Knowledge (XXG)

693:.). In this stage the absolute is immediately present to sense-perception, an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with Kant's doctrine of the "subjectivity" of beauty. The beautiful is defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Schein) and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the beautiful is unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) gives necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), while the reality demands the semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He discusses very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of organic life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds the highest revelation of the beautiful. Art makes up for the deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into clearer light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form. He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest being architecture, the highest, poetry. 1051:("Of ideas of beauty"), though sadly wanting in scientific precision, have a certain value in the history of divine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and appreciation of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imaginative or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the external quality of bodies which typifies some divine attribute. The latter consists in "the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function in living things". The forms of typical beauty are:-- (1) infinity, the type of the divine incomprehensibility; (2) unity, the type of the divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine permanence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity, the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic if only the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed functions of the species is taken into account. Ruskin's writings illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral perception. 1167:'s idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the outcome of the superfluous energies of the organism: as the activity of organs and faculties which, owing to a prolonged period of inactivity, have become specially ready to discharge their function, and as a consequence vent themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic activities supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race transmitted by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones expressive of feeling built up during the history of our species. This biological treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influence, some e.g. 547:, though he adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any independent self-existing beauty in objects. "All beauty", he says, "is relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it." One cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple sensation such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or "uniformity amidst variety". The faculty by which this principle is discerned is an internal sense which is defined as "a passive power of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is uniformity in variety". This inner sense resembles the external senses in the immediateness of the pleasure which its activity brings, and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing being always, whether we will or no, beautiful. He distinguishes two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or comparative. The latter is discerned in an object which is regarded as an imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that "an exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of this sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlargement of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uniformity than the opposite. 1140:("Aesthetic Emotions"), carries this examination considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other varieties of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics:-- (1) their freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought for their own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable concomitants; (3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, including the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its "ideal" form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty, of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees, which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder. The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on Aristotle and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing dignity in circumstances that excite no other strong emotion. 1482:, and consists of 17 characters, which, with the addition of dots placed above or below certain of them, provide the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet. Short vowels are not included in the alphabet, being indicated by signs placed above or below the consonant or long vowel that they follow. Certain characters may be joined to their neighbours, others to the preceding one only, and others to the succeeding one only. The written letters undergo a slight external change according to their position within a word. When they stand alone or occur at the end of a word, they ordinarily terminate in a bold stroke; when they appear in the middle of a word, they are ordinarily joined to the letter following by a small, upward curved stroke. With the exception of six letters, which can be joined only to the preceding ones, the initial and medial letters are much abbreviated, while the final form consists of the initial form with a triumphant flourish. The essential part of the characters, however, remains unchanged. 