2406:, engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities. 2629:

in which thousands of soldiers from both countries died. Eritrea suffered from significant economic and social stress, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's most severe

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From the late first to early second millennium Eritrea witnessed a period of migrations: Since the late 7th century, so with the decline of Aksum, large parts of Eritrea, including the highlands, were overrun by pagan

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brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor

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2008 April – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon warns of likelihood of new war between Ethiopia and Eritrea if peacekeeping mission withdraws completely. Outlines options for the future of the UN mission in the two

1516:, originated from a similar milieu as the Beja. They appeared first in the 12th century, from then on they dominated parts of northwestern Eritrea until the 16th century. After 1270, with the destruction of the 1415:

in Sudan may have brought about the latter polity's demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand. As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman

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was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern fringes of Ethiopia, it existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Given the presence of a massive temple complex, its capital was most likely

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for providing support to armed groups undermining peace and reconciliation in Somalia and because it had not withdrawn its forces following clashes with Djibouti in June 2008. The sanctions consisted of an

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The main objective of this italo-Eritrean party was Eritrea freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years (as with

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in Eritrea. He deployed roughly half of the Ethiopian army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of the

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Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 – "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch"

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tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the

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saw Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF.

2800:, and broadcast a message demanding reforms and the release of political prisoners. On 10 February 2013, president Isaias Afwerki commented on the mutiny, describing it as nothing to worry about. 5151: 2768:

In December 2007, an estimated 4000 Eritrean troops remained in the 'demilitarized zone' with a further 120,000 along its side of the border. Ethiopia maintained 100,000 troops along its side.

1353:, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own 2329:

Ethiopia." The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrean aspiration was for independence.

4612: 2108:(the organization was backed up by the government of Italy). This party ruled by Dr. Di Meglio obtained in 1947 the dismissal of a proposal to divide Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia. 5227: 900:

was discovered by Eritrean and Italian scientists. Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest

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the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our

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for GDRT (interpreted as representing a Ge'ez name such as Gadarat, Gedur, or Gedara) around the beginning of the 3rd century. A bronze scepter or wand has been discovered at

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The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography – "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000)

937: 3018: 1420:. The degree of Aksum's control over Yemen is uncertain. Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes 4279: 1865:

in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as

4410: 3495: 6340: 6110: 5056:"Security Council, by Vote of 13 in Favour, Adopts Resolution Reinforcing Sanctions Regime against Eritrea 'Calibrated' to Halt All Activities Destabilizing Region" 2884: 2413:

unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and illegally annexed the country in 1962. The war continued after Haile Selassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The

5177: 2906:, Qatar withdrew its peacekeeping forces from the disputed territory. Shortly after, Djibouti accused Eritrea of reoccupying the mainland hill and Doumeira Island. 2533:

during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in

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in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the

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Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In 1952 UN General Assembly Resolution 390 to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect.

4772: 1512:. The Beja rule declined in the 13th century. Subsequently, the Beja were expelled from the highlands by Abyssinian settlers from the south. Another people, the 5829: 2823: 2753:, tense relations with Ethiopia have continued and led to regional instability. His government has also been condemned for allegedly arming and financing the 2048:

and mansions. Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city, in just six years.

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Richard Pankhurst (1997): "The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century". Red Sea. Lawrenceville.

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had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the

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Africa expert Michael Johns wrote that "there are some modestly encouraging signs that the front intends to abandon Mengistu's autocratic practices."

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2007 September – War could resume between Ethiopia and Eritrea over their border conflict, warns United Nations special envoy to the Horn of Africa,

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fled to what is now Eritrea. Most were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the local Tigrinya culture, with the notable exception of the

5311: 2541:. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in 2031: 5392: 4675: 2862: 6095: 2743: 2399:(Association of Seven)), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM, under the leadership of the 1782:

believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of

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Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, et al. (2000). "Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial".

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The BBC published on 19 June 2008 a timeline of Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia to that date and reported that the "Border dispute rumbles on":

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Following the collapse of the Mengistu government, Eritrean independence began drawing influential interest and support from the United States.

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dynasties held control to a fluctuating extent over the entire plateau and the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. Previously, this area has been known as

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The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.

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The Red Sea coast, having its strategic and commercial importance, was contested by many powers. In the 16th century the Ottomans occupied the

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and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against

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The UNMEE mission was formally abandoned in July 2008, after experiencing serious difficulties in sustaining its troops after fuel stoppages.

5224: 3616:, Joseph W. Michels, editor; Lorraine T. Kapitanoff, translator, (University Park, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp.54–59. 2850:

2008 February – UN begins pulling 1,700-strong peacekeeper force out due to lack of fuel supplies following Eritrean government restrictions.

2479: 2334: 6115: 5552: 5360: 3557: 2075: 977:, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters. 925: 412: 1192:

was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite

996:. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. 4402: 2892:, travel restrictions and a freeze on the assets of its political and military leaders. The sanctions were reinforced on 5 December 2011. 1699:

was an important leader of the Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism.

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Department of State, Incoming Telegram, received 1949-08-22, From Addis Ababa, signed MERREL, to Secretary of State, No. 171, 1949-08-19

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Walter, Robert C.; Buffler, RT; Bruggemann, JH; Guillaume, MM; Berhe, SM; Negassi, B; Libsekal, Y; Cheng, H; et al. (2000-05-04).

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Meanwhile, Eritrea witnessed a very slow, but steady conversion to Islam. Muslims had already reached Eritrea in 613/615, during the

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The Big Three After World War II: New Documents on Soviet Thinking about Post-War Relations with the United States and Great Britain

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Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of

1999: 1830: 4325:– Atti Parlamentari – Legislatura XXI – Seconda Sessione 1902 – Documento N. XVI -Tipografia della Camera dei Deputati. Roma, 1902 3831: 1986:

was populated by a large Italian community and the city acquired an Italian architectural look. One of the first building was the

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The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Abyssinia/Ethiopia was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the

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was the longest of its kind in the world when inaugurated in 1937. It was later dismantled by the British after World War II as

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maintained only tenuous control over much of the territory over the following centuries until 1865, when the Egyptians obtained

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Details of the Aksumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more scarce after this point. The last king known to mint coins is

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had a border conflict between 1996 and 1998 over the Hanish Islands and the maritime border, which was resolved in 2000 by the

2166: 1766:, though they withdrew from the place after the resistance of the Eritrean people. The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880. 2282:

was in 1946 where Sudanese Defence Forces were involved, and the other was in February 1950. This note is about that of 1950.

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from the Italians in spring 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were heavily damaged by the fighting.

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government's defeat in 1991 by the coalition created by armed groups notably the EPLF, Eritrea declared its independence.

