74:
2392:). Under Arab rule there were different categories of Jizya payers, but their common denominator was the payment of the Jizya as a mark of subjection to Muslim rule in exchange for protection against foreign and internal aggression. The conquered population could avoid this subservient status simply by converting to Islam. Whether by honest religious conviction or societal compulsion large numbers of native Sicilians converted to Islam. However, even after 100 years of Islamic rule, numerous Greek speaking Christian communities prospered, especially in north-eastern Sicily, as dhimmi. This was largely a result of the Jizya system which allowed subservient co-existence. This co-existence with the conquered population fell apart after the reconquest of Sicily, particularly following the death of King
676:
30:
2723:, in the Apulia region of southern Italy, was captured by a Muslim army in 847, then remained under Muslim control for the next 25 years. It became the capital of a small independent Islamic state with an emir and a mosque of its own. The first ruler of Bari was Khalfun, who had probably come from Sicily. After his death in 852, he was succeeded by Mufarraq ibn Sallam, who strengthened the Muslim conquest and enlarged its boundaries. He also asked for official recognition from Baghdad Caliph
1955:(the modern Enna, where Euphemius died), retreating back to Mazara. In 830, they received a strong reinforcement of 30,000 African and Spanish troops. The Spanish Muslims defeated the Byzantine commander Theodotus in July and August of that year, but a plague once again forced them to return to Mazara and then to Africa. The African Berber units sent to besiege Palermo captured it in September 831 after a year-long siege. Palermo, renamed al-Madinah, became the Muslim capital of Sicily.
2345:
7571:
2708:
2464:. Many oppressive measures were introduced by Frederick to please the popes who were afraid of Muslims so close to the papal state. This resulted in a rebellion by Sicilian Muslims, which in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals which marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. Under Frederick's reign, Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the last
2108:; the city fell on May 21, 878. The Byzantines now maintained control over a short stretch of coast around Taormina, while the Muslim fleet attacked Greece and Malta. The latter fleet was, however, destroyed in a naval battle in 880. For a while, it seemed that the Byzantines could regain Sicily, but new land victories for the Muslims re-established their control. A revolt in Palermo against Governor
2076:, but the army and the fleet carrying it were defeated by Abbas. Byzantine reinforcements led many of the cities subjugated by the Muslims to revolt, and Abbas devoted the years 860–861 to reduce them. Abbas died in 861, replaced by his uncle Ahmed ibn Yaqub and, from February 862, by Abdallah, son of Abbas; the latter was in turn replaced by the Aghlabids with Khafagia ibn Sofian, who captured
888:
2229:
7560:
3428:
609:
3442:
2817:, defeating a Venetian fleet that had arrived there to face them. These victories strengthened the base of Taranto, at least in this time not an independent state, much less an "Emirate", but a foothold from which to start raids in the Adriatic and in the surrounding cities, initially at the service of the rebel
3182:
The
Ottoman ambitions in Italy were ended. Had Otranto surrendered to the Turks, the history of Italy might have been very different. But the heroism of the people of Otranto was more than a strategically decisive stand. What made the sacrifice of Otranto so remarkable was the willingness to die for
2430:
in 1060. The island was split between three Arab emirs, and the
Sicilian population rose up against the ruling Muslims. One year later, Messina fell, and in 1072, Palermo was taken by the Normans. The loss of the cities, each with a splendid harbor, dealt a severe blow to Muslim power on the island.
2171:
The Arabs initiated land reforms that increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a mere dent in the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. With about 300,000 inhabitants, Palermo in the 10th century was the most populous city in Italy.
3274:
and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. In 805, the imperial patrician of Sicily
Constantine signed a ten-year truce with Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, emir of Ifriqiya, but this was not an impediment to the other pirates from North Africa and Muslim Spain to attack repeatedly Sardinia
2138:
As
Ibrahim was forced to abdicate in Tunis, he decided to lead in person the operations in southern Italy. Taormina, the last main Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, fell on August 1, 902. Messina and other cities opened their gates to avoid a similar massacre. Ibrahim's army also marched on southern
2672:
known as
Perabana. Perabana, who was a mixed Jewish and Moorish ancestry, had adopted his current name while serving with the Ottoman navy. They had been captured at Lepanto, and while imprisoned he openly professed his Islamic views and called Catholic sacraments "nonsense"; his firmness led the
3101:
began to attack Gaeta's territory, and in retaliation against the pope
Docibilis unleashed a group of Arabs from Agropoli near Salerno on the area around Fondi. The pope was "filled with shame" and restored Traetto to Docibilis. Their agreement seems to have sparked off a Saracen attack on Gaeta
3351:
was able to prevent them from effectively doing so in 1052. Although the Arab attacks failed to achieve the island's conquest, they caused nonetheless a significant weakening of
Sardinia's actual independence, leading to a struggle of the Italian powers for political influence over the island's
2151:
At this point (902), Sicily was almost entirely under the control of the
Aghlabids with the exception of some minor strongholds in the rugged interior. The population had been somewhat increased by Muslim migrants from Iberia, North Africa, and the Middle East. The emir in Palermo nominated the
1910:
for a sexual indiscretion. After a short-lived conquest of
Syracuse, he was proclaimed emperor but was compelled by loyal forces to flee to the court of Ziyadat Allah in Africa. The latter agreed to conquer Sicily, with the promise to leave it to Euphemius in exchange for a yearly tribute. He
2352:
With the support of the
Fatimids, al-Akhal defeated two Byzantine expeditions in 1026 and 1031. His attempt to raise a heavy tax to pay his mercenaries caused a civil war. Al-Akhal asked the Byzantines for support while his brother abu-Hafs, leader of the rebels, received troops from the
2904:
were not yet prepared, however, to ally against the new Saracen threat. Amalfi and Gaeta regularly teamed up with the Saracens and Naples was hardly better, all much to the chagrin of the Papacy. In fact, it was Naples that first brought Saracen troops to the south Italian mainland when
2418:
which saved the situation in the first clash against the Muslims from Messina. After another decisive victory in the summer of 1040, Maniaces halted his march to lay siege to Syracuse. Despite his conquest of the latter, Maniaces was removed from his position, and the subsequent Muslim
2203:. His failed siege of Taormina, which had been rebuilt by the Christians, weakened his influence. By 917, a Fatimid fleet, brought by pleas from a dissatisfied Sicilian faction, placed Palermo under siege. After a six-month siege, Ibn Qurhub and his son were captured and executed.
2758:
but bypassing major population centres like Bari or Taranto. A few towns were freed of Muslim control and the various Muslim bands encountered were universally defeated. Encouraged by these successes, Louis attacked Bari with a ground force of Franks and Lombards and aided by a
2468:
of Sicily. The historians have calculated that the number of expelled Muslims from Sicily was around 60,000, which means almost all of the Muslim population of the island. Most went to North Africa, while others were initially deported to a series of cities on mainland Italy:
2772:
The Emirate of Taranto is the name given to an approximate Muslim settlement built starting from 840 by warriors from the recently conquered Sicily (827) who would have been under the command of a certain Saba, not better identified but remembered by Venetian chronicle of
2493:. From 1224 to 1239 some of these Muslims tried to return in Sicily, but in 1239 Frederick decided to deport all of them only in Lucera and the other cities were abandoned. The annihilation of Islam in Sicily was completed by the late 1240s when the final deportations to
2451:
who also wrote poetry regarding their exile. Nevertheless, some Muslims remained in the island, but they lived confined in an inner territory of western Sicily, in the area ranging from Palermo to Agrigento. The existence of Muslims was constant issue during
2176:, a Baghdad merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb called the Kasr (the citadel) was (and remains) the center of Palermo, and the great Friday mosque stood on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (
2131:, in 900. The Sicilians were defeated at Trapani (August 22) and outside Palermo (September 8), the latter city resisting for another ten days. Abu l-Abbas moved against the remaining Byzantine strongholds and was also able to capture
3114:
managed to organise the community's escape and salvaged its library and archives. In 905, the monastery was again attacked and destroyed by "Saracens". Other areas of historical Saracen presence in central and southern Italy include,
2570:
arrived on the island. The first Muslim executed during this period was a renegade (Christian) convert who was burned in 1506. This renegade, however, would be the only person executed by the inquisition in Sicily during the rule of
2336:
was instead a cruel and violent lord who expelled the Berbers from the island after an unsuccessful revolt against him. In 1019, another uprising in Palermo was successful, and Ja'far was exiled to Africa and replaced by his brother
2863:
and two armies led by Procopius and Leo were set up. The first result obtained by these was the occupation of Taranto in 880, and the enslavement of its Arab-Berber population, while the town was occupied by a Greek garrison.
3150:
was successful, and all Saracens were captured and executed, ending any presence of Arabs in Lazio or Campania permanently. In 999 a last Saracen attempt of conquest of Salerno was thwarted by an alliance of Lombards, led by
3014:
by land. The Saracens were able to embark, but a storm destroyed many ships, bringing on the beaches many corpses adorned with jewels which could be recovered. After that, the Lombard army headed south, reaching the Arabs at
2123:, where the imperial army was defeated in the summer of 888. However, the first inner revolt was followed by another in 890, mostly spurred by the hostility between Arabs and Berbers. In 892 an emir was sent from Ifriqiya by
2214:, to besiege Agrigento twice until it fell on November 20, 940. The revolt was totally suppressed in 941 with many of the prisoners sold as slaves and Governor Khalil boasting to have killed 600,000 people in his campaigns.
3177:
In 1480, an Ottoman Turkish fleet invaded Otranto, landing nearby the city and capturing it along with its fort. The Otranto population (remaining in the occupied city) was massacred after refusing to convert to Islam.
1039:
also fell to the Normans, and the conquest was complete. Malta fell later that year, though the Arab administration was kept in place, marking the final chapter of this period. The conquests of the Normans established
1198:. A further agreement between the new patrician Gregorius and the emir established the freedom of commerce between southern Italy and Ifriqiya. After a further attack in 819 by Mohammed ibn-Adballad, cousin of Amir
73:
2763:
fleet. In February 871 the citadel fell and Sawdan was captured and taken to Benevento in chains. In 1002 a last attempt of Saracen conquest was stopped, when a Venetian fleet defeated Muslims besieging Bari.
3319:, Salusius, was in fact killed in the fighting and the Sardinian organised resistance broke down. However, over the course of those very years some joint expeditions from the Italian maritime republics of
675:
2731:(i.e., prefect ruling over a province of the Abbasid empire). The third, and last, emir of Bari was Sawdan, who came to power around 857 after the murder of Mufarraq. He invaded the lands of the Lombard
2848:, the liberation of Sawdān, the terrible emir of Bari, prisoner for 4–5 years in Benevento and that he would then take refuge again in Taranto, perhaps having already been its commander before ʿUthmān.
1231:
2587:
in Sicily and accounted for a significant portion of Sicily's population. Such population was no longer present in Sicily by the early 17th century when, to escape the Spanish inquisition of the
2270:
In 956, the Byzantines reconquered Reggio and invaded Sicily; a truce was signed in 960. Two years later a revolt in Taormina was bloodily suppressed, but the resistance of the Christians in the
2321:
sacked the Arab held Reggio Calabria and massacred all the Saracens to the great jubilation of the local population. In 1006 a new Saracen fleet was defeated near Reggio Calabria by the Pisans.
4894:
3665:
2368:
The local population conquered by the Muslims were Greek speaking Byzantine Christians, but there were also a significant number of Jews. These conquered people were afforded a limited
2164:, composed of the most eminent members of the local society, which was entrusted with the care of the public works and of the social order. The conquered Sicilian population lived as
2599:, however, it is doubtful that the order was carried out in practice. The main reason that some former Muslims were able to remain in Sicily was that they were openly supported by
2435:
in the southern tip of Sicily and the island of Malta, the last Arab strongholds, fell to the Christians. By the 11th century, Muslim power in the Mediterranean had begun to wane.