1097:, all the elements of visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements:-- (1) fitness of the parts to some design; (2) variety in as many ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye "a wanton kind of chase"; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round from the base to the apex of a long slender cone). 208: 591:, illustrate the tendency of English writers to treat the problem as a psychological one and to introduce physiological considerations. He finds the elements of beauty to be:-- (1) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation of direction in gentle curves; (4) delicacy, or the appearance of fragility; (5) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime is rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always retains an element of terror. Thus "infinity has a tendency to fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls "efficient causes" for these aesthetic impressions in certain affections of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely, the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres. The arbitrariness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's attention. 741:, translated by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219–346), abandoning also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of intellect from will. In this contemplation the mind is filled with pure intellectual forms, the "Platonic Ideas" as he calls them, which are objectifications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representation. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of existence is surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed as merely imperfect manifestation or objectification of will. In this way the beauty of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel, is rehabilitated. 1340: 1701:, representing a particular aesthetic philosophy that values the beauty of the simple, irregular, and impermanent. It finds beauty in what is naturally aged and imperfect. The term "wabi" refers to solitude and simplicity, while "sabi" describes the beauty that comes with age and patina. Emptiness, or "sabi," is also a significant aspect of wabi-sabi. It involves a space or pause in a composition that gives the observer time to reflect and contemplate. Emptiness is an important aesthetic principle in Japanese art and is also linked to the Zen Buddhism philosophy of presence and awareness. Minimalism is a prominent aspect of Japanese aesthetics, focusing on reducing to the essentials and simplifying, which can be seen in Japanese architecture, design, and art. 1308: 1451:. Although the often cited opposition in Islam to the depiction of human and animal forms holds true for religious art and architecture, in the secular sphere, such representations have flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures. The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation of living forms is unique to God, and it is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been controversial. The strongest statements on the subject of figural depiction are made in the Hadith (Traditions of the Prophet), where painters are challenged to "breathe life" into their creations and threatened with punishment on the 1112:, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process then finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination, namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheerfulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the existence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates the working of the principle of association at great length, and with much skill; yet his attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic pleasure fails completely. 1369:' term for the supreme divine force or deity that underlies the entire world and universe. It is an all-encompassing and transcendental force present in everything and overseeing the cosmos. Teōtl is both the creative force that created the world and the force that maintains balance and order in the cosmos. In Aztec aesthetics, artistic creations were considered aesthetically valuable if they genuinely and truthfully revealed teōtl. This meant that works of art and beauty in Aztec culture were considered true when they authentically represented the divine force and its balance and purity. Teōtl was thus the very foundation of aesthetic values and judgments in Aztec art. 989:). All beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The several beautiful characters of an organic body — of which the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment — may be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the manifestations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of inorganic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty is in its objective essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in order. 1281: 756:, Bd. ii. pp. 339 et seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 105 et seq., and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq..). