875:, except that it normalized the pronunciations for all characters into the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect. Despite efforts by some factions to recognize and promote southern Chinese varieties as well, the Kuomintang strongly promoted Guoyu as the one national language and censored and arrested opponents of this movement, continuing this through the wartime years. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.
342:) in an attempt to make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standard. But these attempts had little success. As late as the 19th century the emperor had difficulty understanding some of his own ministers in court, who did not always try to follow any standard pronunciation. As late as the early 20th century, the position of Nanjing Mandarin was considered higher than that of Beijing by some and the
35:
314:' honorable').The grammar of the earlier form of Mandarin grammar was almost identical to that in contemporary Mandarin, with infrequent, minor differences in the usage of grammatical particular or word order in the sentence. Its vocabulary was also largely the same as in modern Mandarin, though some vocabulary has since been dropped from the language.
298:, as well as by the higher civil servants and military officers of the imperial regime serving throughout the country. This lect is quite close to modern Mandarin, but there exist some differences. The Mandarin language used many honorifics which have mostly disappeared in modern-day Mandarin daily speech, such as
860:
Meanwhile, vernacular literature continued to develop apace, despite the lack of a standardized pronunciation. Gradually, the members of the
National Language Commission came to settle upon the Beijing dialect which became the major source of standard national pronunciation, due to the status of that
929:
In both mainland China and Taiwan, the use of
Mandarin as the medium of instruction in the educational system and in the media has contributed to the spread of Mandarin. As a result, Standard Chinese is now spoken fluently by most people in mainland China and in Taiwan. However, in Hong Kong and
242:(Elegant pronunciation of the Central Plains), meant to represent the common spoken language rather than the "correct" literary pronunciation reflected in the Song dictionaries. This book became the standard speech of northern Chinese theatre forms. During the flight of the Song literati to the
840:
was convened with delegates from the entire country, who were chosen based as often on political considerations as often as on linguistic expertise. The conference deadlocked between promoters of northern and southern pronunciation standards and as a result, a compromise was produced. The
246:
after the
Jurchen conquest, Neo-Confucians began to fixate on the idea of restoring "correct" pronunciation as it was believed to be spoken by the ancients. As a result, the subsequent rime dictionaries such as the Ming dynasty's
203:. However, these standard dialects were largely unknown outside of the educated elite; even among the elite, pronunciations may have differed widely; this was enabled by the unifying factor of
325:, who worked in China from 1582 to 1610. Ricci wrote of "a spoken language common to the whole Empire, known as the Quonhua, an official language for civil and forensic use".
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823:
1252:
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dynasties), and mastery of these linguistic standards were necessary for upward advancement. Yuan dynasty North China developed a lingua franca known as
366:). Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed
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as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan; in 1902 the
Japanese Diet had formed the
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648:
367:
1221:
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251:洪武正韵 reflect the "ideal" pronunciations and deviated from the actual spoken pronunciations. This deviation differed from the Yuan dynasty's
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L. Richard's ... Comprehensive
Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies ... Translated Into English, Revised and Enlarged
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became increasingly influential, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various dialects in the capital, Beijing.
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869:), with little fanfare or official pronunciation. This dictionary was similar to the previous published one, now known as the
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that had disappeared in
Mandarin, as well as some consonantal endings from southern varieties and consonantal onsets from
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620:
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Macau, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains
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After the
Republic of China was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A
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287:. It seems that during the early part of this period, the standard was based on the Nanjing dialect, but later the
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857:. Ultimately, this attempt at synthesis was abandoned in favor of a pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect.
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as too distant from the "elegant pronunciation of middle China" and was not actually spoken by court officials.
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849:) was published, which attempted compromise between Beijingese and other regional dialects: it preserved the
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The government of the People's
Republic of China, established in 1949, continued the effort. In 1955,
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Præter hunc tamen cuique
Provinciæ vernaculum sermonem, alius est universo regno communis, quem ipsi
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Historically, the word "Mandarin" refers to the language spoken by the upper classes of 19th-century
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standard set in 1906 included spellings with elements of
Nanjing pronunciation. The sense of
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895:'common speech'. The Republic of China on Taiwan continues to refer to Standard Chinese as
238:. Yuan era scholar Zhou Deqing published a book detailing a standard spoken Chinese, named
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and Taiwan have diverged somewhat, though they continue to remain essentially identical.