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The Aksumites established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The

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Dan Connell, Tom Killion (2011): "Historical Dictionary of Eritrea". The Scarecrow. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth. p. 159-160

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Dan Connell, Tom Killion (2011): "Historical Dictionary of Eritrea". The Scarecrow. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth. p. 120-121

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Dan Connell, Tom Killion (2011): "Historical Dictionary of Eritrea". The Scarecrow. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth. p. 118-119

1963:. By 1940, nearly one third of the territory's population was Catholic, mainly in Asmara where some churches were built. 1633:

from the Ottomans. From there they pushed inland to the plateau, until 1876, when the Egyptians were defeated during the

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Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State.

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mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006. The Eritrean government has banned

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Dan Connell, Tom Killion (2011): "Historical Dictionary of Eritrea". The Scarecrow. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth. p. 66-67

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was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under

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could determine its fate. Several Italian-built infrastructure projects and industries were dismantled and removed to

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Dan Connell, Tom Killion (2011): "Historical Dictionary of Eritrea". The Scarecrow. Lanham, Toronto, Plymouth. p. 54

3338:"The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms" 2645:(UNMEE); with over 4,000 UN peacekeepers. The UN established a temporary security zone consisting of a 25-kilometre 2489:

By 1977 the EPLF seemed poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. However, that same year a massive airlift of

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to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF.

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2007 November – Eritrea accepts border line demarcated by international boundary commission. Ethiopia rejects it.

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A study sample of the Eritrean art and material culture in the collections of the National Museum of Eritrea"

130: 6170: 5707: 4003: 2750: 2638: 2506:

determined that the right of the Eritrean people to self-determination does not represent a form of secession.

2162: 1129: 908:

in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from

647: 5173: 2376:

Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the

1396:

with in inscription mentioning "GDR of Axum". Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King

6405: 6280: 6270: 6075: 5694: 5682: 5545: 5540: 5523: 5496: 5414: 5297: 4395: 4098: 2615: 2549: 2342:

population sought a union with Ethiopia. Other scholars, including the former Attorney-General of Ethiopia,

2321:, said, "From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. 2255: 1899: 1825:

occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of

1779: 764: 43: 5099: 1284:

times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. Under

6285: 6175: 6105: 5583: 5528: 3265: 2626: 2231: 2104:

was established in Asmara in July 1947, and majority of the members were former Italian soldiers and many

2024: 1976: 1869: 1842: 1634: 1583: 1442: 1317: 1169: 1061: 1684:. This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period. 6345: 6265: 6230: 6215: 6200: 6155: 6090: 4935: 4601:"Progress in health in Eritrea: Cost-effective inter-sectoral interventions and a long-term perspective" 4049:

The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855

4036:

The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855

2754: 2641:. Amongst the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the 2429: 2426: 2422: 2021: 1929:'s rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After 1086: 981: 682: 6396: 4970: 4720: 4067:

The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century

2575:

Eritreans voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence between 23 and 25 April 1993 in a UN-monitored

1669: 1335: 3686: 1724: 1625:. After the expulsion of the Adalites, the Ottomans occupied even more of Eritrea’s coastal area. The 1484: 6220: 5717: 5702: 5616: 5501: 5455: 5440: 5423: 4993: 4875:"Eritrea's picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold" 4782: 4550: 3270: 3257: 3132: 3120: 3077: 2837: 2777:

newspaper published an exposé on Eritrea. There are over 40,000 Eritrean refugees in Israel. The NGO

2592: 1513: 1509: 1231: 989: 654: 4997: 4671: 2486:

had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the army.

1430:" or "Habashite," indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area. 6320: 6295: 6145: 6140: 6120: 6085: 6070: 5727: 5657: 5511: 5484: 5470: 5365: 3882:

Kjetil Tronvoll (1998): "Mai Weini, a Highland Village in Eritrea: A Study of the People". p. 34-35

2739: 2350: 1944: 1886:

In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The

1866: 1815: 1736: 1708: 1649: 1550:, which would last for almost 500 years. This sultanate also had sovereignty over the port town of 1547: 1466: 1321: 1217: 1021:

Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt. In a tomb in

668: 492: 400: 396: 289: 2715:(FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems. 949: 6392: 6383: 6374: 6305: 6275: 6260: 6245: 6235: 6225: 6190: 6185: 6080: 6055: 5746: 5630: 5611: 5571: 5460: 4697: 3476: 3291: 3230: 3222: 3156: 3101: 2963: 2730:

Due to his frustration with the stalemated peace process with Ethiopia, the President of Eritrea

2646: 2318: 2275: 2005:

Today Asmara is worldwide known for its early twentieth-century Italian buildings, including the

1991: 1940: 1811: 1763: 1665: 1614: 1543: 1529: 1235: 1069: 905: 623: 345: 5245: 4465: 3957:

Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p.74.

3561: 2187: 1441:

monastery complex in Eritrea was built during 1350s but is much older than the oldest monastery

1393: 4153: 6315: 6310: 6250: 6205: 6165: 6060: 6041: 5722: 5712: 5593: 5263: 5241: 5207: 4627:"IRIN Africa | ERITREA: Government outlaws female genital mutilation | Human Rights" 4435: 4399: 4335: 4102: 4090: 4071: 4065: 4009: 3758: 3731: 3593: 3516: 3455: 3378: 3316: 3283: 3148: 3093: 3023: 2953: 2948: 2403: 2389: 2093: 2060: 1907: 1834: 1795: 1714: 1622: 1501: 1424:(all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, "king of the 1369: 1365: 1354: 712: 329: 4205: 2781:

has ranked Eritrea in last in freedom of expression since 2007, even lower than North Korea.

2301:

Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when

6370: 6290: 6240: 6195: 6180: 6160: 6150: 6125: 6065: 5762: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5642: 5345: 5073: 4477: 4367: 3968:

The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle

3586:

David Phillipson: revised by Michael DiBlasi (1 November 2012). Neil Asher Silberman (ed.).

3275: 3214: 3140: 3085: 2343: 1926: 1887: 1822: 1677: 1567: 1505: 1261:/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was 1254: 1189: 1164: 1152: 1065: 1014: 723: 707: 699: 689: 661: 614: 551: 542: 480: 317: 273: 4840: 2462: 1891: 6300: 6210: 6100: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5647: 5355: 5231: 4976: 4727: 4658: 4525: 4406: 4310: 4267: 4241: 3835: 3488: 3349: 3004: 2958: 2731: 2685: 2681: 2514: 2483: 2381: 2239: 2227: 2113: 2105: 2052: 1998:

an impressive building, from where the Italian Governors could show the dedication of the

1983: 1903: 1849:, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of 1826: 1744: 1729: 1704: 1681: 1645: 1641: 1591: 1470: 1408: 1373: 1361: 1313: 1200: 1125: 1091: 759: 384: 5144:"US hits 2 Eritrean army officers with sanctions for supporting radical Somali Islamists" 4518: 4179: 3205:

Zarins, Juris (1990). "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia".

929: 4918:"Eritrea's capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list | DW | 08.07.2017" 3261: 3136: 3081: 5767: 5598: 4127: 3826: 3248:

Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions".