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's view of the aesthetic Judgment as singular ("individual"); though he secures a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphasizing the point that the predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the same aesthetic object. At the same time, by referring the beauty of concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (compare above). Since he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known as a 511:, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ of scientific analysis in the statement that the pleasures of imagination (which arise originally from sight) fall into two classes — (1) primary pleasures, which entirely proceed from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The latter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison recognizes, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon our aesthetic preferences. 1332:'s aesthetic framework. This word is used to describe beauty and aesthetic quality within Yoruba art and culture at large. Ẹwà is not solely a description of visual beauty; it also encompasses an emotional and spiritual dimension. In Yoruba culture, beauty is not merely superficial but is also connected to deeper values and meanings. Being ẹwà also includes being true to one's own nature and soul. It is about living in harmony with oneself, one's values, and one's spiritual beliefs. Being ẹwà means being in harmony with one's innermost essence and being true to oneself. 89:) produces aspiration towards this pure idea. Elsewhere the soul's intuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its prenatal existence. As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty reveals itself, Plato is not very decided. His theory of an absolute beauty does not easily adjust itself to the notion of its contributing merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean in some dialogues. He tends to identify the self-beautiful with the conceptions of the true and the good, and thus there arose the Platonic formula 1968: 760:, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He sets out with the idea that only relations please — in the Kantian sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire; and his aim is to determine the "aesthetic elementary relations", or the simplest relations which produce this pleasure. These include those of will, so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought under an aesthetic form. His typical example of aesthetic relations of objects of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones. The science of 1714: 998: 1734: 93:. So far as his writings embody the notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, harmony or unity among their parts. He emphasizes unity in its simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of color. He recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and seems to think that the highest beauty of proportion is to be found in the union of a beautiful mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation ( 85:, than it is in the case of ethical good. In some of these, various definitions of the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic Socrates. At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took its place in his scheme of ideas or self-existing forms. This true beauty is nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, for these are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love ( 1412: 1020: 1676: 1394: 2010:(4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye on "a wanton kind of chase"; and (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention and produces admiration and awe. Later analytic aestheticians strove to link beauty to some scientific theory of 1860: 631: 1312: 3115: 1752: 961:(trans. by I. Durand), he proceeds in the manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters in the physical and moral man. The degree of the universality or importance of a character, and of its beneficence or adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its aesthetic value, and render the work of art, which seeks to represent it in its purity, an ideal work. 217: 532:. Matter in itself is ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment. 1377: 149:. As noted in the Encyclopædia Britannica (1902), moreover, Aristotle, "ignores all conceptions of an absolute Beauty, and at the same time seeks to distinguish the Beautiful from the Good." Aristotle explains that men "will be better able to achieve good if develop a fuller understanding of what it is to flourish." He nonetheless seeks (in the 310:(brightness or form). While Aristotle likewise identifies the first two characteristics, St. Thomas conceives of the third as an appropriation from principles developed by neo-Platonic and Augustinian thinkers. With the shift from the Middle Ages to the , art likewise changed its focus, as much in its content as in its mode of expression. 1805: 270:'s "Retracing the Arts to Theology", a primary example of this method, discusses the skills of the artisan as gifts given by God for the purpose of disclosing God to mankind, which purpose is achieved through four lights: the light of skill in mechanical arts which discloses the world of artifacts; which light is guided by the light of 1986:'s search for moral grounding) was more than the foundation for much of his literary career; he once stated, "Aestheticism is a search after the signs of the beautiful. It is the science of the beautiful through which men seek the correlation of the arts. It is, to speak more exactly, the search after the secret of life.". 