3034:
Three years later, the same coalition of maritime powers, led by Caesar of Naples and supported by the Papal States, defeated another Arabic fleet near the recently refortified
3495:
In the year 827, Mazara was occupied by the Arabs, who made the city an important commercial harbour. That period was probably the most prosperous in the history of Mazara.
2180:) contained the sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison. Ibn Hawqal reckoned there were 7,000 individual butchers trading in 150 shops.
2747:
1224:
3102:
itself, in which many Gaetans were killed or captured. Eventually peace was restored and the Saracens made a permanent settlement on the mouth of the Garigliano river.
6630:
3146:
organised a vast alliance of southern powers, including Gaeta and Naples, the Lombard princes and the Byzantines; 'though, the Amalfitans stood aloof. The subsequent
407:
2789:
in 838), already intervened in the spring of 841, probably on behalf of the Byzantines, moving against Taranto with a fleet of sixty ships, but were defeated in the
2542:
soldiers and farmers, following an initial settlement of 140 Provençal families in 1273. A remnant of the descendants of these Provençal colonists, still speaking a
2872:
Throughout the ninth century, Arab ships dominated the Tyrrhenian Sea. Their pirates prowled the Italian coast launching hit and run attacks against the cities of
5037:
5012:
4446:
3885:
3010:, attacked the Arabs, hindered by booty and prisoners, in front of the city walls, pursuing a part of them until Centumcellae, while another group tried to reach
3258:
from the coastal towns. Details about the island's political situation in the following centuries are scarce. Because of the Saracen attacks in the 9th century,
6662:
3378:
in the early 13th century, is said to have been able to speak Arabic (as well as Latin, Sicilian, German, French, and Greek) and had several Muslim ministers.
431:
3586:
Kenneth M. Setton, "The Byzantine Background to the Italian Renaissance" in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 100:1 (Feb. 24, 1956), pp. 1–76.
3547:
Krueger, Hilmar C. (1969). "Conflict in the Mediterranean before the First Crusade: B. The Italian Cities and the Arabs before 1095". In Baldwin, M. W. (ed.).
1217:
7293:
6645:
419:
4977:
1143:, who had participated in the 728 attack, successfully captured Syracuse. Though ready to conquer the whole island, the expedition was forced to return to
3194:, despite frequent Italian quarreling at the time. The Neapolitan force met with the Turks in 1481, thoroughly annihilating them and recapturing Otranto.
2777:. What was initially an entrenched camp of Muslim warriors from Sicily was consolidated in 846, to resist as a settlement in Saracen hands until 880. The
7257:
6187:
5200:
916:
637:
580:
3312:
3245:
2739:
to pay a tribute. In 864, he obtained the official investiture requested by Mufarrag. The town was embellished with a mosque, palaces and public works.
7391:
5824:
7298:
2290:
4891:
2210:
revolted again but after two resounding successes were decisively beaten at the gates of Palermo. An army was then sent by the new Fatimid caliph,
1174:
from 806 to 821. In 812, Ibrahim's son, Abdallah I, sent an invasion force to conquer Sicily. His ships were first harassed by the intervention of
6863:
6032:
2348:
Southern Italy in 1084, showing the remains of the Kalbid emirate, then fought over by multiple claimants, on the eve of the final Norman conquest
2286:, and the city soon fell to the Muslims, completing the Islamic conquest of Sicily. Manuel, along with 10,000 of his men, was killed in the fray.
4143:
3662:
3365:
2619:
and live accordingly.” On many occasions, the Duke of Osuna openly stressed the heroism of the Moors who had freed eight Christian prisoners in
6075:
3474:
2595:, a few Moriscos migrated to Sicily. During this time there were several attempts to rid Sicily of its formerly Muslim population. Unlike the
2096:
In the summer of 868, the Byzantines were defeated for the first time near Syracuse. Hostilities resumed in the early summer of 877 by the new
861:
1488:
1473:
7620:
7541:
6704:
5094:
4868:
4254:
4002:
3942:
3742:
2774:
3932:
7645:
7338:
6613:
6421:
1530:
1515:
252:
237:
6530:
6667:
1921:. The Muslim force numbered 10,000 infantry, 700 cavalry, and 100 ships, reinforced by the fleet of Euphemius and, after the landing at
7386:
6971:
6598:
6192:
2264:
2127:
to Palermo but was ousted again a few months later. The prince did not relent and sent another powerful army to Sicily under his son,
1847:
585:
4295:"Moriscos in Sicily in the Years of the Expulsion (1609–1614), Journal of Levantine Studies, Vol. 6, Summer/Winter 2016, pp. 333-355"
2263:. A second Calabrian campaign in 952 resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine army; Gerace was again besieged, but in the end Emperor
6618:
6593:
6436:
5885:
5124:
5073:
5054:
4950:
4812:
4762:
4648:
4618:
4571:
4494:
4469:
4412:
4387:
4186:
4159:
4107:
4080:
3857:
3609:
3571:
2427:
2405:
1024:
295:
7640:
1357:
3475:"Assessment of the status, development and diversification of fisheries-dependent communities: Mazara del Vallo Case study report"
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550:
6567:
3370:
Arabic art and science continued to be influential in urban Sicily during the two centuries following the Christian reconquest.
2105:
1933:
1902:
The Arab conquest of Sicily and parts of southern Italy lasted 75 years. According to some sources, the conquest was spurred by
1751:
1679:
1613:
1578:
7615:
7610:
7114:
7026:
6873:
6868:
6699:
5581:
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they then destroyed other Venetian ships coming from Sicily. The following year the Saracens of Taranto pushed again as far as
2068:, Cefalù, and, most important of all, Castrogiovanni, in winter 859. Many of the captives from Castrogiovanni were sent to the
452:
3339:, which began eighty years later. In 1022, some new invasion attempts were made by the Saracens, but a joint alliance between
3059:
2972:. No contemporary account hints at any Saracen attempt to penetrate the city, but it is possible that the Romans defended the
2964:
roads, as the Roman militia hastily retreated to the safety of the Roman walls. At the same time, other Arab forces landed at
2515:(Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic). Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called
2199:
dynasty. Three years later, the Fatimid governor was ousted from Palermo when the island declared its independence under Emir
1827:
787:
7680:
7675:
7605:
7600:
7595:
7062:
6650:
6127:
5869:
5391:
5193:
4688:
3279:
2301:, capturing some strongholds. As the Byzantines were busy against the Fatimids in Syria and with the partial conquest of the
1428:
1312:
1117:
909:
630:
520:
175:
1977:. The war dragged on for several years with minor Ahglabid victories, while the Byzantines resisted in their strongholds of
1865:
1721:
425:
4097:
2255:
independent from the African government. In 950, Hassan waged war against the Byzantines in southern Italy, reaching up to
2072:, as a representation of Abbas ibn Fadhl's victory. In response, the Byzantine emperor sent a large force in 859–860 under
29:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7313:
7144:
7031:
6562:
6557:
5469:
5235:
4544:
3315:, records that Mujāhid had managed to take military control of the Sardinian coastal plain; the local Sardinian ruler and
2596:
2025:
1822:
1731:
1280:
1140:
826:
367:
362:
346:
6709:
1761:
7650:
7072:
7011:
6996:
6848:
6162:
5890:
5348:
4846:
3191:
2543:
2457:
2211:
1263:
1129:
1068:, count of Altamura, seized Lucera and exiled its population, bringing an end to the medieval Muslim presence in Italy.
555:
488:
3841:
1951:
when a plague killed many of their troops and Asad himself. They later returned to the offensive but failed to conquer
1012:
forces also competing for control. Arabs were sometimes allied with various Christian factions against other factions.
7655:
7416:
7134:
6980:
6762:
6672:
6572:
6458:
6426:
6111:
5225:
5150:
Taylor, Julie Anne (April 2007). "Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century".
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3172:
2506:
2306:
1628:
1199:
1065:
1053:
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601:
442:
2977:
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which had fallen into the possession of the Saracens earlier that year. In response, a large Saracen force landed at
1964:
1104:
A second Arab expedition to Sicily occurred in 669. This time, a strong, ravaging force consisting of 200 ships from
2293:(964–982) launched a series of attacks against Calabria in the 970s, while the fleet under his brother attacked the
7630:
7471:
7099:
6919:
6826:
6799:
6734:
6608:
6142:
6068:
5553:
5116:
3375:
1746:
1583:
1287:
782:
535:
494:
2101:
7501:
7267:
7190:
7154:
6172:
6137:
6132:
5220:
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tried again to conquer Otranto and the Fortress of Castro, but the Turks were eventually repulsed from the city.
2248:
1892:
1567:
1406:
1401:
1372:
902:
821:
655:
623:
565:
530:
525:
53:
2443:
After the Norman conquest, many Muslims decided to leave Sicily and to go into exile like the famous poets like
2282:, who captured Messina in October 964. The Byzantine forces, however, were swiftly routed in Rometta and at the
7625:
7516:
7506:
7486:
7456:
7411:
7109:
6951:
6883:
6853:
6833:
6714:
6390:
6355:
6152:
5925:
5514:
5230:
3381:
The heritage of the Arabic language can still be found in numerous terms adapted from it and still used in the
3147:
2851:
The end of the Islamic presence in the Apulian city occurred in 880, by the Byzantine forces and the commander
1944:
1925:, by knights. The first battle against Byzantine troops occurred on July 15, 827, near Mazara, resulting in an
1450:
1435:
1389:
1327:
1317:
1005:
974:
791:
545:
280:
138:
3808:
3190:
called for a crusade, and a massive force was built up by Ferdinand I of Naples, among them notably troops of
2917:, in 836. Sicard immediately responded with his own Saracen mercenaries and their usage soon became the norm.
2143:. Ibrahim died of dysentery on October 24. His grandson stopped the military campaign and returned to Sicily.
1241:
7685:
7635:
7396:
7159:
7016:
6986:
6961:
6878:
6838:
6777:
6676:
6441:
6411:
5353:
3213:
3142:
became a perennial thorn in the side for the Papacy and many expeditions sought to get rid of them. In 915,
3078:
2822:
2534:. After the expulsions of Muslims in Lucera, Charles II replaced Lucera's Saracens with Christians, chiefly
2520:
2444:
2128:
1756:
1706:
1659:
1643:
1638:
1603:
1352:
1322:
1155:
438:
310:
227:
2519:. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of the
2053:
1973:
of Sicily. He defeated the Byzantines in early 834, and in the following year his troops reached as far as
7094:
7082:
6858:
6843:
6535:
6177:
5736:
5729:
5266:
5256:
3152:
3085:, capturing 18 enemy vessels and freeing 600 Christian slaves. In 880 or 881, John rescinded his grant of
2969:
2623:. They were presented in such a positive light that Osuna did not hesitate to take them into his service.
2572:
2302:
2124:
2073:
2065:
1842:
1787:
1716:
1545:
1478:
1292:
570:
4043:
2333:
2325:
2109:
1986:
7401:
7328:
7308:
7222:
7171:
6929:
6909:
6719:
6313:
6281:
6167:
6147:
6061:
6006:
5859:
5536:
4518:
Skinner, see first chapter. See also the vast literature on the coming of the Normans to southern Italy.