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which more closely reflected contemporary speech. Ming scholar Lu Kun criticised the
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has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects; hence prestige dialects and
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Chinese Grammatology: Script Revolution and Literary Modernity, 1916–1958
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Engraving Virtue: The Printing History of a Premodern Korean Moral Primer
329:
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China in the sixteenth century: the journals of Matthew Ricci, 1583–1610
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dialect as a prestigious dialect. In 1932, the commission published the
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royal lands rather than regional dialects; texts authored during the
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with de facto official status in China, Taiwan, and Singapore.
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183:(202 BC – 220 AD) also refer to
986:
The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895-1919
283:) 'official speech' to refer to the dialect used at the
207:
as a written standard regardless of the dialect spoken.
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The language of the literate ruling class was known as
355:
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to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed
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Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use
199:(420–589) likely also reflected systems of standard
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59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
958:The Sociolinguistics of Voice in Globalising China
175:'elegant speech' modeled on the dialect of the
1057:(in Latin), vol. 1, Gualterus, p. 31
838:Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation
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321:was already known to Europeans by the time of
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934:despite the growing use of Standard Chinese.
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8:
1188:Dialect and Nationalism in China, 1860–1960
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926:is widely used for teaching of Putonghua.
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1070:vocant, quod curialem vel forensem sonat.
328:In the 17th century, the Qing had set up
119:Learn how and when to remove this message
1152:Nationalism and language reform in China
1040:, New York: Random House, pp. 28–29
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977:
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1088:, Shanghai: Tʻusewei Press, p. iv
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7:
1054:De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas
960:. Taylor & Francis. p. 52.
899:. Since then, the standards used in
843:Dictionary of National Pronunciation
590:Simplification of Chinese characters
57:adding citations to reliable sources
1105:
451:Eastward spread of Western learning
439:Constitutional Protection Movement
352:National Language Research Council
275:(1644–1912) began to use the term
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18:History of Modern Standard Chinese
609:Translation of foreign literature
595:Romanization of Chinese languages
33:
600:Writing with vernacular Chinese
197:Southern and Northern dynasties
44:needs additional citations for
1190:, Cambridge University Press,
1172:, Princeton University Press,
920:special administrative regions
612:Sorting out national heritages
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375:
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1:
1208:, Columbia University Press,
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68:"History of Standard Chinese"
382:), the 'national language'.
1013:. BRILL. pp. 146–147.
672:League of Left-Wing Writers
463:Boxer Indemnity Scholarship
356:
1880:
1168:Ramsey, S. Robert (1987),
1064:– via Google Books,
872:Old National Pronunciation
605:National Language Movement
988:. BRILL. pp. 41–47.
892:
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639:Doubting Antiquity School
573:East-west cultural debate
424:Coronation of Yuan Shikai
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154:have always been needed.
1095:– via Google Books
1047:– via Open Library
984:Elisabeth Kaske (2008).
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1864:Chinese language reform
1186:Tam, Gina Anne (2020),
1082:Richard, Louis (1908),
906:After the handovers of
429:National Protection War
263:Ming and Qing dynasties
1859:Early modern languages
1170:The languages of China
1051:Ricci, Matteo (1617),
1034:Ricci, Matteo (1953),
1009:Young Kyun Oh (2013).
134:is a standard form of
1204:Zhong, Yurou (2019),
1154:, New York: Octagon,
667:Crescent Moon Society
458:Scientific Revolution
578:Total Westernization
394:New Culture Movement
191:'common language').
53:improve this article
698:The Critical Review
478:May Fourth Movement
344:postal romanization
218:(Han dynasty), and
1854:Language histories
684:Major publications
633:Schools of thought
473:Russian Revolution
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434:Manchu Restoration
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195:written since the
167: 479 BC
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1835:
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1266:world's languages
1223:978-0-231-54989-9
1214:10.7312/zhon19262
1197:978-1-108-77640-0
1179:978-0-691-06694-3
1161:978-0-374-92095-1
956:Jie Dong (2016).