1705: 286:. Thomas, like many other medievals, never gives a systematic account of beauty itself, but several scholars have conventionally arranged his thought—though not always with uniform conclusions—using relevant observations spanning the entire corpus of his work. While Aquinas's theory follows generally the model of 1373: 2009: 1947: 1704: 1035: 207: 1372: 1124: 864: 184: 1335: 784: 635: 1733: 1455:. The Qur'an is less specific but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir ("maker of forms," or artist) as an epithet for God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. 1393: 1072: 630: 845: 104: 58: 1397: 1249: 1244: 668:, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) According to Schelling a new philosophical significance is given to art by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object — which is half disguised in ordinary perception and volition — is only clearly seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its 1989: 1461: 1307: 672: 1512: 997: 804: 764: 1019: 859: 1443: 282:'s aesthetic is probably the most famous and influential theory among medieval authors, having been the subject of much scrutiny in the wake of the neo-Scholastic revival of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and even having received the approbation of the celebrated Modernist writer, 1737: 576:. Beauty to him corresponds to perfect sense-knowledge. Baumgarten reduces taste to an intellectual act and ignores the element of feeling. To him, nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and thus art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible imitation of nature. 602: 821:. This is a rather ambitious discussion of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically on the problems to which modern poetry gives rise are 116:, in contrast to Plato, developed certain principles of beauty and art, most clearly so in his treatises on poetry and rhetoric. He saw the absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows as another characteristic of the beautiful. Aristotle finds (in the 809:, trans. by J. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing out among other points the connexion between aesthetic activity and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts on aesthetic subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philosophy. 274: 428:, the 'highest and eternal intellect' had fashioned the supreme archetypes of multifarious nature, the 'Ideas', out of his own being, as the 'perfection of natural beauty', and the artists of antiquity had looked beyond nature to the superior 'Idea' itself. 765: 1575:(juice, taste). In many cases, art aims to produce repose and relief for those exhausted with labor, or distraught with grief, or laden with misery, or struck by austere times. Yet entertainment is an effect, but not the primary goal of arts according to 941:), form, and illustrates his theory by the human face. A beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical form of the species. 785: 1125: 571: 195:) than History. He gives us no complete classification of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. 850: 1036: 1963: 1398: 1566: 1505:, however, argued that music and fine arts were classist and wasteful, benefiting the rich over the poor. By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well. 2584: 980: 1634: 925:(1765), in which the meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) according as they employ the forms of space or those of time. 1939: 660: 1171: 673: 640:. It is in these last paragraphs where he connects to his earlier works when he argues that the highest significance of beauty is to symbolize moral good; going in this regard even further than 905: 1465: 1955: 59: 97:) which takes us another step further from the luminous sphere of rational intuition into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly, in his scheme for an ideal 167:). At the same time he allowed that the good might under certain conditions be called beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and in a passage of the 1889: 1245: 721:, 3 Theile, 1846–1834). It illustrates the difficulties of the Hegelian thought and terminology; yet in dealing with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive. 1439:, although many Arab artists throughout time have not been Muslim. The term "Islamic" refers not only to the religion, but to any form of art created by people in an 869:) a series of experiments carried out on a large number of persons, bearing on this point, the results of which he considers to be in favour of Zeising's hypothesis. 1339: 138: 1882:. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. 1956: 519: 331:, were challenged by new styles, such as Baroque, that adopted new styles and technique to distinguish itself from previous forms of art. The key concepts of the 1269: 1513: 3139: 2655: 145:, he writes, "Again, men in general desire the good, and not merely what their fathers had." To thoroughly comprehend goodness, Aristotle also studied 1908:, the philosophy of art is the "organon" of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the 387: 101:, he provided for the most inexorable censorship of poets, etc., so as to make art as far as possible an instrument of moral and political training. 