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1618:
1608:
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1550:
1493:
1367:
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560:
540:
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99:
4829:
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and were later destroyed in great number by a tempest. However, they managed to conquer the island of
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6486:
6370:
6238:
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5935:
3202:
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prudently retreated to Sicily without exploiting the victory. In 1005, a Christian fleet coming from
2275:
2057:
1817:
1807:
1736:
1648:
1520:
1396:
1377:
1347:
1133:
1098:
1045:
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378:
169:
93:
41:
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2314:
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7536:
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6545:
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4920:
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2818:
2674:
2567:
2369:
2279:
2013:
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1416:
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692:
340:
328:
305:
207:
2611:
for allowing the Moriscos to stay in Sicily, exempting them from enslavement or from expulsion to
969:(occupied from 847 until 871), were established on the mainland peninsula, especially in mainland
957:
lasted from 831 until 1061, and controlled the whole island by 902. Though Sicily was the primary
17:
7511:
7496:
7476:
7333:
7274:
7227:
7149:
7006:
6976:
6966:
6941:
6914:
6821:
6814:
6750:
6506:
6501:
6218:
5961:
5643:
5633:
5571:
5325:
5305:
5295:
5167:
4783:
4440:
4196:
4117:
3879:
3529:
3307:
3094:
2845:
2778:
2732:
2678:
2627:
2362:
2260:
2017:
1990:
1932:
Asad subsequently conquered the southern shore of the island and laid siege to Syracuse. After a
1903:
1696:
1555:
1498:
1302:
1086:
1032:
811:
301:
241:
1052:
rule and even remained significant during Islamic period. In 1245, Muslims were deported to the
4754:
4747:
2707:
2036:
also fell, and the Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat near Butera, losing about 10,000 men.
7461:
7451:
7323:
7237:
7202:
7129:
7119:
6897:
6767:
6681:
6511:
6491:
6465:
6453:
6248:
6243:
6228:
6223:
6208:
6042:
6037:
5996:
5981:
5956:
5940:
5930:
5910:
5864:
5854:
5849:
5839:
5719:
5489:
5441:
5431:
5426:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5320:
5310:
5300:
5120:
5090:
5069:
5050:
5031:
5006:
4946:
4864:
4808:
4758:
4684:
4644:
4614:
4567:
4490:
4465:
4408:
4383:
4250:
4182:
4103:
4076:
4018:
3998:
3938:
3853:
3738:
3605:
3567:
3382:
3344:
3324:
3316:
3283:
3073:, who encouraged a vigorous policy against the Muslim pirates and raiders, led an alliance of
3063:
2933:
2840:
The last presumed emir of Taranto, a certain ʿUthmān, allegedly negotiated in 875 or 876 with
2743:
2645:
2592:
2551:
2535:
2526:. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery, with many finding asylum in
2338:
2223:
2189:
1918:
1455:
1440:
1094:
1041:
1020:
954:
856:
772:
752:
446:
256:
88:
2206:
The island was governed by a Fatimid emir for the following 20 years. In 937, the Berbers of
7531:
7353:
7303:
7284:
7279:
7232:
7139:
7077:
7057:
7045:
7001:
6804:
6784:
6772:
6635:
6603:
6516:
6233:
6096:
6088:
6011:
5920:
5834:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5773:
5714:
5673:
5586:
5484:
5446:
5401:
5315:
5209:
5159:
4971:
3521:
3340:
3320:
3198:
3139:
3124:
3020:
3007:
2782:
2760:
2712:
2318:
2271:
2244:
1922:
1870:
1837:
1812:
1741:
1726:
1711:
1701:
1664:
1654:
1633:
1593:
1588:
1525:
1510:
1411:
1307:
1273:
1109:
1082:
997:
942:
844:
831:
804:
747:
717:
712:
664:
62:
2344:
1166:, but this did not prevent Arab fleets from other areas of Africa and Spain from attacking
7441:
7431:
7426:
7421:
7318:
7242:
7104:
6623:
6521:
6406:
6306:
6213:
5905:
5900:
5895:
5829:
5808:
5688:
5663:
5648:
5596:
5576:
5548:
5509:
5494:
5411:
4938:
4898:
4315:
4208:
4163:
4129:
3669:
3221:
3208:
Ottoman incursions on the south and west coasts of Italy continued into the 17th century.
3051:
2929:
2921:
2897:
2893:
2702:
2649:
2563:
2423:
2411:
2310:
2132:
2029:
1792:
1674:
1540:
1535:
1445:
1362:
1297:
1268:
1121:
737:
685:
482:
285:
4156:
2060:. He started a campaign of ravages against the lands still in Byzantine hands, capturing
4996:
7574:
7521:
7491:
7436:
7343:
7217:
7164:
7124:
6794:
6789:
6640:
6540:
6496:
6448:
6350:
6318:
6276:
6253:
6016:
5976:
5915:
5788:
5755:
5724:
5618:
5613:
5591:
5531:
5504:
5436:
5373:
5109:
5021:
4068:
3728:
3598:
3455:
3291:
3187:
3111:
3107:
3070:
2973:
2925:
2889:
2852:
2490:
2486:
2294:
2061:
1774:
1624:
1483:
1466:
1342:
1332:
1195:
1061:
970:
851:
765:
702:
413:
217:
132:
1120:(completed around 700), attacks from Arab fleets repeated in 703 (during the reign of
7589:
7446:
7087:
6657:
6345:
6323:
6182:
5844:
5683:
5601:
5524:
5519:
5474:
5451:
5421:
5396:
5330:
5171:
4966:
4536:
4222:
2961:
2957:
2724:
2636:
2612:
2600:
2415:
2069:
2041:
2006:
1994:
1782:
1598:
1148:
707:
575:
126:
105:
4749:
The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance
3716:
1154:
In 805, the imperial patrician of Sicily, Constantine, signed a ten-year truce with
7564:
7371:
7176:
6946:
6550:
6416:
6365:
6340:
5778:
5751:
5678:
5653:
5276:
4704:
3447:
3433:
3404:
3271:
3082:
3047:
3043:
3035:
2965:
2949:
2814:
2653:
2531:
2453:
1941:
994:
892:
613:
334:
163:
119:
2952:
in 846, annihilating the local Christian garrison. The Arabs struck following the
2251:
as emir of the island. As his position soon became hereditary, his emirate became
5084:
4244:
3992:
3732:
3331:: these Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia were approved and supported by the
2309:
decided to intervene. The allied German-Lombard army was defeated in 982 at the
7466:
7406:
7376:
6729:
6360:
5991:
5783:
5416:
5271:
3564:
History Through the Opera Glass: From the Rise of Caesar to the Fall of Napoleon
3328:
3305:
and attempted to establish political control over it. The twelfth-century Pisan
3233:
3143:
3116:
2830:
2583:
In the early years of Spanish rule, many Muslims or former Muslims were held as
2077:
1421:
730:
475:
388:
143:
5144:
Family Power in Southern Italy: The Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850–1139
4271:
3002:) attempted to resist, but were defeated. In the meantime, an army coming from
1936:
and an attempted mutiny, his troops were able to defeat a large army sent from
965:, some temporary footholds, the most substantial of which was the port city of
6724:
6333:
5658:
5608:
5340:
5163:
3423:
3298:
3255:
3039:
2806:
2790:
2616:
2448:
2200:
2196:
2173:
1907:
1105:
468:
3899:
3850:
Religion, ritual and mythology : aspects of identity formation in Europe
3794:
The Fatimid Navy, Byzantium and the Mediterranean Sea, 909–1036 CE/297–427 AH
5638:
5628:
5406:
5287:
4246:
Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily
3160:
3120:
2888:. During this period, as the cities took command of their own defences, the
2474:
2207:
1183:
1049:
155:
149:
2278:
to send an army of 40,000 Armenians, Thracians, and Slavs under his nephew
2228:
1982:
1202:, no subsequent Arab attacks on Sicily are mentioned by sources until 827.
3038:. The Saracen survivors were made prisoners, enslaved and sent to work in
3019:, where another battle was engaged. On that occasion, only the arrival of
2634:
by the inquisition. Four of these Muslims were executed at a special 1572
2267:
was forced to accept having the Calabrian cities pay a tribute to Sicily.
7381:
7366:
7361:
7262:
6296:
6291:
5966:
5698:
5499:
5479:
5261:
5251:
3386:
3336:
3327:
managed to repulse the invaders and thus preserved Sardinia as a part of
3302:
3267:
3263:
3251:
3209:
3131:
3055:
2995:
2991:
2901:
2786:
2755:
2688:, including two African slaves who "relapsed 'pertinaciously' to Islam."
2657:
2539:
2482:
2478:
2419:
counter-offensive reconquered all the cities captured by the Byzantines.
2358:
2120:
1998:
1974:
1926:
1855:
1462:
1167:
1163:
1125:
986:
351:
4779:
The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy: Legend and History.
2160:), along with the other functionaries. Each city had a council called a
6396:
6328:
5702:
5543:
5461:
5383:
4778:
3639:
The Stones of Naples: Church Building in the Angevin Kingdom, 1266–1343
3533:
3259:
3156:
3086:
3003:
2982:
2885:
2856:
2826:
2810:
2682:
2669:
2661:
2641:
2620:
2604:
2588:
2584:
2527:
2465:
2376:, protected peoples, but were subject to some legal restrictions. The
2193:
2140:
2116:
2037:
2021:
2002:
1969:
1937:
1171:
1144:
1028:
1016:
989:. The Arab raids were part of a larger struggle for power in Italy and
197:
4981:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 69.
4157:
Islamization of Shqeptaret: The clas of Religions in Medieval Albania.
1209:
1139:
The first true conquest expedition was launched in 740. In that year,
7021:
5563:
3332:
3225:
3217:
3011:
2999:
2987:
2945:
2937:
2881:
2873:
2802:
2794:
2751:
2665:
2631:
2608:
2512:
2494:
2470:
2389:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2298:
2256:
2165:
2097:
2085:
2081:
2033:
1191:
1179:
1090:
1001:
990:
978:
958:
946:
938:
4294:
3525:
2785:(whose traffic had been threatened by a destructive Saracen raid on
1132:
as governor of Ifriqiya 727–732), 733, and 734 (during the reign of
5178:
4970:
4724:
The Medieval Abbey of Farfa: Target of Papal and Imperial Ambitions
4666:
Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
4592:
Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
3994:
Mediterranean Encounters, Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550
3717:
Overview of Italy in the late 9th century at cronologia.leonardo.it
2388:
or land tax, but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (
6301:
6084:
5706:
5668:
3229:
3135:
3050:. Rome would never again be threatened by an Arab army. After the
3016:
2953:
2941:
2877:
2860:
2834:
2825:. Thus not only Saracens from Sicily arrived in Taranto, but also
2706:
2547:
2381:
2354:
2343:
2227:
2177:
1948:
1187:
1175:
1113:
1009:
962:
950:
28:
6053:
4753:(illustrated ed.). University of California Press. pp.
4343:
Crouzet-Pavan, Elisabeth; Cochrane, Lydia G. (16 February 2005).
3767:, ed. Carole Hillenbrand, (Edinburgh University Press, 2009), 47.
3385:. Another legacy of Muslim rule is the survival of some Sicilian
6809:
6286:
3389:
of Arabic origin, for example "Calata-" or "Calta-" from Arabic
2798:
2720:
2432:
1978:
1952:
1913:
1159:
1036:
982:
966:
934:
6057:
5182:
1213:
4847:
Between Salt Water and Holy Water: A History of Southern Italy
3900:"Saracen Door and Battle of Palermo - Best of Sicily Magazine"
2630:, five Muslims were executed and another two were executed in
4643:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 103.
4613:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 100.
3236:
were raided and sacked in 1554, 1560, and 1620 respectively.
3110:
was sacked by "Saracens", who burned it to the ground. Abbot
2400:
Decline (1037–1061) and Norman conquest of Sicily (1061–1091)
4566:(Vol 3 ed.). Rome: Gherardo Casini Editor. p. 99.