2596: 2530: 2499: 2410: 2314: 2267: 2101: 2086: 2056: 1936: 1774: 1756: 1661: 1626: 1385: 1325: 1204: 1107: 1048: 829: 789: 675: 573: 3931: 2814:, with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session. 1739:. In 1869 or ’70, the then ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of 6438: 4813: 4732: 4626: 4174: 4148: 4122: 3234: 2990: 2789: 2758: 2735: 2526: 2009: 1773:

and failed in their attempts take over the ports and other places on this coast, the

1759: 1748: 1617:

and then Massawa. Also in the 16th century, Eritrea was affected by the invasions of

1563: 1517: 1474: 1462: 1404: 1285: 1262: 1250: 1022: 372: 301: 4808: 3295: 3121:"Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the lastinterglacial" 1994:, the first Italian governor of Eritrea. The Italian government wanted to create in 1273:

in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Axum" as early as the 4th century.

3160: 3105: 2889: 2874: 2720: 2699: 2606: 2564: 2490: 2307: 2306:

to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians if possible as a reward for their support during

2251: 2235: 2071: 2042: 1858: 1735:

The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the

1525: 1438: 1293: 1281: 1208: 1173: 1026: 970: 890: 865: 416: 241: 141: 5260:

I Didn't Do It For You : How the World Used and Abused a Small African Nation

5055: 5041: 4748:"'The North Korea of Africa': Where you need a permit to have dinner with friends" 4572: 4481: 3752: 3725: 3639: 3510: 3449: 3409: 3372: 3310: 2473:

By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared

5350: 5019: 2538: 2474: 2271: 2129: 2066:

Many industrial investments were done by the Italians in the area of Asmara and

2017: 1971: 1872:(r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory. 1818: 1770: 1696: 1673: 1618: 1607: 1587: 1579: 1539: 1532: 1497: 1350: 1181: 1052: 993: 966: 2684:

at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008; maternal and

2074:

stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea. During the Allied efforts

1128:

were important ancient D'mt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. There are many

5397: 5121: 4413:

Cold War International History Project Working Paper 13, May 1995), pp. 19–21.

4260: 4234: 2927: 2804: 2746: 2278:, even attempted to have Eritrea become a trustee of the Soviet Union itself. 1788: 1752: 1136: 1038: 632: 137: 4893:"Eritrea capital, Asmara, makes UNESCO World Heritage list | Africanews" 3047: 1939:

in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and

4303: 3279: 2803:

In September 2018, President Isaias Afwerki and Prime Minister of Ethiopia,

2670: 2631: 2560: 2002:

to the "colonia primogenita" (first daughter-colony) as was called Eritrea.

1875: 985: 969:

site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the

4217:

report on the construction of the Massawa–Saati Railway] (1888), hosted at

3287: 3152: 3097: 2349:

The details of Eritrea's association with Ethiopia were established by the

1491:'s Sheikh Hanafi Mosque, built in the 15th century under Emperor Zara Yacob 4189:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–94. 4163:. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 90–119. 1692: 1535:, who had established themselves in the highlands until the 14th century. 876:

officially celebrated its 1st anniversary of independence on May 24,1993.

5100:"Djibouti, Eritrea in territorial dispute after Qatar peacekeepers leave" 4777: 3970:. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.17–8. 3184: 2877:

border area and infiltrating Djiboutian territory. Eritrea denies charge.

2870: 2657: 2534: 2096:

strongly rejected the Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea after the war: the

2006: 1952: 1854: 1599: 1368:, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the 1297: 1221: 1193: 869: 857: 3007:. Eritrea was also called Medri Bahri before the arrivalof the Italians. 1807:

circumstance to live by the tenets of Italian sovereignty over Eritrea.

1594:

on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia). With its capital at

1433: 1331: 1238:

argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to

5817: 5340: 5320: 4855: 4137:. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 747. 3226: 2920: 2912: 2880:

2008 June – Fighting breaks out between Eritrean and Djiboutian troops.

2773: 2716: 2708: 2703: 2456: 2418: 2400: 2067: 1931: 1630: 1595: 1575: 1551: 1488: 1426: 1397: 1289: 1253:), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. 1185: 1177: 1111: 1102: 1095: 1081: 1044: 974: 961: 954: 942: 885: 873: 845: 512: 257: 4152: 1802:(r. 1889–1913) after the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia at the battle of 1196:

period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.

4378:(New York: HarperCollins, 2005), chapter 6 "The Feminist Fuzzy-wuzzy" 4376:

I didn't do it for you: How the World betrayed a small African nation

3144: 3089: 2943: 2793: 2542: 2519: 2495: 2089:

military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II.

1995: 1895: 1880: 1657: 1305: 1301: 1239: 1144: 1010: 861: 6010: 3448:

Marianne Bechaus-Gerst, Roger Blench, Kevin MacDonald (ed.) (2014).

3218: 2788:

took place on 21 January 2013, when around 100 –200 soldiers of the

2688:

rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.

1668:. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined in conjunction with Imam 1242:, and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated. 5289: 2510:

Provisional Government and People's Front for Democracy and Justice

2226:

British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the

1528:. Yet another people that arrived after the fall of Aksum were the 3544:

Historical Geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704

2896: 2810:

On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a

2797: 2690: 2662: 2622: 2605: 2513: 2461: 2444: 2436: 2367: 2247: 2230:

and placed the colony under British military administration until

2045: 1970: 1874: 1862: 1850: 1846: 1783: 1740: 1723: 1691: 1653: 1603: 1483: 1450: 1432: 1412: 1330: 1309: 1277: 1212: 1085: 1056: 948: 936: 896: 837: 2857:

2008 May – Eritrea calls on UN to terminate peacekeeping mission.

1990:: this former "Italian government's palace" was built in 1897 by 4508:. Rome, Italy: Research and Information Centre on Eritrea. 1984. 4178: 3783: 3781: 2895:

2010 June — Djibouti and Eritrea agreed to refer the dispute to

2676:

Eritrea has improved health care, and is on track to meet its

2448: 2414: 1803: 1521: 1377: 1339: 1270: 1148: 1140: 6014: 5782: 5293: 2807:, signed a historic peace agreement between the two countries. 1388:

and of Axum." Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a

984:-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing 4990:"Djibouti-Eritrea border skirmishes subside as toll hits nine" 4809:"Eritrea's president breaks silence over army mutiny incident" 4773:"Eritrea mutiny over as government, opposition say 'all calm'" 4126: 2724: 2123: 1590:("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like 1546:. In 1060, a Yemeni dynasty fled to Dahlak and proclaimed the 1184:

monastery was built during 1350s near the town of Nefasit in

428: 110: 58: 17: 3411:

Sesto Congresso internazionale di egittologia: atti, Volume 2

2983: 1680:, head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the 5253:

Italian colonisation in Eritrea: policies, praxis and impact

1500:, who supposedly founded several kingdoms on its soil, like 828:

Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its

1360:

The state also established its hegemony over the declining

5238:

Eritrea's early stages in monetary and banking development

5070:"African Union Praises Eritrea, Djibouti Border Mediation" 4954:"Exploring Eritrea's UNESCO certified Art-Deco wonderland" 4355: 2796:

briefly seized the headquarters of the state broadcaster,

1769:

Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the

1648:. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when 1364:

and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the

3900:

Mussie Tesfagiorgis (2010): "Eritrea". ABC-CLIO. p. 33-34

3685:. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 57. Archived from 3414:. International Association of Egyptologists. p. 402 2621:

In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia, over the town of

1269:, "remarkable, revered"). The capital was later moved to 860:

created the colony of Eritrea in the 19th century around

4599:

Rodríguez Pose, Romina; Samuels, Fiona (December 2010).