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368:imperial Mandarin
317:The existence of
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306:' humble') and
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70: –
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64:Find sources:
58:
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42:This article
40:
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1725:
1709:Sino–Tibetan
1671:Austronesian
1505:Indo-Iranian
1205:
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1090:, retrieved
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851:checked tone
842:
835:
776:Shen Congwen
711:
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550:New humanism
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323:Matteo Ricci
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109:October 2007
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51:Please help
46:verification
43:
26:
1823:Interlingue
1818:Interlingua
1806:constructed
1721:Gan Chinese
1598:Afroasiatic
1140:Works cited
1130:Ramsey 1987
914:, the term
791:Kang Youwei
691:La Jeunesse
444:Warlord Era
332:academies (
181:Han dynasty
1843:Categories
1662:Vietnamese
1512:Hindustani
1480:in Ukraine
1466:Macedonian
1446:Belarusian
1430:Lithuanian
1399:Portuguese
1118:Zhong 2019
1106:Tam (2020)
1092:2024-03-17
1061:2024-03-17
1044:2024-03-17
938:References
786:Zhu Ziqing
736:Chen Duxiu
649:Communists
535:Liberalism
490:Ideologies
407:Background
165: – c.
163: 551
142:Background
79:newspapers
1813:Esperanto
1769:Iroquoian
1695:Sundanese
1636:Malayalam
1624:Dravidian
1573:Hungarian
1496:Ukrainian
1456:Bulgarian
1317:Norwegian
1312:Icelandic
1287:Afrikaans
1262:Histories
1150:(1972) ,
943:Citations
932:Cantonese
916:Putonghua
908:Hong Kong
889:Putonghua
756:Li Dazhao
741:Guo Moruo
712:The Tiger
545:Communism
540:Socialism
530:Modernism
525:Anarchism
507:Scientism
496:Democracy
156:Confucius
1776:Cherokee
1753:Koreanic
1744:Japanese
1683:Filipino
1563:Estonian
1538:Albanian
1404:Romanian
1384:Galician
1280:Germanic
562:Practice
330:orthoepy
214:(Zhou),
1797:Turkish
1737:Japonic
1716:Chinese
1700:Cebuano
1678:Tagalog
1631:Kannada
1610:Aramaic
1568:Finnish
1522:Persian
1491:Slovene
1476:Russian
1451:Bosnian
1425:Latvian
1409:Spanish
1389:Italian
1369:Catalan
1332:Yiddish
1327:Swedish
1302:English
1264:of the
1068:Quonhua
781:Yu Dafu
766:Mao Dun
751:Lao She
746:Hu Shih
501:Science
319:Guanhua
296:Beijing
277:Guanhua
220:guanyun
93:scholar
1785:Turkic
1760:Korean
1646:Telugu
1615:Hebrew
1605:Arabic
1589:Basque
1556:Uralic
1517:Nepali
1486:Slovak
1471:Polish
1439:Slavic
1418:Baltic
1378:Quebec
1374:French
1362:Italic
1341:Celtic
1307:German
1292:Danish
1220:
1194:
1176:
1158:
1017:
992:
964:
924:pinyin
867:國音常用字彙
761:Lu Xun
731:Ba Jin
357:kokugo
285:courts
216:tongyu
185:tongyu
95:
88:
81:
74:
66:
1792:Azeri
1690:Malay
1641:Tamil
1543:Greek
1531:other
1461:Czech
1394:Latin
1353:Welsh
1348:Irish
1322:Scots
1297:Dutch
912:Macau
897:Guoyu
885:Guoyu
372:Guoyu
348:Guoyu
244:South
212:yayan
172:yayan
100:JSTOR
86:books
1218:ISBN
1192:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1156:ISBN
1015:ISBN
990:ISBN
962:ISBN
910:and
847:國音詞典
334:正音書院
300:jian
269:Ming
267:The
232:Song
230:and
228:Tang
146:The
72:news
1828:Ido
1210:doi
893:普通話
370:as
308:guì
224:Sui
55:by
1845::
1216:,
976:^
855:Wu
380:國語
378:;
376:国语
363:国語
336:;
281:官話
226:,
189:通語
160:c.
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