2243:
After suppressing another revolt in 948, the Fatimid Caliph
1151:. A second attack in 752 aimed only to sack Syracuse again.
1081:
The first attacks by Arab ships on Sicily, then part of the
3031:
of Naples, decided the battle in favour of the Christians.
2859:, between 876 and 880 a huge fleet commanded by the Syrian
4830:"Library : How the 800 Martyrs of Otranto Saved Rome"
3549:
A History of the Crusades, vol. I: The First Hundred Years
3254:
from the recently conquered North Africa would harass the
2673:
three others to do the same. Between 1617 and 1640 (under
3551:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 40–53.
2940:. Before the battle, the alliance had already recaptured
2188:
In 909, the African Aghlabid dynasty was replaced by the
1906:, a Byzantine commander who feared punishment by Emperor
2414:
crossed the strait of Messina. This included a corps of
2313:. However, as al-Qasim himself had been killed, his son
2009:, granting the Muslims total control of western Sicily.
3779:
The Empire of the Mahdi : The Rise of the Fatimids
2546:, has survived till the present day in the villages of
1019:
established the independence of their emirate from the
4886:(III, 74). Bruce 2006, 132. For the Latin text of the
3737:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 156.
2332:(990–998), both patrons of the arts. The latter's son
2324:
The emirate reached its cultural peak under the emirs
3508:
Krueger, Hilmar C.; Musca, Giosue (1966). "Review of
1985:. New troops arrived in the island from the new Emir
3391:
945:, which was captured in 827. The subsequent rule of
7352:
7189:
7044:
6896:
6749:
6692:
6581:
6568:
Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia
6474:
6383:
6264:
6201:
6120:
6104:
6095:
6025:
5949:
5878:
5817:
5750:
5697:
5562:
5460:
5382:
5339:
5285:
5244:
5047:
Gli Arabi in Italia. Cultura, contatti e tradizioni
4668:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 55–56.
5108:
4746:
3597:
2805:and attempting an incursion from the mouth of the
2656:. They consisted of three renegade converts (from
2501:Deportation of the last Muslims from Lucera (1300)
1947:. However, the Muslims retreated to the castle of
1128:703–715), 728, 729, 730, 731 (during the reign of
1101:, came to Sicily to oust the invaders but failed.
4362:(1st ed.). Catania: Prampolini. p. 445.
4223:"Italian City States 1250–1453 by Sanderson Beck"
4787:, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Jul., 1948), pp. 353–396
4270:The James Blair Historical Review (2015-10-15).
3966:A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge, op cit;p.92.
2239:, showing the Kalbid emirate before its collapse
4144:Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera
3978:Roger Ii De Sicile – Un Normand En Méditerranée
3626:Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera
3352:independent states, with the sole exception of
3224:in Calabria in 1594 (cathedral destroyed); and
2781:, to defend their role as a commercial port of
2591:(Muslims who had converted to Christianity) in
1963:In February 832, Ziyadat Allah sent his cousin
5045:Gabrieli, Francesco; Umberto Scerrato (1993).
4178:Mercenaries in Medieval and Renaissance Europe
3934:Il breviario miniato dei Carmelitani di Sutera
3846:From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily
2909:hired them as mercenaries during his war with
2511:Some of the expelled Muslims were deported to
1035:and its citadel (1072) were captured. In 1091
6069:
5194:
3809:"Pisa e gli Arabi: il Mito di Kinzica (1005)"
3759:
3757:
3755:
2575:, which "functioned rather carefully" there.
2431:Eventually all of Sicily was taken. In 1091,
2119:in 886 also encouraged the Muslims to attack
1225:
931:history of Islam in Sicily and southern Italy
910:
631:
8:
4175:Janin, Hunt; Carlson, Ursula (2 July 2013).
3734:The Ismāʿı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines
3628:, (Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 2003), 18.
3600:The Ismāʻı̄lı̄s: Their History and Doctrines
3408:
3403:) "fortress or citadel". Indeed the city of
3398:
3216:in the Bay of Naples were attacked in 1548;
2837:, attracted by the prospects of easy booty.
2365:, which were commanded by his son Abdallah.
4099:The Military Factor in Social Change Vol. 2
3937:(in Italian). Officina di Studi Medievali.
3266:after more than 1,800 years of habitation;
3081:and Gaeta and defeated a Muslim fleet near
33:Arabic painting made for the Norman kings (
7195:
7050:
6902:
6755:
6101:
6076:
6062:
6054:
5201:
5187:
5179:
5036:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
5011:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4445:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4329:
4327:
4325:
3884:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1911:entrusted its conquest to the 70-year-old
1232:
1218:
1210:
917:
903:
649:
638:
624:
47:
5825:Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent
5089:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
4585:
4583:
4345:Venice Triumphant: The Horizons of a Myth
3872:L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin
3658:
3656:
2797:, where the Muslims sacked the island of
2603:, now officially installed as viceroy in
44:, originally the emir's palace at Palermo
5146:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4925:God's War: A New History of the Crusades
4884:Omnia cum plano tenuit montana tyrampnus
3832:Salvatori 2002, 23; Heywood 1921, 22 n2.
2218:Independent emirate of Sicily (965–1091)
2156:) and those of the less important ones (
2012:In 836, Muslim ships helped their ally,
4641:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo
4611:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo
4564:Storia della città di Roma nel Medioevo
4435:(1st ed.). Rome. pp. 113–114.
3520:(1). Medieval Academy of America: 761.
3466:
3360:Islamic and Arabic influence and legacy
2172:A description of the city was given by
1967:to the island and appointed him as the
663:
652:
61:
50:
5111:The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History
5029:
5004:
4863:. Sassari, it: Carlo Delfino Editore.
4438:
4311:
4300:
4204:
4194:
4125:
4115:
4044:"SARACENI DI SICILIA in "Federiciana""
3877:
2924:, in alliance with maritime powers of
2607:, advocated to the Spanish monarch in
1116:after a month of pillaging. After the
1077:First Arab attacks on Sicily (652–827)
1048:had been prominent during the time of
4634:
4632:
4630:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4426:
4424:
4373:
4371:
4369:
4238:
4236:
4146:. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2003.
3926:
3924:
3922:
3650:Previté-Orton (1971), vol. 1, pg. 370
3641:, (Yale University Press, 2004), 107.
3313:1113–1115 Balearic Islands expedition
3246:Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia
2291:Abu'l-Qasim Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi
973:, though Arab raids, mainly those of
7:
6614:Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy
5654:Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep Turkomans)
5066:Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. A Life
5026:(in Italian), vol. II, Florence
4943:Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. A Life
4683:. Rome: Newton&Compton editori.
3852:/ edited by Joaquim Carvalho, 2006,
3407:gets its name from the Saracen name
3183:the faith rather than reject Christ.
2976:, while outside of the city, around
2855:. Under the energetic leadership of
2020:troops, and with Neapolitan support
5001:(in Italian), vol. I, Florence
4927:, London: Penguin Books, p. 55
3957:N.Daniel: The Arabs; op cit; p.154.
3807:Campagnano, Gabriele (2017-06-01).
3409:
3399:
3278:In 1015 and again in 1016 the Emir
2896:gained their independence from the
2668:respectively) and a physician from
5659:Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans)
5152:Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs
1940:backed by a Venetian fleet led by
1136:as governor of Ifriqiya 732–734).
1130:Ubayda ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami
25:
18:History of Islam in Southern Italy
5886:Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia
4859:Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994).
4243:Monter, E. William (2003-11-13).
3066:forced the raising of the siege.
2558:During Aragonese rule (1412-1516)
2406:Norman conquest of southern Italy
2135:on the mainland on June 10, 901.
2052:In 851, the governor and general
1108:attacked the island. They sacked
953:started in the 10th century. The
7570:
7569:
7558:
5277:Second Islamic civil war (Fitna)
5068:. London: Secker & Warburg.
4945:. London: Secker & Warburg.
4596:University of Pennsylvania Press
4073:Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor
3916:Previte-Orton (1971), pg. 507-11
3596:Daftary, Farhad (19 July 1990).
3440:
3426:
3372:Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
3335:, making them precursors of the
3192:Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus
2936:, defeated a Saracen fleet near
2681:), nine heretics were burned at
2615:, as long as they wanted “to be
2410:In 1038, a Byzantine army under
2115:The death of the strong Emperor
886:
674:
607:
72:
7299:Orders, decorations, and medals
5272:First Islamic civil war (Fitna)
5049:. Milan: Garzanti Scheiwiller.
5023:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia
4998:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia
4710:Chronica Monasterii Cassinensis
4639:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988).
4609:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988).
4562:Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1988).
4541:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia
4433:Cronache Veneziane antichissime
4360:Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia
3097:. As Patricia Skinner relates:
2711:The capture of Bari led by the
2579:During Spanish rule (1516–1713)
1965:Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah
1959:Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn Abd-Allah
4249:. Cambridge University Press.
3848:, Charles Dalli, page 153. In
3796:. Byzantion. pp. 220–252.
3694:, (Cosimo Classic, 2008), 307.
3604:. Cambridge University Press.
3250:Starting from 705 to 706, the
2900:. The Christian states of the
2750:, he fought his way deep into
2380:were also required to pay the
2152:governors of the main cities (
832:From home rule to independence
176:Praetorian prefecture of Italy
1:
5236:Historiography of early Islam
5086:The Muslims of Medieval Italy
4489:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 118.
4382:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 136.
4276:James Blair Historical Review
3705:History of the Eastern Empire
3692:History of the Eastern Empire
3366:Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture
3058:force landed in Calabria and
2233:
2026:Muhammad Abul Abbas of Sicily
2024:was also conquered in 842 by
1141:Habib ibn Abi Obeida al-Fihri
1118:Arab conquest of North Africa
286:Byzantine reconquest of Italy
34:
7621:History of religion in Italy
5891:Spread of Islam in Indonesia
4745:Peter Partner (1 Jan 1972).
4464:. Bari: Dedalo. p. 22.
4431:Monticolo, Giovanni (1890).
3681:Previté-Orton (1971), p. 370
3197:In 1537, the famous Turkish
2768:Emirate of Taranto (840–880)
2746:organised a response. After
2562:During Sicily's time in the
2102:Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Tamini
2028:, who later established the
1206:Conquest of Sicily (827–902)
1085:, occurred in 652 under the
1044:firmly in the region, where
347:Mid-16th c. to early 19th c.
7646:History of Islam by country
7339:Water supply and sanitation
6763:Italian geographical region
6631:Monarchy and the World Wars
6573:Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
6459:War of the Sicilian Vespers
6112:Timeline of Italian history
5226:Timeline of Islamic history
4019:"MONREALE in "Federiciana""
3781:. Leiden. pp. 405–406.
3392:
3173:Ottoman invasion of Otranto
3167:Ottoman invasion of Otranto
3046:which was to encompass the
3006:and headed by Lombard Duke
2507:Muslim settlement of Lucera
1629:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
1200:Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya
1066:Giovanni Pipino da Barletta
985:and the northern region of
876:Timeline of Maltese history
7702:
7258:Inventions and discoveries
6668:Fall of the Fascist regime
6651:Fourth War of Independence
6609:Expedition of the Thousand
6599:Second War of Independence
5554:Federation of South Arabia
5142:Skinner, Patricia (1995).
5138:. Bari: Dedalo Litostampa.
5136:L'emirato di Bari, 847-871
5117:Cambridge University Press
4403:Lane, Frederic C. (2019).
4155:Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski.
4102:. Transaction Publishers.
3931:Ferlisi, Calogero (2004).
3874:. Paris. pp. 450–453.