3592:(Second ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 48. 2873:

accuses Eritrean troops of digging trenches at disputed

1943:

were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new

1743:

to the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a

1018:

Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.

4698:"Eritreans Deny American Accusations of Terrorist Ties" 2262:, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under 1586:

it was rebranded as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the

868:, Eritrea annexed to Ethiopia. Following the communist 5202:

Peter R. Schmidt, Matthew C. Curtis and Zelalem Teka,

5174:"Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report" 2926:

Since November 2020, Eritrea has been involved in the

1574:("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the 1562:

Beginning in the 12th century, however, the Ethiopian

1055:

between 2500 and 1500 BC. Sherds akin to those of the

4095:

The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People

3207:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

3022:(9th ed.). The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. 2002. 2637:

The border war ended in 2000 with the signing of the

5118:"Eritrea rejects U.N. report it backs Somali rebels" 4392:

The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years

1320:. The area is also the alleged resting place of the 6354: 6329: 6048: 5693: 5629: 5570: 5483: 5422: 5331: 4547:"A Look Back on Eritrea's Historic 1993 Referendum" 2154:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 965:American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a 3019:McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology 1879:Church of Our Lady of the Rosary built in 1923 in 1672:'s recorded ascension to the throne. In 1734, the 856:. But earlier Eritrea was called Mdre Bahri. The 3979:Edward Denison, Guang Yu Ren, Naigzy Gebremedhin 3926: 3924: 2656:Furthermore, Eritrea's diplomatic relations with 2529:played a facilitative role in the peace talks in 4411:Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 3754:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 3679:Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity 2885:UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea 2618:was ratified, but it has yet to be implemented. 2599:, has been the President of Eritrea since 1993. 4646: 4644: 4059: 4057: 2727:prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%. 2509: 1051:(Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the 5150:. Associated Press. 2012-07-05. Archived from 2680:(MDG) for health, in particular child health. 2643:United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea 1422:king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan 1312:fleeing persecution. This journey is known in 6026: 5794: 5305: 3932:"Encyclopedia Britannica: History of Eritrea" 3403: 3401: 809: 591: 8: 5206:. Asmara: Red Sea Press, 2008. 469 pp. 4721:"Ethiopia and Eritrea: Bad words over Badme" 4398:, 1996), pp. 23–24; Vladimir O. Pechatnov, " 3644:. Rock View International. 2003. p. 366 1172:monastery from the 4th century is the first 4008:. University of Florida Press. p. 31. 3312:Archaeology, Language, and the African Past 2563:regimes in the former Soviet Union and the 52:Learn how and when to remove these messages 6033: 6019: 6011: 5801: 5787: 5779: 5635: 5576: 5489: 5428: 5312: 5298: 5290: 3757:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 77. 3629:(London: the British Academy, 1989), p.39. 2603:(PFDJ) is the only legal political party. 1280:, which served a religious purpose in pre- 864:and named it with its current name. After 816: 802: 609: 598: 584: 189: 140:. Please do not remove this message until 5120:. Reuters. March 16, 2010. Archived from 3555:Pankhurst, Richard K.P. (17 January 2003) 3494:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3437:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 273. 3269: 2266:or as a colony. Soviet diplomats, led by 2214:Learn how and when to remove this message 2120:British administration and federalisation 960:During the last interglacial period, the 904:. It is believed that the section of the 178:Learn how and when to remove this message 160:Learn how and when to remove this message 4873:Commentary, Tom Gardner (11 July 2017). 4466:"The Eritrean Struggle for Independence" 3546:(London: British Academy, 1989), pp. 38f 3377:. L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER. p. 280. 2824:2008 Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict 2601:People's Front for Democracy and Justice 2581:People's Front for Democracy and Justice 2032:Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara 1276:The Aksumites erected a number of large 912:hominids to anatomically modern humans. 136:Relevant discussion may be found on the 78:: vague phrasing that often accompanies 4672:"US Considers Terror Label for Eritrea" 4594: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4117: 4115: 3727:Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, Volume 1 2975: 2388:(Movements for liberation of Eritrea), 1959:The Italians brought to Eritrea a huge 1644:(Afar Sultanate) succeeded the earlier 1542:. In 702, muslim travelers entered the 722: 688: 681: 674: 667: 660: 653: 646: 639: 621: 203: 192: 4807:Tekle, Tesfa-Alem (10 February 2013). 4304:Italian industries in colonial Eritrea 3981:Asmara: Africa's secret modernist city 3484: 3474: 2932:Eritrean involvement in the Tigray War 2610:Eritrea after the independence in 1993 2417:, the new Ethiopian government, was a 2294:days before the riots came to an end. 1155:, which was able to reunite the area. 884:At Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest 5240:, International Review of Economics, 5218:Eritrean making of a Nation 1890–1991 4425: 4423: 4421: 4419: 3712:Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia 3315:. Rowman Altamira. pp. 143–144. 2828:2010 Eritrea–Ethiopia border skirmish 1751:introduced by the recently completed 888:representing a possible link between 852:, from the Greek for "red", ἐρυθρός, 7: 5223:Ghebrehiwot, Petros Kahsai (2006): " 4051:(London: Longmans, 1968), pp. 23–26. 4038:(London: Longmans, 1968), p. 23 n.1. 3627:The Historical Geography of Ethiopia 2537:, leaving a caretaker government in 2152:adding citations to reliable sources 2041:. The city is littered with Italian 2012:, "Cubist" Africa Pension, eclectic 4746:Halper, Yishai (7 September 2012). 