1820: 913: 459:). Winckelmann himself frankly recognizes this indebtedness. In the essay "A Parallel of Poetry and Painting," which prefaces his translation of 1769: 796: 657: 3187:, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014 (Vol. 1ː The Eighteenth Century; Vol. 2ː The Nineteenth Century; Vol. 3ː The Twentieth Century). 3281: 3236: 3202: 3054: 3027: 3000: 2973: 2934: 2907: 2827: 2797: 2734: 2069: 3130: 2679: 1265: 247: 3324: 3310: 729: 2255: 1905: 1105: 417: 3260: 2642: 2590: 2293: 1791: 1280: 1032: 1893: 2658: 1838: 710: 48:. When interpreting writings from this time, it is worth noticing that it is debatable whether an exact equivalent to the term 1994: 1639: 886: 885: 830: 540: 3342: 2497: 2472: 1997: 1773: 1679: 1120:(in the Edinburgh Review, and Encyclopædia Britannica, 8th edition) are little more than a modification of Alison's theory. 985: 817: 1586: 1647: 1163:, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of evolution. Adopting 1925: 1886: 568: 556: 421:. Since then it has acquired almost canonical status as one of the earliest declarations of the principles of Classicism. 255: 1133: 882: 1935: 1901: 1878: 460: 141: 852: 1073: 1497: 797: 793: 436: 1967: 1762: 1416: 714: 1921: 1180: 914: 834: 777: 749: 734: 706: 3294:, The Hague, Mouton, 1970 (Vol 1ː Ancient Aesthetics; Vol. 2ː Medieval Aesthetics; Vol. 3ː Modern Aesthetics). 1617:, the interpretation and implementation of a particular rasa differs between different styles and schools. In 893:, and the continuation of the discussion as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the 18th century by 1583: 1447: 1253: 1990: 1917: 1844: 826: 636: 396: 244: 151: 1713: 976:, the philosophic writers who under the influence of German thinkers effected a reaction against the crude 1998: 1913: 1730: 1618: 1610: 1069: 757: 2207: 1897: 881: 2237:(1672), from the lecture 'L'idea del pittore, dello scultore, e dell'architetto', given in Rome in 1664. 1214: 847: 752: 713:. The most important product of the Hegelian School is the elaborate system of aesthetics published by 408: 262: 2127: 822: 604: 169: 933: 2040: 1960: 1944: 1692: 1672: 906: 730: 380: 372: 324: 134: 98: 1132: 3246: 3172: 2687: 2303: 2216: 1959: 1898: 1550:). The oldest surviving complete Sanskrit manuscript that discusses a theory of aesthetics is of 1316: 1164: 801: 431: 1411: 705: 3277: 3256: 3232: 3198: 3050: 3023: 2996: 2969: 2930: 2903: 2823: 2793: 2730: 2638: 2628: 2586: 2567: 2493: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2289: 2065: 1614: 1558: 1526: 1230: 564: 252: 3044: 3017: 2990: 2963: 2924: 1501:(etiquette, the rites) in bringing us back to what is essential about humanity. His opponent 3213: 3164: 2557: 2549: 1808: 1675: 1545: 1222: 972: 890: 685:'s system of philosophy art is viewed as the first stage of the absolute spirit. (See also 524: 364: 356: 271: 69:. It is therefore absolute and does not necessarily stand in relation to a percipient mind. 155:) to distinguish the good and the beautiful by saying that the former is always in action ( 3069: 2899: 2662: 2316: 2023: 2002: 1971: 1664: 1479: 1452: 1343: 1266: 1186: 1148: 1113: 1090: 1082: 954: 950: 922: 400: 65: 1640: 475:. It is through Bellori's formulation, that the notion of ideal beauty was introduced in 1627: 1543:(~1000 BCE) in section 6.27, for example, states the arts are a refinement of the self ( 3092: 2653: 2562: 2537: 2247: 1867: 1859: 1827: 1606: 1440: 1329: 1206: 1202: 1086: 977: 934: 861: 555: 504: 432: 290:, he develops a singular aesthetics which incorporates elements unique to his thought. 279: 240: 236: 220: 33: 3336: 3217: 3134: 3121: 1890: 1591: 1552: 1304: 1258: 1194: 982: 902: 599: 488: 248: 2666: 2603: 2538:"Living in Health, Harmony, and Beauty: The Diné (Navajo) Hózhó Wellness Philosophy" 1556:, estimated to have been complete between 200 BCE and 200 CE. This theory is called 2006: 1218: 898: 856: 761: 584: 256: 232: 90: 1311: 3271: 3250: 3226: 3192: 2897: 2817: 2789: 2724: 2630: 2283: 1643: 1389: 3126: 2282: 1983: 1979: 1751: 1598: 1490: 1436: 1270: 1254: 1241: 1198: 1190: 1168: 1044: 1016: 641: 468: 291: 283: 267: 224: 86: 81: 2726: 3080: 2634: 2035: 2015: 2011: 1936: 1602: 1458: 1262: 1226: 1129: 528: 456: 440: 1189: 298: 185: 3143:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 277–289. 1949: 1879: 1849: 1697: 1506: 1494: 818: 702: 669: 443:. Winckelmann's theory of the "ideally beautiful" as he expounds it in  287: 216: 113: 41: 29: 2571: 2553: 2524: 1424: 451: (to which Winckelmann also owes his acquaintance with the letters of 3155: 1233:, as each of them developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. 371:(The Aristotelian Telescope) in 1654. This seminal treatise - inspired by 2782: 2708: 1853: 1812: 1587: 1571:, the goal of arts is to empower aesthetic experience, deliver emotional 1540: 1536: 1514: 1466: 1299: 1285: 1274: 1185: 894: 425: 384: 263: 204: 177: 55: 45: 2220: 1830: 363:), were not fully developed in literary theory until the publication of 3176: 3022:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 72–78, 45–46, 57–58, 115–116, 121–122. 2019: 1839: 1776: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1420: 1376: 701: 484: 480: 452: 404: 336: 332: 328: 94: 2764: 1863: 1471: 1390: 878: 476: 411: 190: 162: 156: 146: 127: 121: 49: 3168: 1804: 2965: 2393: 3319: 3305: 3120: 1966: 1858: 1831: 1803: 1532: 1448: 1432: 1410: 1366: 1361: 1338: 1279: 1246: 1210: 682: 529: 215: 189: 78: 60: 37: 1277: 589: 424: 3212: 1894: 1816: 1623: 1502: 259:, the cost of which commonly exceeded the wages of the artist. 