3510:L'emirato di Bari, 847–871
3363:
3262:was abandoned in favor of
3243:
3170:
3052:Christian conquest of Bari
2719:The Adriatic port city of
2700:
2640:held at the waterfront of
2504:
2403:
2221:
2056:died. He was succeeded by
2040:was conquered in 846, and
2016:, when he was besieged by
1890:
977:, reached as far north as
7554:
7198:
7053:
7032:Security and intelligence
6905:
6758:
6619:Third War of Independence
6594:First War of Independence
5515:Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo
5216:
5164:10.1080/13602000701308889
5064:Masson, Georgina (1957).
4681:I Papi - storia e segreti
4679:Rendina, Claudio (2005).
4407:. Einaudi. pp. 8–9.
3765:Muslims of Medieval Italy
3562:Jellinek, George (1994).
3456:History of Islam in Malta
3299:Muslim Spain (al-Andalus)
2980:, members of the Vatican
2697:Emirate of Bari (847–871)
2249:al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi
2147:Aghlabid Sicily (827–909)
1893:Muslim conquest of Sicily
1675:George Maniakes in Sicily
1251:
862:European Union membership
190:Romano-Barbarian Kingdoms
6710:Istrian–Dalmatian exodus
6705:Institutional referendum
6033:Islamic Republic of Iran
4803:. Woodsbridge, Suffolk:
4797:Brown, R. Allen (1984).
4664:Kreutz, Barbara (1996).
4347:. JHU Press. p. 60.
3997:. Ashgate. p. 236.
3991:Abulafia, David (2000).
3416:('Fort of the Women'),.
3159:pilgrims returning from
3148:Battle of the Garigliano
2727:'s governor in Egypt as
2544:Franco-Provençal dialect
2439:Swabian rule (1194–1250)
2184:Fatimid Sicily (909–965)
1945:Giustiniano Participazio
975:Muhammad I ibn al-Aghlab
713:Phoenicians and Carthage
281:Italy in the Middle Ages
139:Roman expansion in Italy
7233:Emigration and diaspora
6442:Guelphs and Ghibellines
6427:the Sardinian Judicates
5083:Metcalfe, Alex (2009).
5020:Amari, Michele (1858),
4995:Amari, Michele (1854),
4978:Encyclopædia Britannica
4834:www.catholicculture.org
4726:, (Brill, 1997), 32–33.
4590:Barbara Kreutz (1996).
4358:Amari, Michele (1933).
3093:and gave it instead to
2801:, also setting fire to
2445:Abu Al Hasan Al Balnubi
2384:, or poll tax, and the
2168:or converted to Islam.
1156:Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab
489:European migrant crisis
439:Italian Social Republic
354:Italy (1801–1814)
311:Guelphs and Ghibellines
7616:11th-century conflicts
7611:10th-century conflicts
7115:Science and technology
7063:Italian regions by GDP
6864:Marine protected areas
6536:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
5870:Sultans on the Comoros
5257:Succession to Muhammad
5134:Musca, Giosuè (1964).
4849:, by Tommaso Astarita.
4703:Skinner, 33, based on
4547:, 1854, Vol. I, p. 364
4485:Musca, Giosuè (1992).
4460:Musca, Giosuè (1992).
4378:Musca, Giosuè (1992).
4310:Cite journal requires
4075:. London: Allen Lane.
3566:. Kahn & Averill.
3185:
3104:
2857:Basil I the Macedonian
2793:and pursued as far as
2716:
2349:
2240:
2074:Constantine Kontomytes
172:(286 AD–476 AD)
102:(12th–6th c. BC)
96:(18th–3rd c. BC)
45:
7681:11th century in Italy
7676:10th century in Italy
7606:9th-century conflicts
7601:8th-century conflicts
7596:7th-century conflicts
7314:Public administration
6422:the Holy Roman Empire
6007:Sultanate of Zanzibar
5926:Maguindanao Sultanate
5860:Muzaffarids (Gujarat)
5730:Expansion into Europe
5537:Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)
4861:La Storia di Sardegna
3976:Aubé, Pierre (2001).
3275:between 806 and 821.
3180:
3099:
2970:marching towards Rome
2710:
2648:) in the presence of
2593:the Iberian peninsula
2456:rule in Sicily under
2372:under the Muslims as
2347:
2305:, the German Emperor
2284:Battle of the Straits
2231:
2212:al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah
2054:Al-Aghlab Abu Ibrahim
432:Italy in World War II
135:(509 BC–27 BC)
129:(753 BC–509 BC)
108:(8th–3rd c. BC)
100:Etruscan civilization
32:
7671:9th century in Italy
7666:8th century in Italy
7661:7th century in Italy
7542:World Heritage Sites
6997:Council of Ministers
6735:Coronavirus pandemic
6133:Currency and coinage
5987:Sultanate of Bagirmi
5354:Caliphate of Córdoba
5105:Previte-Orton, C. W.
4972:"Caltanisetta"
4921:Tyerman, Christopher
4805:Boydell & Brewer
3904:www.bestofsicily.com
3792:Lev, Yaacov (1984).
3777:Halm, Heinz (1996).
3637:Caroline Bruzelius,
3201:and Ottoman admiral
3130:The Saracen camp at
3091:Docibilis I of Gaeta
2978:St. Peter's Basilica
2748:a five-year campaign
2524:Charles II of Naples
2487:Casal Monte Saraceno
2394:William II of Sicily
2276:Nikephoros II Phokas
2274:led the new emperor
2139:Calabria, besieging
2129:Abu l-Abbas Abdallah
2125:Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad
2112:was crushed in 887.
2070:Caliph Al-Mutawakkil
1768:Byzantine reconquest
1054:settlement of Lucera
1046:Eastern Christianity
812:British Protectorate
526:Currency and coinage
465:(1970s–1980s)
420:Italy in World War I
331:(14th–16th c.)
166:(27 BC–286 AD)
94:Nuragic civilization
42:Palazzo dei Normanni
7651:Invasions of Europe
7641:Arab–Byzantine wars
7073:Automotive industry
7012:Metropolitan cities
6558:Early Modern period
6531:Kingdom of Sardinia
6482:Italian city-states
6002:Sultanate of Darfur
5972:Sultanate of Dahlak
5769:Khwarazmian dynasty
5764:Kara-Khanid Khanate
5624:Khwarazmian dynasty
5475:Early Islamic Syria
4735:Mary Stroll, 24–25.
3870:Gay, Jules (1904).
3482:European Commission
3349:Sardinian Judicates
3311:, a history of the
2915:Prince of Benevento
2868:Latium and Campania
2833:corsairs exiled to
2650:Don Juan of Austria
2568:Spanish Inquisition
2517:Lucaera Saracenorum
2370:freedom of religion
2110:Seuàda ibn Muhammad
2014:Andrew II of Naples
1987:Al-Aghlab Abu Affan
1243:Arab–Byzantine wars
773:Knights Hospitaller
329:Italian Renaissance
306:Italian city-states
7656:Invasions of Italy
7135:Telecommunications
6502:Maritime republics
5962:Sultanate of Aussa
5644:Jalairid Sultanate
5572:Iranian Intermezzo
5326:Islamic Golden Age
5306:Abbasid Revolution
5296:Rashidun Caliphate
4897:2011-08-11 at the
4777:Joranson, Einar. "
4162:2009-11-25 at the
3668:2011-07-14 at the
3512:by Giosuè Musca".
3308:Liber maiolichinus
3153:Prince Guaimar III
3095:Pandenulf of Capua
2733:Duchy of Benevento
2717:
2426:, son of Tancred,
2363:al-Muizz ibn Badis
2350:
2261:Cassano allo Ionio
2241:
2092:Jafar ibn Muhammad
1898:Euphemius and Asad
1670:Straits of Messina
1489:2nd Constantinople
1474:1st Constantinople
1087:Rashidun Caliphate
302:Maritime republics
288:(6th–8th c.)
242:Carolingian Empire
46:
7631:Emirate of Sicily
7583:
7582:
7550:
7549:
7185:
7184:
7120:Southern question
7040:
7039:
6972:Political parties
6920:Foreign relations
6892:
6891:
6745:
6744:
6466:Kingdom of Naples
6454:Kingdom of Sicily
6051:
6050:
6043:Sultanate of Oman
6038:Pakistan Movement
5997:Sultanate of Adal
5982:Sultanate of Ifat
5957:Angoche Sultanate
5941:Mataram Sultanate
5936:Ternate Sultanate
5911:Malacca Sultanate
5865:Gujarat Sultanate
5855:Jaunpur Sultanate
5850:Bahmani Sultanate
5840:Deccan sultanates
5720:Anatolian beyliks
5490:Ikhshidid dynasty
5442:Marinid Sultanate
5432:Almohad Caliphate
5427:Almoravid dynasty
5369:Marinid Sultanate
5364:Almohad Caliphate
5359:Almoravid dynasty
5321:Fatimid Caliphate
5311:Abbasid Caliphate
5301:Umayyad Caliphate
5096:978-0-7486-2008-1
4870:978-88-7138-084-1
4598:. pp. 25–28.
4487:L'emirato di Bari
4462:L'emirato di Bari
4405:Storia di Venezia
4380:L'emirato di Bari
4256:978-0-521-52259-5
4004:978-0-86078-841-6
3944:978-88-88615-50-9
3744:978-0-521-37019-6
3484:. 2010. p. 2
3317:judge of Cagliari
3297:, in the east of
3280:Mujāhid al-‘Āmirī
3064:the Emperor Louis
2846:Duke of Benevento
2692:Italian Peninsula
2601:the Duke of Osuna
2552:Celle di San Vito
2224:Emirate of Sicily
2190:Fatimid Caliphate
2106:besieged Syracuse
2044:followed in 848.
1919:Asad ibn al-Furat
1888:
1887:
1099:exarch of Ravenna
1042:Roman Catholicism
1021:Fatimid Caliphate
955:Emirate of Sicily
927:
926:
857:Republic of Malta
845:Independent Malta
822:Language Question
783:French occupation
753:Kingdom of Sicily
648:
647:
495:COVID-19 pandemic
491:(2014–2016)
485:(2007–2009)
479:(1992–2001)
471:(1986–1992)
449:(1943–1945)
447:Italian Civil War
434:(1940–1945)
428:(1922–1943)
422:(1914–1918)
416:(1882–1960)
410:(1861–1946)
382:(1815–1871)
343:(1545–1648)
337:(1494–1559)
298:in southern Italy
266:
265:
257:Holy Roman Empire
89:Prehistoric Italy
16:(Redirected from
7693:
7573:
7572:
7565:Italy portal
7562:
7561:
7502:National symbols
7196:
7051:
6903:
6756:
6636:Kingdom of Italy
6563:Napoleonic Italy
6102:
6078:
6071:
6064:
6055:
6012:Sokoto Caliphate
5921:Banten Sultanate
5901:Brunei Sultanate
5835:Bengal Sultanate
5804:Khanate of Sibir
5799:Khanate of Khiva
5794:Khanate of Kazan
5774:Chagatai Khanate
5715:Sultanate of Rum
5674:Afsharid dynasty
5587:Saffarid dynasty
5485:Hamdanid dynasty
5447:Wattasid dynasty
5402:Rustamid dynasty
5267:Muslim conquests
5210:History of Islam
5203:
5196:
5189:
5180:
5175:
5139:
5130:
5114:
5100:
5079:
5060:
5041:
5035:
5027:
5016:
5010:
5002:
4983:
4982:
4974:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4917:
4911:
4910:Bruce 2006, 134.
4908:
4902:
4881:
4875:
4874:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4838:
4837:
4828:Matthew Bunson.