4280:"Italian administration in Eritrea" 4154:"Egypt: Section III: History" 3641:Africa Geoscience Review, Volume 10 3589:The Oxford Companion to Archaeology 3374:Profumi d'Arabia: atti del convegno 2863:Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict 2761:is considering labeling Eritrea a " 2385: 2372:Map of Eritrea attached to Ethiopia 1582:), but during the reign of emperor 1558:12th century to the Italian arrival 1400:toward the end of the 3rd century. 844:. This name relates to that of the 5248:, Vol. 51, n. 4, pp. 547–569. 5204:The Archaeology of Ancient Eritrea 5180:from the original on July 14, 2014 5020:"US condemns Eritrea 'aggression'" 4936:"The modernist marvels of Eritrea" 4856:"Asmara: A Modernist African City" 4532:magazine, August 1991 (entered in 2480:Eritrean People's Liberation Front 1598:, the state's main provinces were 1372:. Inscriptions have been found in 980:According to linguists, the first 953:Pre-Axumite monolithic columns in 14: 6450:History of East Africa by country 5285:The Eritrean railway (in Italian) 4696:Gettleman, Jeffrey (2007-09-18). 4005:A Pawn in World Politics: Eritrea 3558:"Let's Look Across the Red Sea I" 2250:and the Christians Ethiopia. The 1951:) administrative territory. This 1755:. It almost became a part of the 1349:as an important market place for 1296:. In 615, during the lifetime of 1013:found evidence of an ancient pre- 33:This article has multiple issues. 6341:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6111:Democratic Republic of the Congo 5810: 5413: 4430:Habte Selassie, Bereket (1989). 3801:Raffaele, Paul (December 2007). 2771:In September, 2012, the Israeli 2128: 1810:In the vacuum that followed the 1345:The kingdom is mentioned in the 1060:C-Group and Kerma peoples spoke 917: 783: 631: 567: 214: 115: 63: 22: 4996:. June 13, 2008. Archived from 4854:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 4821:from the original on 2013-10-11 4789:from the original on 2021-03-21 4678:from the original on 2007-10-29 4549:. 23 April 2018. Archived from 4519:"Does Democracy Have a Chance?" 4323:RELAZIONE SULLA COLONIA ERITREA 4199:Cf. engineer Emilio Olivieri's 3828:Periplus of the Erythreaean Sea 3625:Expressed, for example, in his 2917:United Nations Security Council 2139:needs additional citations for 1660:(Asaita) with the split of the 1376:celebrating victories over one 1114:, often identified as the town 988:era from the family's proposed 429:British Military Administration 339:Late 13th century–18th century) 232: 41:or discuss these issues on the 5255:, Uppsala University, Uppsala. 5220:, Uppsala University, Uppsala. 5076:. June 7, 2010. Archived from 4609:Overseas Development Institute 4605:Overseas Development Institute 4464:Heiden, Linda (19 June 1978). 4432:Eritrea and the United Nations 2667:Permanent Court of Arbitration 2335:Legislative Assembly elections 1898:in the highlands in 1911. The 1800:Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia 1347:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1324:and the purported home of the 1292:320–360), Aksum later adopted 1227:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1121:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 1025:dated to the reign of Pharaoh 1: 3751:Munro-Hay, Stuart C. (1991). 3371:Avanzini, Alessandra (1997). 2059:in Africa.In all Eritrea the 1437:Some of the buildings of the 1403:Additionally, expeditions by 1176:place of worship recorded in 1090:Bronze oil lamp excavated at 992:("original homeland") in the 336: 308: 280: 264: 248: 5393:Djiboutian–Eritrean conflict 4860:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 4841:"The Nobel Peace Prize 2019" 4482:10.14452/MR-030-02-1978-06_2 3183:. 1999-09-10. Archived from 3046:. 1999-09-08. Archived from 2904:2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis 2695:Eritrea's main exports, 2013 2678:Millennium Development Goals 2468:Eritrean War of Independence 2378:Eritrean Liberation Movement 2364:Eritrean War of Independence 1234:and Sergew Hable Sellasie), 1098:(1st century BCE or earlier) 836:, Ἐρυθραία, and its derived 468:Eritrean War of Independence 5262:. Harper Perennial (2005). 4374:(1947). See Michela Wrong, 4202:"La Ferrovia Massaua-Saati" 4064:Pankhurst, Richard (1997). 3342:Journal of Eritrean Studies 2504:Permanent Peoples' Tribunal 2435:In 1960 Eritrean exiles in 1621:, the Muslim leader of the 1265:(hypothetically from Ge'ez 1257:cites the Muslim historian 142:conditions to do so are met 6466: 5176:. Reuters. July 16, 2012. 4652:Eritrea WHO Country Office 4097:2nd ed., p. 90. 4002:Okbazghi Yohannes (1991). 3803:"Keepers of the Lost Ark?" 3724:Brockman, Norbert (2011). 3454:. Routledge. p. 453. 3348:(1): 29–58. Archived from 3336:Schmidt, Peter R. (2002). 2984: 2902:2017 June — Following the 2821: 2812:UNESCO World Heritage Site 2763:State Sponsor of Terrorism 2361: 2063:were 75,000 in that year. 1961:development of Catholicism 1935:declared the birth of the 1791:, Ethiopia's new Emperor. 1712: 1702: 1460: 1245:According to the medieval 1224:of Axum, mentioned in the 1162: 1079: 1036: 932:in this article correctly. 902:anatomically modern humans 521: 90:Such statements should be 5825: 5740: 5638: 5579: 5492: 5431: 5411: 5022:. BBC News. June 12, 2008 4573:"Eritrea country profile" 4338:. BBC Radio 3. 2005-06-19 3676:Stuart Munro-Hay (1991). 3433:Cole, Sonia Mary (1964). 2818:Relations with neighbours 2786:2013 Eritrean Army mutiny 2779:Reporters Without Borders 2713:female genital mutilation 2647:demilitarized buffer zone 2441:Eritrean Liberation Front 2393: 1988:Asmara President's Office 1949:Africa Orientale Italiana 1640:In southern Eritrea, the 1304:provided asylum to early 1130:Ancient cities in Eritrea 6096:Central African Republic 5280:Background Note: Eritrea 4979:, BBC News, 19 June 2008 4534:The Congressional Record 3730:. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. 2915:: In December 2009, the 2911:In relation to southern 2883:2009, 23 December — the 1979:in Asmara, built in 1938 1910:in Libya as well as the 1841:) signed the same year, 1072:branches, respectively. 1043:Excavations in and near 941:Neolithic rock art in a 456:Autonomy within Ethiopia 5236:Mauri, Arnaldo (2004); 4396:Oxford University Press 4356:http://www.maitacli.it/ 4309:April 29, 2009, at the 4186:Encyclopædia Britannica 4160:Encyclopædia Britannica 4134:Encyclopædia Britannica 4099:Oxford University Press 3509:Behrens, Peter (1986). 3280:10.1126/science.1078208 3000:A Greek–English Lexicon 2616:Constitution of Eritrea 2256:Italian Communist Party 2070:, but the beginning of 1918:Italo-Abyssinian Wars. 1900:Asmara–Massawa Cableway 1652:moved his capital from 1259:Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi 5536:International rankings 5376:Eritrean–Ethiopian War 5216:Beretekeab R. (2000); 3612:Yuri M. Kobishchanov, 3515:. Unesco. p. 30. 3435:The Prehistory of East 3408:Leclant, Jean (1993). 2696: 2627:Eritrean-Ethiopian War 2611: 2522: 2470: 2373: 2344:Bereket Habte Selassie 2025:Fiat Tagliero Building 1980: 1977:Fiat Tagliero Building 1883: 1732: 1700: 1635:Egyptian-Ethiopian War 1492: 1446: 1443:Debre Sina (monastery) 1342: 1099: 1062:Afro-Asiatic languages 957: 946: 531:Eritrean–Ethiopian War 6256:São Tomé and Príncipe 6116:Republic of the Congo 2991:Liddell, Henry George 2919:imposed sanctions on 2755:insurgency in Somalia 2694: 2609: 2517: 2465: 2430:Mengistu Haile Mariam 2371: 2083:Italian guerrilla war 1974: 1894:in 1888, and reached 1878: 1727: 1695: 1487: 1457:Post-classical period 1436: 1334: 1089: 952: 940: 413:East African Campaign 4994:Agence France-Presse 4629:. IRIN. 5 April 2007 4615:on 28 December 2010. 3807:Smithsonian Magazine 3542:G.W.B. Huntingford, 2838:Kjell Magne Bondevik 2792:in the capital city 2593:President of Eritrea 2358:War for independence 2333:administration held 2163:"History of Eritrea" 2148:improve this article 2098:Party of Shara Italy 1300:, the Aksumite King 1232:Yuri M. Kobishchanov 1135:The realm developed 740:World Heritage Sites 92:clarified or removed 6331:States with limited 5371:War of Independence 5148:The Washington Post 5124:on January 18, 2016 5080:on February 5, 2013 4942:. 19 November 2019. 4579:. 15 November 2018. 4321:Ferdinando Martini. 3352:on 8 September 2014 3309:Blench, R. (2006). 3262:2003Sci...300..597D 3137:2000Natur.405...65W 3082:2000Natur.405...65W 2861:In relation to the 2740:UN Security Council 2550:Heritage Foundation 2386:حركات تحرير إريتريا 2351:UN General Assembly 2246:population joining 1945:Italian East Africa 1737:Scramble for Africa 1709:Italian East Africa 1664:into Aussa and the 1548:Sultanate of Dahlak 1467:Sultanate of Dahlak 1322:Ark of the Covenant 1218:Carlo Conti Rossini 493:Ethiopian Civil War 401:Italian East Africa 397:Eritrea Governorate 290:Sultanate of Dahlak 129:of this article is 6445:History of Eritrea 5607:Telecommunications 5251:Negash T. (1987); 5230:2017-08-15 at the 4975:2020-10-09 at the 4960:. 9 November 2017. 4736:, 13 December 2007 4726:2008-05-17 at the 4702:The New York Times 4657:2010-06-04 at the 4650:Health profile at 4528:by Michael Johns, 4524:2013-08-23 at the 4506:Session on Eritrea 4405:2017-07-06 at the 4372:Eritrea on the Eve 4366:First reported by 4266:2008-02-03 at the 4261:Eritrea- Contenuti 4240:2008-02-03 at the 4091:Ullendorff, Edward 3936:www.britannica.com 3847:Stuart Munro-Hay, 3834:2014-08-14 at the 3787:Stuart Munro-Hay, 3662:Stuart Munro-Hay, 3487:has generic name ( 3044:"Pleistocene Park" 2964:Timeline of Asmara 2734:wrote a series of 2697: 2612: 2587:After independence 2523: 2471: 2374: 2319:John Foster Dulles 2276:Vyacheslav Molotov 2254:, anticipating an 2102:Vincenzo Di Meglio 2076:to capture Eritrea 2014:Orthodox Cathedral 1992:Ferdinando Martini 1981: 1967:Asmara development 1941:Italian Somaliland 1884: 1829:, a colony of the 1733: 1701: 1666:Sultanate of Harar 1615:Dahlak Archipelago 1493: 1480:Early developments 1447: 1343: 1336:King Ezana's Stele 1236:G.W.B. Huntingford 1100: 1094:, dating from the 958: 947: 906:Danakil Depression 848:, then called the 790:Eritrea portal 624:Culture of Eritrea 574:Eritrea portal 479:Annexation as the 346:Sultanate of Aussa 6432: 6431: 6358:other territories 6131:Equatorial Guinea 6042:History of Africa 6008: 6007: 5776: 5775: 5736: 5735: 5723:List of Eritreans 5625: 5624: 5566: 5565: 5553:Political parties 5507:Foreign relations 5479: 5478: 5386:2018 peace summit 4434:. Red Sea Press. 4336:"Reviving Asmara" 4180:"Abyssinia" 4101:(London), 1965). 4070:. Red Sea Press. 3983:, 2003. (page 20) 3692:on August 9, 2017 3256:(5619): 597–603. 2954:History of Africa 2949:History of Asmara 2751:Algiers Agreement 2744:Secretary-General 2639:Algiers Agreement 2614:In July 1996 the 2404:Hamid Idris Awate 2224: 2223: 2216: 2198: 2094:Italian Eritreans 2061:Italian Eritreans 2039:Governor's Palace 1908:Italo-Turkish War 1890:was completed to 1835:Treaty of Wuchale 1796:Treaty of Wuchale 1771:Mahdist rebellion 1715:History of Asmara 1670:Umar Din bin Adam 1623:Sultanate of Adal 1530:Cushitic-speaking 1418:province of Egypt 1370:Himyarite Kingdom 1366:Arabian peninsula 1355:Aksumite currency 1207:listed Axum with 1203:religious figure 926:rendering support 826: 825: 608: 607: 559: 558: 503: 502: 439: 438: 356: 355: 330:Dankali Sultanate 188: 187: 180: 170: 169: 162: 109: 108: 56: 6457: 6419: 6418:(United Kingdom) 6414:Tristan da Cunha 6410:Ascension Island 6402: 6389: 6380: 6356:Dependencies and 6049:Sovereign states 6035: 6028: 6021: 6012: 5815: 5814: 5813: 5803: 5796: 5789: 5780: 5756: 5749: 5653:Independence Day 5636: 5602: 5577: 5490: 5429: 5417: 5346:Kingdom of Aksum 5314: 5307: 5300: 5291: 5258:Wrong, Michela. 5190: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5106:. 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Archived from 4276: 4270: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4246:Ferrovia Eritrea 4235:Eritrean Railway 4231: 4225: 4224: 4219:Ferrovia Eritrea 4216: 4214: 4213: 4204:. Archived from 4197: 4191: 4190: 4182: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4156: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4130: 4119: 4110: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4061: 4052: 4047:Mordechai Abir, 4045: 4039: 4034:Mordechai Abir, 4032: 4026: 4025: 4023: 4022: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3928: 3919: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3901: 3898: 3892: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3865: 3858: 3852: 3845: 3839: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3798: 3792: 3785: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3721: 3715: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3691: 3684: 3673: 3667: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3636: 3630: 3623: 3617: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3583: 3577: 3572: 3570: 3569: 3560:. Archived from 3553: 3547: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3492: 3486: 3482: 3480: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3405: 3396: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3273: 3271:10.1.1.1013.4523 3245: 3239: 3238: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3193: 3192: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3167: 3145:10.1038/35011048 3116: 3110: 3109: 3090:10.1038/35011048 3065: 3059: 3058: 3056: 3055: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3014: 3008: 2987: 2986: 2980: 2395: 2387: 2219: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2199: 2197: 2156: 2132: 2124: 2000:Kingdom of Italy 1927:Benito Mussolini 1888:Eritrean Railway 1831:Kingdom of Italy 1823:Oreste Baratieri 1819:Yohannes