4825:
4819:
4818:
4794:
4788:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4752:
4742:
4736:
4733:
4727:
4720:
4714:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4636:
4625:
4624:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4587:
4578:
4577:
4559:
4548:
4534:
4528:
4525:
4519:
4516:
4510:
4507:
4501:
4500:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4457:
4451:
4450:
4444:
4436:
4428:
4419:
4418:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4375:
4364:
4363:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4340:
4334:
4331:
4320:
4319:
4313:
4308:
4306:
4298:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4240:
4231:
4230:
4219:
4213:
4212:
4206:
4202:
4200:
4192:
4172:
4166:
4153:
4147:
4140:
4134:
4133:
4127:
4123:
4121:
4113:
4096:Barbera, Henry.
4093:
4087:
4086:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4055:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4015:
4009:
4008:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3973:
3967:
3964:
3958:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3928:
3917:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3883:
3875:
3867:
3861:
3839:
3833:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3821:
3820:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3774:
3768:
3761:
3750:
3748:
3725:
3719:
3714:
3708:
3701:
3695:
3688:
3682:
3679:
3673:
3672:, by Alwi Alatas
3660:
3651:
3648:
3642:
3635:
3629:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3603:
3593:
3587:
3584:
3578:
3577:
3559:
3553:
3552:
3544:
3538:
3537:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3491:
3489:
3479:
3471:
3450:
3445:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3412:
3411:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3383:Sicilian dialect
3155:, and a band of
3140:Garigliano River
3125:Nocera Inferiore
3060:besieged Salerno
3029:Magister Militum
3021:Caesar of Naples
2890:Duchies of Gaeta
2811:canal of Otranto
2713:Emperor Louis II
2621:Bizerte, Tunisia
2303:Bulgarian Empire
2272:Siege of Rometta
2245:Ismail al-Mansur
2238:
2235:
1923:Mazara del Vallo
1655:Marianos Argyros
1531:Asia Minor (806)
1516:Asia Minor (782)
1505:Border conflicts
1402:Babylon Fortress
1246:
1244:
1234:
1227:
1220:
1211:
1112:and returned to
1110:Syracuse, Sicily
1097:, the Byzantine
1083:Byzantine Empire
937:colonization in
919:
912:
905:
893:Malta portal
891:
890:
889:
792:independent Gozo
693:Għar Dalam phase
678:
668:
650:
640:
633:
626:
614:Italy portal
612:
611:
610:
341:Catholic revival
194:
193:
76:
66:
48:
39:
36:
21:
7701:
7700:
7696:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7691:
7690:
7626:Spread of Islam
7586:
7585:
7584:
7579:
7559:
7546:
7517:Public holidays
7348:
7294:Life expectancy
7181:
7036:
6952:Law enforcement
6888:
6741:
6688:
6677:Social Republic
6641:Colonial Empire
6624:Capture of Rome
6577:
6470:
6379:
6272:Ancient peoples
6260:
6197:
6158:Historic states
6116:
6091:
6082:
6052:
6047:
6021:
5945:
5906:Johor Sultanate
5896:Kedah Sultanate
5874:
5830:Delhi Sultanate
5813:
5809:Crimean Khanate
5746:
5693:
5689:Pahlavi dynasty
5664:Safavid dynasty
5649:Timurid dynasty
5597:Ziyarid dynasty
5577:Tahirid dynasty
5558:
5549:Mahra Sultanate
5510:Ayyubid dynasty
5495:Uqaylid dynasty
5470:Muslim conquest
5456:
5412:Idrisid dynasty
5392:Muslim conquest
5378:
5349:Muslim conquest
5335:
5281:
5240:
5212:
5207:
5149:
5133:
5127:
5103:
5097:
5082:
5076:
5063:
5057:
5044:
5028:
5019:
5003:
4994:
4991:
4989:Further reading
4986:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4953:
4939:Georgina Masson
4937:
4936:
4932:
4919:
4918:
4914:
4909:
4905:
4899:Wayback Machine
4882:
4878:
4871:
4858:
4857:
4853:
4845:
4841:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4815:
4796:
4795:
4791:
4776:
4772:
4765:
4744:
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4739:
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4730:
4721:
4717:
4702:
4698:
4691:
4678:
4677:
4673:
4663:
4662:
4658:
4651:
4638:
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4628:
4621:
4608:
4607:
4603:
4589:
4588:
4581:
4574:
4561:
4560:
4551:
4535:
4531:
4526:
4522:
4517:
4513:
4509:Skinner, 32–33.
4508:
4504:
4497:
4484:
4483:
4479:
4472:
4459:
4458:
4454:
4437:
4430:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4402:
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4390:
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4376:
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4299:
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4242:
4241:
4234:
4221:
4220:
4216:
4203:
4193:
4189:
4174:
4173:
4169:
4164:Wayback Machine
4154:
4150:
4141:
4137:
4124:
4114:
4110:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4083:
4069:Abulafia, David
4067:
4066:
4062:
4053:
4051:
4048:www.treccani.it
4042:
4041:
4037:
4028:
4026:
4023:www.treccani.it
4017:
4016:
4012:
4005:
3990:
3989:
3985:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3930:
3929:
3920:
3915:
3911:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3876:
3869:
3868:
3864:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3827:
3818:
3816:
3806:
3805:
3801:
3791:
3790:
3786:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3763:Alex Metcalfe,
3762:
3753:
3745:
3729:Daftary, Farhad
3727:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3711:
3702:
3698:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3670:Wayback Machine
3663:Islam in Sicily
3661:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3636:
3632:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3595:
3594:
3590:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3546:
3545:
3541:
3526:10.2307/2852342
3507:
3506:
3502:
3487:
3485:
3477:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3446:
3441:
3439:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3414:Qal‘at al-Nisā’
3368:
3362:
3248:
3242:
3175:
3169:
3134:(in modern-day
2922:Duchy of Naples
2898:Duchy of Naples
2870:
2775:John the Deacon
2770:
2735:, forcing duke
2705:
2703:Emirate of Bari
2699:
2694:
2581:
2564:Crown of Aragon
2560:
2509:
2503:
2491:Castel Saraceno
2441:
2424:Robert Guiscard
2412:George Maniaces
2408:
2402:
2311:Battle of Stilo
2295:Adriatic coasts
2265:Constantine VII
2236:
2232:Southern Italy
2226:
2220:
2186:
2149:
2133:Reggio Calabria
2094:
2058:Abbas ibn Fadhl
2050:
2048:Abbas ibn Fadhl
2030:Emirate of Bari
1961:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1884:
1732:Gulf of Corinth
1254:Early conflicts
1247:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1208:
1134:Uqba ibn Qudama
1124:as governor of
1122:Musa ibn Nusayr
1079:
1074:
1008:and indigenous
923:
887:
885:
867:
866:
847:
837:
836:
807:
797:
796:
768:
758:
757:
738:Byzantine Malta
733:
723:
722:
688:
686:Ancient history
666:
659:
644:
608:
606:
604:
595:
594:
593:
591:
551:Historic states
515:
507:
506:
483:Great Recession
414:Colonial Empire
403:
395:
394:
393:
374:
324:
316:
315:
276:
268:
267:
191:
183:
182:
122:
112:
111:
84:
64:
57:
37:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7699:
7697:
7689:
7688:
7686:Arabs in Italy
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7638:
7636:Islam in Italy
7633:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7588:
7587:
7581:
7580:
7578:
7577:
7567:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7548:
7547:
7545:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7489:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7358:
7356:
7350:
7349:
7347:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7290:
7289:
7288:
7287:
7272:
7271:
7270:
7260:
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7187:
7186:
7183:
7182:
7180:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7132:
7127:
7125:Stock exchange
7122:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7054:
7048:
7042:
7041:
7038:
7037:
7035:
7034:
7029:
7027:Municipalities
7024:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6987:Prime Minister
6984:
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6938:
6937:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6906:
6900:
6894:
6893:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6874:Regional parks
6871:
6869:National parks
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6830:
6829:
6819:
6818:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6797:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6781:
6780:
6778:Climate change
6770:
6765:
6759:
6753:
6747:
6746:
6743:
6742:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6696:
6694:
6690:
6689:
6687:
6686:
6685:
6684:
6679:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6654:
6653:
6643:
6638:
6628:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6585:
6583:
6579:
6578:
6576:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6543:
6541:Duchy of Savoy
6538:
6533:
6528:
6527:
6526:
6525:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6478:
6476:
6472:
6471:
6469:
6468:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6451:
6449:Lombard League
6446:
6445:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6387:
6385:
6381:
6380:
6378:
6377:
6376:
6375:
6374:
6373:
6371:Western Empire
6363:
6358:
6356:Roman conquest
6353:
6348:
6338:
6337:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6310:
6309:
6304:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6277:Italic peoples
6268:
6266:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6258:
6257:
6256:
6251:
6246:
6241:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6205:
6203:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6124:
6122:
6118:
6117:
6115:
6114:
6108:
6106:
6099:
6093:
6092:
6083:
6081:
6080:
6073:
6066:
6058:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6029:
6027:
6023:
6022:
6020:
6019:
6017:Songhai Empire
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5977:Funj Sultanate
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5953:
5951:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5931:Sulu Sultanate
5928:
5923:
5918:
5916:Aceh Sultanate
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5882:
5880:
5879:Southeast Asia
5876:
5875:
5873:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5821:
5819:
5815:
5814:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5789:Kazakh Khanate
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5760:
5758:
5756:Eastern Europe
5748:
5747:
5745:
5744:
5742:Southern Italy
5739:
5734:
5733:
5732:
5725:Ottoman Empire
5722:
5717:
5711:
5709:
5695:
5694:
5692:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5614:Ghurid dynasty
5611:
5606:
5605:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5592:Samanid Empire
5589:
5584:
5579:
5568:
5566:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5540:
5539:
5532:Ottoman Empire
5529:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5512:
5507:
5505:Zengid dynasty
5502:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5466:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5437:Hafsid dynasty
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5388:
5386:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5376:
5374:Nasrid dynasty
5371:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5345:
5343:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5292:
5290:
5283:
5282:
5280:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5248:
5246:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5208:
5206:
5205:
5198:
5191:
5183:
5177:
5176:
5147:
5140:
5131:
5125:
5101:
5095:
5080:
5074:
5061:
5055:
5042:
5017:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4984:
4969:, ed. (1911).
4967:Chisholm, Hugh
4958:
4951:
4930:
4912:
4903:
4876:
4869:
4851:
4839:
4820:
4813:
4807:. p. 97.
4789:
4770:
4763:
4737:
4728:
4715:
4696:
4689:
4671:
4656:
4649:
4626:
4619:
4601:
4579:
4572:
4549:
4529:
4520:
4511:
4502:
4495:
4477:
4470:
4452:
4420:
4413:
4395:
4388:
4365:
4350:
4335:
4321:
4312:|journal=
4293:Salah, Asher.
4285:
4262:
4255:
4232:
4214:
4187:
4167:
4148:
4142:Julie Taylor.