IV 1646:Imamate of Aussa 1445:from 4th century 1380:, described as " 1255:Stuart Munro-Hay 1190:Kingdom of Aksum 1165:Kingdom of Aksum 1159:Kingdom of Aksum 1153:Kingdom of Aksum 1075: 921: 920: 818: 811: 804: 788: 787: 786: 635: 626: 610: 600: 593: 586: 572: 571: 570: 552:2010s in Eritrea 543:2000s in Eritrea 537: 522:1990s in Eritrea 518: 517: 513:State of Eritrea 499: 487: 481:Eritrea Province 474: 462: 452: 451: 435: 423: 407: 391: 379: 369: 368: 352: 340: 338: 324: 318:Ethiopian Empire 312: 310: 296: 284: 282: 268: 266: 258:Kingdom of Dəmot 252: 250: 229: 228: 218: 208: 190: 183: 176: 165: 158: 154: 151: 145: 119: 118: 111: 104: 101: 95: 67: 66: 59: 48: 26: 25: 18: 6465: 6464: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6454: 6435: 6434: 6433: 6428: 6427: 6417: 6400: 6387: 6378: 6359: 6357: 6350: 6334: 6332: 6325: 6044: 6039: 6009: 6004: 5821: 5811: 5809: 5807: 5777: 5772: 5759: 5752: 5745: 5732: 5689: 5673:Public holidays 5621: 5600: 5562: 5475: 5418: 5409: 5381:border conflict 5356:Italian Eritrea 5341:Kingdom of Dʿmt 5327: 5318: 5276: 5232:Wayback Machine 5199: 5197:Further reading 5194: 5193: 5183: 5181: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5127: 5125: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5083: 5081: 5068: 5067: 5063: 5054: 5053: 5049: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5025: 5023: 5018: 5017: 5013: 5003: 5001: 4988: 4987: 4983: 4977:Wayback Machine 4969: 4965: 4958:The Independent 4952: 4951: 4947: 4940:Apollo Magazine 4934: 4933: 4929: 4916: 4915: 4911: 4902: 4900: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4872: 4871: 4867: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4824: 4822: 4806: 4805: 4801: 4792: 4790: 4771: 4770: 4766: 4756: 4754: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4728:Wayback Machine 4719: 4715: 4706: 4704: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4681: 4679: 4670: 4669: 4665: 4659:Wayback Machine 4649: 4642: 4632: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4620: 4598: 4597: 4584: 4571: 4570: 4566: 4556: 4554: 4545: 4544: 4540: 4536:, May 6, 1992). 4530:The World and I 4526:Wayback Machine 4517: 4513: 4503: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4463: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4449: 4442: 4429: 4428: 4417: 4407:Wayback Machine 4386: 4382: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4350: 4341: 4339: 4334: 4333: 4329: 4320: 4316: 4311:Wayback Machine 4302: 4298: 4289: 4287: 4278: 4277: 4273: 4268:Wayback Machine 4259: 4255: 4249: 4242:Wayback Machine 4232: 4228: 4222: 4211: 4209: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4128:"Eritrea" 4121: 4120: 4113: 4089: 4085: 4078: 4063: 4062: 4055: 4046: 4042: 4033: 4029: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4001: 4000: 3996: 3991: 3987: 3978: 3974: 3966:Daniel Kendie, 3965: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3930: 3929: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3859: 3855: 3846: 3842: 3836:Wayback Machine 3825: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3800: 3799: 3795: 3786: 3779: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3710:Paul B. Henze, 3709: 3705: 3695: 3693: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3661: 3657: 3647: 3645: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3624: 3620: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3567: 3565: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3541: 3537: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3493: 3483: 3473: 3466: 3464: 3462: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3417: 3415: 3407: 3406: 3399: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3370: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3335: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3219:10.2307/1357309 3204: 3203: 3199: 3190: 3188: 3181:"Out of Africa" 3179: 3178: 3174: 3165: 3163: 3131:(6782): 65–69. 3118: 3117: 3113: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3053: 3051: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3016: 3015: 3011: 3005:Perseus Project 2981: 2977: 2972: 2959:Italian Eritrea 2940: 2910: 2830: 2820: 2749:. Despite the 2732:Isaias Afewerki 2686:child mortality 2682:Life expectancy 2589: 2512: 2484:Isaias Afewerki 2366: 2360: 2258:victory in the 2240:war reparations 2228:Battle of Keren 2220: 2209: 2203: 2200: 2157: 2155: 2145: 2133: 2122: 2114:Italian Somalia 2106:Eritrean Ascari 1969: 1904:war reparations 1870:Menelek II 1827:Italian Eritrea 1745:coaling station 1730:Italian Eritrea 1722: 1717: 1711: 1705:Italian Eritrea 1703:Main articles: 1690: 1688:Italian Eritrea 1682:Mudaito dynasty 1642:Aussa Sultanate 1560: 1482: 1477: 1471:Aussa Sultanate 1461:Main articles: 1459: 1409:Kingdom of Kush 1374:Southern Arabia 1362:Kingdom of Kush 1314:Islamic history 1167: 1161: 1096:Kingdom of Dʿmt 1084: 1078: 1076:Kingdom of D'mt 1041: 1035: 1009:Excavations at 1007: 1002: 935: 934: 933: 928:to display the 922: 918: 894:and an archaic 882: 822: 784: 782: 775: 774: 770:National anthem 755: 754: 745: 744: 735: 734: 718: 717: 703: 702: 622: 604: 568: 566: 561: 560: 535: 515: 505: 504: 497: 485: 472: 460: 449: 441: 440: 433: 421: 405: 389: 385:Italian Eritrea 377: 366: 358: 357: 350: 334: 322: 306: 294: 278: 274:Aksumite Empire 262: 246: 226: 206: 199: 184: 173: 172: 171: 166: 155: 149: 146: 135: 120: 116: 105: 99: 96: 89: 68: 64: 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 6463: 6461: 6453: 6452: 6447: 6437: 6436: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6425: 6423:Western Sahara 6420: 6403: 6390: 6381: 6367:Canary Islands 6363: 6362: 6360: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6337: 6335: 6330: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6052: 6050: 6046: 6045: 6040: 6038: 6037: 6030: 6023: 6015: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5820:(1991–present) 5808: 5806: 5805: 5798: 5791: 5783: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5758: 5757: 5750: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5731: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5699: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5639: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5538: 5533: 5532: 5531: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5419: 5412: 5410: 5408: 5407: 5406: 5405: 5395: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5383: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5337: 5335: 5329: 5328: 5319: 5317: 5316: 5309: 5302: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5275: 5274:External links 5272: 5271: 5270: 5256: 5249: 5234: 5221: 5214: 5198: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5165: 5135: 5109: 5091: 5061: 5047: 5033: 5011: 4981: 4963: 4945: 4927: 4909: 4884: 4865: 4846: 4832: 4799: 4785:. 