4135:
4108:
4088:
4081:
4060:
4035:
4010:
4003:
3983:
3968:
3959:
3950:
3943:
3918:
3909:
3891:
3862:
3834:
3825:
3799:
3784:
3769:
3751:
3743:
3720:
3709:
3696:
3683:
3674:
3652:
3643:
3630:
3624:Julie Taylor,
3617:
3610:
3588:
3579:
3572:
3554:
3539:
3500:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3437:
3421:
3418:
3376:King of Sicily
3361:
3358:
3286:(Latinized as
3244:Main article:
3241:
3238:
3188:Pope Sixtus IV
3171:Main article:
3168:
3165:
3112:Peter of Farfa
3108:Abbey of Farfa
3071:Pope John VIII
2974:Aurelian Walls
2907:Duke Andrew II
2869:
2866:
2853:Leo Apostyppes
2827:African Berber
2769:
2766:
2701:Main article:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2597:Jewish Neofiti
2580:
2577:
2559:
2556:
2505:Main article:
2502:
2499:
2440:
2437:
2428:invaded Sicily
2404:Main article:
2401:
2398:
2330:Yusuf al-Kalbi
2328:(983–985) and
2315:Jabir al-Kalbi
2222:Main article:
2219:
2216:
2185:
2182:
2148:
2145:
2093:
2090:
2049:
2046:
1979:Castrogiovanni
1960:
1957:
1953:Castrogiovanni
1899:
1896:
1891:Main article:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1833:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1778:
1777:
1775:John Kourkouas
1765:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1683:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1625:Leo Apostyppes
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1572:Southern Italy
1564:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1502:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1467:Constantinople
1459:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1425:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1386:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1328:Maraj-al-Debaj
1325:
1320:
1318:Sanita-al-Uqab
1315:
1313:Marj al-Saffar
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1222:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1196:Tyrrhenian Sea
1186:and to ravage
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1062:king of Sicily
1056:, by order of
1031:, and by 1071
1023:. In 1061 the
971:southern Italy
961:stronghold in
925:
924:
922:
921:
914:
907:
899:
896:
895:
882:
881:
880:
879:
869:
868:
865:
864:
859:
854:
852:State of Malta
848:
843:
842:
839:
838:
835:
834:
829:
824:
819:
817:British Colony
814:
808:
805:British Period
803:
802:
799:
798:
795:
794:
785:
780:
775:
769:
766:Modern history
764:
763:
760:
759:
756:
755:
750:
745:
740:
734:
729:
728:
725:
724:
721:
720:
715:
710:
705:
703:Saflieni phase
700:
698:Ġgantija phase
695:
689:
684:
683:
680:
679:
671:
670:
661:
660:
653:
646:
645:
643:
642:
635:
628:
620:
617:
616:
597:
596:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
533:
528:
523:
517:
516:
513:
512:
509:
508:
505:
504:
503:
502:
492:
486:
480:
472:
460:
450:
435:
429:
423:
417:
411:
404:
401:
400:
397:
396:
392:
391:
385:
384:
383:
373:
372:
371:
370:
365:
357:
356:
355:
349:
344:
338:
332:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
308:
299:
289:
283:
277:
274:
273:
270:
269:
264:
263:
262:962–1801
260:
249:
248:
245:
234:
233:
230:
224:
223:
220:
214:
213:
210:
204:
203:
200:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
181:
180:
179:
178:
170:Western Empire
167:
161:
160:
159:
146:
141:
130:
123:
118:
117:
114:
113:
110:
109:
103:
97:
91:
85:
82:
81:
78:
77:
69:
68:
59:
58:
51:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7698:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7591:
7576:
7568:
7566:
7557:
7556:
7553:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7359:
7357:
7355:
7351:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7286:
7283:
7282:
7281:
7278:
7277:
7276:
7273:
7269:
7266:
7265:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7200:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7188:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7152:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7052:
7049:
7047:
7043:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6992:
6988:
6985:
6982:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6907:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6895:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6823:
6820:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6801:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6779:
6776:
6775:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6760:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6748:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6720:Years of Lead
6718:
6716:
6715:Economic Boom
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6702:
6701:
6698:
6697:
6695:
6691:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6658:Fascist Italy
6656:
6652:
6649:
6648:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6632:
6629:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6604:Niçard exodus
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6580:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6552:
6549:
6548:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6488:
6485:
6484:
6483:
6480:
6479:
6477:
6473:
6467:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6456:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6394:
6393:
6392:
6389:
6388:
6386:
6382:
6372:
6369:
6368:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6324:Magna Graecia
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6308:
6305:
6303:
6300:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6278:
6275:
6274:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6267:
6263:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6247:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6235:
6232:
6230:
6227:
6225:
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6207:
6206:
6204:
6200:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6119:
6113:
6110:
6109:
6107:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6079:
6074:
6072:
6067:
6065:
6060:
6059:
6056:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6026:Modern states
6024:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5877:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5845:Mughal Empire
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5822:
5820:
5816:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5759:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5684:Qajar dynasty
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5602:Buyid dynasty
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5538:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5525:Burji dynasty
5523:
5521:
5520:Bahri dynasty
5518:
5517:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5503:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5453:
5452:Saadi dynasty
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5422:Muslim Sicily
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5397:Berber Revolt
5395:
5393:
5390:
5389:
5387:
5385:
5381:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5342:
5338:
5332:
5331:Sunni Revival
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5316:Shi'a Century
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5284:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5249:
5247:
5243:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5211:
5204:
5199:
5197:
5192:
5190:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5148:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5126:0-521-05993-3
5122:
5118:
5115:. Cambridge:
5113:
5112:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5092:
5088:
5087:
5081:
5077:
5075:0-436-27350-0
5071:
5067:
5062:
5058:
5056:88-7644-024-0
5052:
5048:
5043:
5039:
5033:
5025:
5024:
5018:
5014:
5008:
5000:
4999:
4993:
4992:
4988:
4980:
4979:
4973:
4968:
4962:
4959:
4954:
4952:0-436-27350-0
4948:
4944:
4940:
4934:
4931:
4926:
4922:
4916:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4880:
4877:
4872:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4843:
4840:
4835:
4831:
4824:
4821:
4816:
4814:0-85115-359-3
4810:
4806:
4802:
4799:
4793:
4790:
4786:
4785:
4780:
4774:
4771:
4766:
4764:9780520021815
4760:
4756:
4751:
4750:
4741:
4738:
4732:
4729:
4725:
4722:Mary Stroll,
4719:
4716:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4700:
4697:
4692:
4686:
4682:
4675:
4672:
4667:
4660:
4657:
4652:
4650:9788840381756
4646:
4642:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4627:
4622:
4620:9788840381756
4616:
4612:
4605:
4602:
4597:
4593:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4573:9788840381756
4569:
4565:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4550:
4546:
4545:lt=Le Monnier
4542:
4538:
4537:Michele Amari
4533:
4530:
4527:Skinner, 2–3.
4524:
4521:
4515:
4512:
4506:
4503:
4498:
4496:9788822061386
4492:
4488:
4481:
4478:
4473:
4471:9788822061386
4467:
4463:
4456:
4453:
4448:
4442:
4434:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4414:9788806228613
4410:
4406:
4399:
4396:
4391:
4389:9788822061386
4385:
4381:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4354:
4351:
4346:
4339:
4336:
4330:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4317:
4304:
4296:
4289:
4286:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4248:
4247:
4239:
4237:
4233:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4215:
4210:
4198:
4190:
4188:9780786472741
4184:
4181:. McFarland.
4180:
4179:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4158:
4152:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4136:
4131:
4119:
4111:
4109:9781412837811
4105:
4101:
4100:
4092:
4089:
4084:
4082:0-7139-9004-X
4078:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4061:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4036:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4011:
4006:
4000:
3996:
3995:
3987:
3984:
3979:
3972:
3969:
3963:
3960:
3954:
3951:
3946:
3940:
3936:
3935:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3892:
3887:
3881:
3873:
3866:
3863:
3859:
3858:88-8492-404-9
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3842:Archived link
3838:
3835:
3829:
3826:
3814:
3810:
3803:
3800:
3795:
3788:
3785:
3780:
3773:
3770:
3766:
3760:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3736:
3735:
3730:
3724:
3721:
3718:
3713:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3621:
3618:
3613:
3611:0-521-37019-1
3607:
3602:
3601:
3592:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3575:
3573:0-912483-90-3
3569:
3565:
3558:
3555:
3550:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3496:
3483:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3438:
3435:
3424:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3406:
3396:
3394:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3377:
3373:
3367:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3042:building the
3041:
3037:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2744:Emperor Louis
2740:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2725:al-Mutawakkil
2722:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2696:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2342:
2341:(1019–1037).
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2289:The new emir
2287:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2230:
2225:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2195:
2191:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1995:Caltabellotta
1992:
1989:and occupied
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1934:year of siege
1930:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1897:
1894:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1854:Campaigns of
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1836:Campaigns of
1835:
1834:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1808:Nikephoros II
1806:Campaigns of
1805:
1804:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1784:
1783:Sayf al-Dawla
1781:Campaigns of
1780:
1779:
1776:
1773:Campaigns of
1772:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1686:Naval warfare
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:Campaigns of
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1623:Campaigns of
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1235:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1149:Berber revolt
1146:
1142:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
920:
915:
913:
908:
906:
901:
900:
898:
897:
894:
884:
883:
878:
877:
873:
872:
871:
870:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
849:
846:
841:
840:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
818:
815:
813:
810:
809:
806:
801:
800:
793:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
770:
767:
762:
761:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
732:
727:
726:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
708:Tarxien phase
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
690:
687:
682:
681:
677:
673:
672:
669:
662:
657:
651:
641:
636:
634:
629:
627:
622:
621:
619:
618:
615:
605:
603:
599:
598:
592:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
518:
511:
510:
500:
496:
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
478:
477:
473:
470:
467:
466:
464:
463:Years of Lead
461:
458:
454:
451:
448:
444:
440:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
405:
399:
398:
390:
387:
386:
381:
380:
376:
375:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
359:
358:
353:
350:
348:
345:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
326:
320:
319:
312:
309:
307:
303:
300:
297:
293:
290:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
272:
271:
261:
258:
254:
251:
250:
247:774–962
246:
243:
239:
236:
235:
232:568–774
231:
229:
226:
225:
222:435–534
221:
219:
216:
215:
212:493–553
211:
209:
206:
205:
202:476–493
201:
199:
196:
195:
187:
186:
177:
174:
173:
171:
168:
165:
162:
158:
157:
152:
151:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
136:
134:
131:
128:
125:
124:
121:
116:
115:
107:
106:Magna Graecia
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
67:
60:
55:
49:
43:
31:
27:
19:
7402:Architecture
7372:Quattrocento
7329:Social class
7309:Prostitution
7223:Demographics
7145:Trade unions
7088:Central Bank
6930:Human rights
6910:Constitution
6693:Contemporary
6663:World War II
6551:Italian Wars
6475:Early modern
6431:
6417:Papal States
6395:Italy under
6341:Ancient Rome
5779:Golden Horde
5752:Central Asia
5741:
5679:Zand dynasty
5158:(1): 71–77.
5155:
5151:
5143:
5135:
5110:
5085:
5065:
5046:
5022:
4997:
4976:
4961:
4942:
4933:
4924:
4915:
4906:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4860:
4854:
4842:
4833:
4823:
4801:
4798:
4792:
4782:
4773:
4748:
4740:
4731:
4723:
4718:
4708:
4705:Leo of Ostia
4699:
4680:
4674:
4665:
4659:
4640:
4610:
4604:
4591:
4563:
4540:
4532:
4523:
4514:
4505:
4486:
4480:
4461:
4455:
4432:
4404:
4398:
4379:
4359:
4353:
4344:
4338:
4303:cite journal
4288:
4279:
4275:
4265:
4245:
4226:
4217:
4177:
4170:
4151:
4138:
4098:
4091:
4072:
4063:
4052:. Retrieved
4050:(in Italian)
4047:
4038:
4027:. Retrieved
4025:(in Italian)
4022:
4013:
3993:
3986:
3977:
3971:
3962:
3953:
3933:
3912:
3903:
3894:
3871:
3865:
3849:
3845:
3837:
3828:
3817:. Retrieved
3815:(in Italian)
3812:
3802:
3793:
3787:
3778:
3772:
3764:
3733:
3723:
3712:
3704:
3703:J. B. Bury,
3699:
3691:
3690:J. B. Bury,
3686:
3677:
3646:
3638:
3633:
3625:
3620:
3599:
3591:
3582:
3563:
3557:
3548:
3542:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3494:
3493:
3488:28 September
3486:. Retrieved
3469:
3448:Islam portal
3434:Italy portal
3413:
3405:Caltanisetta
3390:
3380:
3369:
3306:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3272:Porto Torres
3249:
3214:Castellamare
3207:
3196:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3129:
3105:
3100:
3083:Mount Circeo
3068:
3048:Vatican Hill
3044:Leonine Wall
3033:
3028:
2981:
2966:Centumcellae
2919:
2871:
2850:
2839:
2821:, prince of
2815:Kvarner Gulf
2771:
2741:
2728:
2718:
2685:
2654:Papal legate
2635:
2625:
2582:
2573:Ferdinand II
2561:
2532:Adriatic Sea
2516:
2510:
2497:took place.