2013-01-22. 4764: 4738: 4713: 4688: 4663: 4661:. afro.who.int 4640: 4618: 4582: 4564: 4538: 4511: 4496: 4487: 4470:Monthly Review 4456: 4447: 4440: 4415: 4388:Vojtech Mastny 4380: 4359: 4348: 4327: 4314: 4296: 4271: 4253: 4226: 4192: 4177:, ed. (1911). 4175:Chisholm, Hugh 4166: 4151:, ed. (1911). 4149:Chisholm, Hugh 4140: 4125:, ed. (1911). 4123:Chisholm, Hugh 4111: 4083: 4076: 4053: 4040: 4027: 4014: 3994: 3985: 3972: 3959: 3950: 3941: 3920: 3911: 3902: 3893: 3884: 3875: 3866: 3860:Kobishchanov, 3853: 3840: 3819: 3793: 3777: 3763: 3743: 3737:978-1598846546 3736: 3716: 3703: 3668: 3655: 3631: 3618: 3605: 3598: 3578: 3548: 3535: 3521: 3501: 3461:978-1135434168 3460: 3440: 3425: 3397: 3383: 3363: 3328: 3322:978-0759104662 3321: 3301: 3240: 3213:(280): 31–65. 3197: 3172: 3111: 3076:(6782): 65–9. 3060: 3035: 3028: 3009: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2939: 2936: 2908: 2907: 2900: 2899:for mediation. 2893: 2881: 2878: 2859: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2819: 2816: 2736:Eleven Letters 2597:Isaias Afwerki 2588: 2585: 2511: 2508: 2411:Haile Selassie 2397:Mahber showate 2362:Main article: 2359: 2356: 2315:United Nations 2303:Haile Selassie 2270:and backed by 2268:Maxim Litvinov 2222: 2221: 2136: 2134: 2127: 2121: 2118: 2081:The following 2057:Italian empire 2053:Italian Asmara 2029:neo-Romanesque 1984:Italian Asmara 1968: 1965: 1937:Italian Empire 1749:shipping lanes 1721: 1718: 1689: 1686: 1662:Adal Sultanate 1627:Ottoman Empire 1559: 1556: 1544:Dahlak islands 1481: 1478: 1458: 1455: 1326:Queen of Sheba 1220:proposed that 1211:, Persia, and 1163:Main article: 1160: 1157: 1139:schemes, used 1080:Main article: 1077: 1074: 1037:Main article: 1034: 1031: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 923: 916: 915: 914: 881: 878: 824: 823: 821: 820: 813: 806: 798: 795: 794: 793: 792: 777: 776: 773: 772: 767: 762: 756: 752: 751: 750: 747: 746: 743: 742: 736: 732: 731: 730: 727: 726: 720: 719: 716: 715: 710: 704: 698: 697: 696: 693: 692: 686: 685: 679: 678: 672: 671: 665: 664: 658: 657: 651: 650: 644: 643: 637: 636: 628: 627: 619: 618: 606: 605: 603: 602: 595: 588: 580: 577: 576: 563: 562: 557: 556: 554: 548: 547: 545: 539: 538: 533: 527: 526: 524: 516: 511: 510: 507: 506: 501: 500: 495: 489: 488: 483: 476: 475: 470: 464: 463: 458: 450: 447: 446: 443: 442: 437: 436: 431: 425: 424: 419: 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5681: 5680: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5559: 5556: 5554: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5482: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5421: 5416: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5310: 5308: 5303: 5301: 5296: 5295: 5292: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5268:0-00-715095-4 5265: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5250: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5233: 5229: 5226: 5222: 5219: 5215: 5213: 5212:1-56902-284-4 5209: 5205: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5179: 5175: 5169: 5166: 5154:on 2016-08-22 5153: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5095: 5092: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5065: 5062: 5057: 5051: 5048: 5043: 5037: 5034: 5021: 5015: 5012: 5000:on 2008-06-15 4999: 4995: 4991: 4985: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4971: 4967: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4923: 4919: 4913: 4910: 4899:on 2020-03-04 4898: 4894: 4888: 4885: 4880: 4879:Quartz Africa 4876: 4869: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4847: 4842: 4836: 4833: 4820: 4816: 4815: 4814:Sudan Tribune 4810: 4803: 4800: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4779: 4774: 4768: 4765: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4733:The Economist 4729: 4725: 4722: 4717: 4714: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4689: 4677: 4673: 4667: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4653: 4647: 4645: 4641: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4565: 4553:on 3 May 2021 4552: 4548: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4520: 4515: 4512: 4507: 4500: 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3075: 3071: 3064: 3061: 3050:on 1999-10-13 3049: 3045: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3029:0-07-913665-6 3025: 3021: 3020: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3002: 3001: 2996: 2995:Scott, Robert 2992: 2988: 2979: 2976: 2969: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2905: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2869:2008 April — 2868: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2790:Eritrean Army 2787: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2759:United States 2756: 2752: 2748: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2701: 2693: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2633: 2628: 2625:, led to the 2624: 2619: 2617: 2608: 2604: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2551: 2546: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2527:United States 2521: 2516: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2383: 2379: 2370: 2365: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2339: 2336: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2260:Italian polls 2257: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2232:Allied forces 2229: 2218: 2215: 2207: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2186: 2182: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2165: – 2164: 2160: 2159:Find sources: 2153: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2137:This article 2135: 2131: 2126: 2125: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2037: 2033: 2030: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2010:Cinema Impero 2008: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1978: 1973: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1882: 1877: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1821:, Gen. 1820: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1760:Habesh Eyalet 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1731: 1726: 1720:Establishment 1719: 1716: 1710: 1706: 1698: 1694: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1650:Muhammed Jasa 1647: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1572:Ma'ikele Bahr 1569: 1565: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:Zagwe Kingdom 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1490: 1486: 1479: 1476: 1475:Habesh Eyalet 1472: 1468: 1464: 1463:Zagwe Dynasty 1456: 1454: 1452: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 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