2462:Frederick II
2460:and his son
2454:Hohenstaufen
2442:
2421:
2409:
2367:
2351:
2323:
2288:
2269:
2252:
2242:
2205:
2187:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2137:
2114:
2095:
2051:
2011:
1968:
1962:
1931:
1912:
1901:
1843:Alexandretta
1767:
1766:
1747:Thessalonica
1685:
1684:
1660:2nd Taormina
1644:1st Taormina
1614:3rd Syracuse
1604:2nd Syracuse
1579:1st Syracuse
1571:
1566:
1565:
1546:Mauropotamos
1504:
1503:
1479:Sebastopolis
1461:
1460:
1429:North Africa
1427:
1426:
1388:
1387:
1293:al-Qaryatayn
1279:
1278:
1253:
1153:
1138:
1103:
1080:
1058:Frederick II
1014:
930:
928:
874:
827:World War II
788:Insurrection
742:
600:
590:
498:
497:(2020–
474:
456:
455:(1946–
379:Risorgimento
377:
335:Italian Wars
323:Early modern
291:
154:
148:
120:Ancient Rome
26:
7467:Italophilia
7427:Coat of arm
7377:Cinquecento
7253:Immigration
7203:Aristocracy
7068:Agriculture
6962:Nationality
6935:LGBT rights
6849:Earthquakes
6730:Mani pulite
6646:World War I
6589:Unification
6582:Late modern
6546:Renaissance
6391:Middle Ages
6384:Middle Ages
6361:Roman Italy
6128:Citizenship
5992:Mali Empire
5784:Nogai Horde
5634:Muzaffarids
5417:Muhallabids
5231:Shi'a Imams
4800:The Normans
4333:Kreutz, 45.
4205:|work=
4126:|work=
3410:قلعة النساء
3329:Christendom
3301:, attacked
3290:) from the
3234:Manfredonia
3144:Pope John X
3117:Saracinesco
3106:In 898 the
3040:chain gangs
2920:In 846 the
2742:In 866 the
2530:across the
2422:The Norman
2237: 1000
1639:2nd Milazzo
1634:1st Milazzo
1619:Caltavuturo
1561:Bathys Ryax
1373:Iron Bridge
1338:Marj ar-Rum
1064:. In 1300,
1015:In 965 the
933:began with
778:Great Siege
743:Arab period
731:Middle Ages
665:History of
521:Citizenship
476:Mani pulite
389:Young Italy
208:Ostrogothic
144:Roman Italy
63:History of
38: 1150
7590:Categories
7537:Traditions
7527:Television
7512:Philosophy
7477:Literature
7417:Cathedrals
7387:Settecento
7248:Healthcare
7213:Corruption
7208:Censorship
6967:Parliament
6925:Government
6725:Maxi Trial
6673:Resistance
6402:Ostrogoths
6334:Messapians
6219:Villanovan
6209:Prehistory
6202:Prehistory
5818:South Asia
5609:Ghaznavids
5341:Al-Andalus
5288:caliphates
5245:600–700 AD
4690:8822738365
4272:"Volume 6"
4054:2022-12-15
4029:2022-12-15
3819:2022-10-28
3813:Zhistorica
3462:References
3364:See also:
3256:Sardinians
3203:Barbarossa
2831:Andalusian
2791:Ionian Sea
2675:Philip III
2617:Christians
2536:Burgundian
2449:Ibn Hamdis
2201:Ibn Qurhub
2174:Ibn Hawqal
2032:. In 845,
2018:Beneventan
1908:Michael II
1866:2nd Aleppo
1737:Cephalonia
1649:Garigliano
1551:Faruriyyah
1521:Kopidnadon
1407:Alexandria
1397:Heliopolis
1383:Germanicia
1368:1st Aleppo
1288:Marj Rahit
1281:The Levant
1106:Alexandria
718:Roman rule
469:Maxi Trial
352:Napoleonic
7497:Mythology
7472:Libraries
7392:Ottocento
7334:Terrorism
7275:Languages
7228:Education
7150:Transport
7100:Companies
7007:Provinces
6977:President
6942:Judiciary
6915:Elections
6827:Volcanoes
6822:Volcanism
6815:Apennines
6800:Mountains
6768:Peninsula
6751:Geography
6682:Civil War
6407:Byzantium
6314:Etruscans
6249:Canegrate
6244:Golasecca
6229:Rinaldone
6224:Terramare
6214:Neolithic
5639:Chobanids
5629:Ilkhanate
5407:Aghlabids
5172:216117913
4441:cite book
4207:ignored (
4197:cite book
4128:ignored (
4118:cite book
3880:cite book
3220:in 1544;
3161:Jerusalem
3138:) by the
3121:Ciciliano
3023:, son of
2962:Portuense
2809:. In the
2783:Byzantium
2779:Venetians
2679:Philip IV
2628:Philip II
2540:Provençal
2475:Girifalco
2396:in 1189.
2208:Agrigento
1929:victory.
1904:Euphemius
1813:5th Crete
1798:Andrassos
1757:4th Crete
1752:3rd Crete
1707:2nd Crete
1702:1st Crete
1680:2nd Malta
1609:1st Malta
1417:Darishkur
1378:2nd Emesa
1358:Jerusalem
1184:Lampedusa
1050:Byzantine
998:Byzantine
995:Christian
443:Partisans
198:Odoacer's
156:Optimates
150:Populares
40:) in the
7575:Category
7462:Internet
7452:Folklore
7382:Seicento
7367:Trecento
7362:Duecento
7324:Religion
7285:Regional
7263:Italians
7238:Gambling
7130:Taxation
6957:Military
6898:Politics
6700:Republic
6487:Florence
6412:Lombards
6351:Republic
6297:Samnites
6292:Picentes
6234:Apennine
6193:Railways
6173:Military
6121:By topic
6105:Overview
6089:articles
5967:Dar Sila
5699:Anatolia
5500:Crusades
5480:Tulunids
5262:Rashidun
5252:Muhammad
5107:(1971).
5032:citation
5007:citation
4941:(1957).
4923:(2006),
4895:Archived
4892:this PDF
4784:Speculum
4707:and the
4227:beck.org
4160:Archived
4071:(1988).
3980:. Payot.
3731:(1990).
3666:Archived
3514:Speculum
3420:See also
3387:toponyms
3347:and the
3337:Crusades
3303:Sardinia
3295:of Denia
3264:Oristano
3252:Saracens
3240:Sardinia
3210:Pozzuoli
3132:Minturno
3069:In 877,
3056:Aghlabid
2996:Frisians
2992:Lombards
2958:Ostiense
2956:and the
2934:Sorrento
2902:Campania
2819:Siconulf
2787:Brindisi
2761:Croatian
2756:Calabria
2737:Adelchis
2658:Calabria
2589:Moriscos
2483:Stornara
2479:Acerenza
2458:Henry VI
2359:Ifriqiya
2357:Emir of
2339:al-Akhal
2253:de facto
2121:Calabria
2066:Gagliano
1999:Corleone
1975:Taormina
1927:Aghlabid
1856:Basil II
1717:Damietta
1697:Keramaia
1556:Lalakaon
1499:Akroinon
1463:Anatolia
1451:Carthage
1436:Sufetula
1353:Laodicea
1323:Damascus
1303:Ajnadayn
1168:Sardinia
1164:Ifriqiya
1126:Ifriqiya
1095:Olympius
1002:Frankish
987:Piedmont
656:a series
654:Part of
602:Timeline
566:Military
514:By topic
453:Republic
437:Fascist
408:Monarchy
363:Republic
275:Medieval
253:Germanic
238:Frankish
133:Republic
54:a series
52:Part of
7532:Theatre
7507:Palaces
7487:Museums
7457:Gardens
7442:Fashion
7432:Cuisine
7412:Castles
7354:Culture
7304:Poverty
7280:Italian
7191:Society
7172:Welfare
7140:Tourism
7110:Exports
7078:Banking
7058:Economy
7046:Economy
7002:Regions
6884:Valleys
6854:Islands
6834:Beaches
6805:Prealps
6785:Geology
6773:Climate
6437:Normans
6397:Odoacer
6346:Kingdom
6329:Ligures
6265:Ancient
6239:Nuragic
6188:Postage
6163:Judaism
6153:Genetic
6143:Fashion
6138:Economy
6097:History
5703:Balkans
5582:Alavids
5544:Kathiri
5462:Mashriq
5384:Maghreb
5221:Leaders
3534:2852342
3354:Arborea
3268:Caralis
3260:Tharros
3199:corsair
3087:Traetto
3079:Salerno
3025:Sergius
3004:Spoleto
2983:scholae
2886:Salerno
2842:Adelchi
2823:Salerno
2683:Palermo
2670:Granada
2662:Corsica
2646:Lepanto
2644:(after
2642:Messina
2613:Barbary
2605:Palermo
2528:Albania
2521:Angevin
2466:Muslims
2416:Normans
2307:Otto II
2194:Ismaili
2141:Cosenza
2117:Basil I
2038:Lentini
2022:Messina
2003:Marineo
1991:Platani
1938:Palermo
1861:Orontes
1828:Antioch
1823:Cilicia
1742:Euripos
1692:Phoenix
1665:Rometta
1594:Lentini
1584:Messina
1541:Amorium
1511:Kamacha
1456:Tabarka
1441:Vescera
1422:Bahnasa
1348:Yarmouk
1194:in the
1172:Corsica
1145:Tunisia
1033:Palermo
1029:Messina
1025:Normans
1017:Kalbids
1010:Italian
993:, with
748:Normans
586:Railway
581:Postage
556:Judaism
546:Genetic
536:Fashion
531:Economy
499:present
457:present
426:Fascism
368:Kingdom
296:Normans
228:Lombard
127:Kingdom
7563:
7437:Design
7422:Cinema
7397:Anthem
7319:Racism
7268:People
7243:Health
7105:Energy
7095:Brands
7022:Comune
7017:Cities
6879:Rivers
6839:Canals
6522:Amalfi
6507:Venice
6366:Empire
6307:Veneti
6282:Latins
6254:Latial
6087:
5950:Africa
5737:Bosnia
5619:Seljuk
5564:Persia
5286:Early
5170:
5123:
5093:
5072:
5053:
4949:
4890:, cf.
4867:
4811:
4761:
4687:
4647:
4617:
4570:
4493:
4468:
4411:
4386:
4253:
4185:
4106:
4079:
4001:
3941:
3856:
3741:
3707:, 307.
3608:
3570:
3532:
3393:qalʿat
3333:Papacy
3288:Museto
3226:Vieste
3222:Reggio
3218:Ischia
3157:Norman
3062:, but
3012:Miseno
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