1982:, the contemplation of beauty for beauty's sake (augmented by 1745: 1089:, we come to the articulations of another artist and painter, 344: 266: 161:) whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well ( 3070: 63:, in contrast, recognized that beauty exists as an abstract 2822:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 73, 102–106, 120, 155–156. 522: 32: 2525: 1509: 1435:, started in the 7th century, is sometimes referred to as 235: 3016: 2375: 2288:. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. 1852: 2992: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 203: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2209: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2085: 2083: 2081: 1662: 1047:'s well-known speculations on the nature of beauty in 327: 2064:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–35. 491: 2718: 2716: 1601: 126:), symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (to 2896:W.S. Hanley (2012). Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (ed.). 1250:these objects held within the cultures themselves. 1085:, whose theory of beauty closely resembles that of 418: 323:In the seventeenth-century aesthetic concepts from 2949: 2781: 2775: 2773: 2637:, American Univ in Cairo Press, 10 December 1999, 2456: 2270:Anmerkungen zur Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums 2235:Le vite de' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni 1493:has a long history of varied styles and emphases. 1380:The Navajo-people are known for their textile art. 949:This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted by 619:, but also deals with the experience of fine art. 507:'s "Essays on the Imagination" contributed to the 447:, thoroughly agrees with the content of Bellori's 415:was published in 1672 as the preface to Bellori's 1842:, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the 1478:Arabic is written from right to left, like other 1284:Ancient painting depicting the egyptian goddess 120:) the universal elements of beauty to be order ( 379:and the work of the Spanish Jesuit philosopher 2749: 2610:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2001 2062:Beauty - The Fortunes of an Ancient Greek Idea 1957:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury 1531:The Indian aesthetics tradition traces to the 691:Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art 2667:EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies) 1738:aesthetically satisfying spiritual presence. 8: 2866: 2492:. William Morrow Publications. p. 160. 1110:Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste 3049:. Oxford University Press. pp. 30–31. 2854: 2811: 2809: 2760: 2758: 2285:The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism 807:Uber die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen 611:. It is subdivided in two main parts - the 609:Critique of the Aesthetic Power of Judgment 173:set beauty above the useful and necessary. 2842: 2536:Kahn-John (Diné), M.; Koithan, M. (2015). 1594:(c. 1000 CE). Abhinavagupta's analysis of 1328:The word ẹwà is highly central within the 471:includes a lengthy excerpt from Bellori's 3228:Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India 2561: 1792:Learn how and when to remove this message 399:, Roman art theorist and close friend of 3273:Music and Musical Thought in Early India 2669:, volume IV, issue 7, p. 1–24, 2001 1821:National Archaeological Museum of Athens 1712: 1674: 1375: 1310: 1175:Cultural history before the 20th century 2995:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 17–23. 2968:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–97. 2902:. Springer. pp. 299–300, 295–309. 2604:"Figural Representation in Islamic Art" 2132:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2121: 2119: 2052: 1193:in many early civilizations, including 953:) has been worked out more recently by 3194:The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre 2878: 2819:Approaches to Acting: Past and Present 2788:. Columbia University Press. pp.  2542:Global Advances in Health and Medicine 2312: 2301: 1682:are often made according to wabi-sabi. 36:, among which the most noticeable are 2729:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1–2. 2680:"Introduction to Islamic Calligraphy" 2442: 2430: 2418: 2379: 2346: 2181: 2110: 2089: 1826:Western aesthetics usually refers to 664:, Bd. v., and J. Watson, Schelling's 28:The first important contributions to 7: 3095:p 122, pub Alfred A Knopf, INC. 1988 2926:The Dawn of Indian Music in the West 2784:Rasa: Performing the Divine in India 1928:also gave lectures on aesthetics as 1774:adding citations to reliable sources 1613:, theatre, painting, sculpture, and 1273:is testimony to this. The mosque of 3325:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3311:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3252:Indian Music: History and Structure 2929:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 23. 2197:(Bologna: Il Mulino, 2005), 21–22. 929:Theories of organic beauty: Buffier 2256:University of South Carolina Press 1906:Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling 965:French systems of aesthetics: The 658:Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling 638:Critique of the Aesthetic Judgment 445:Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums 14: 3320:"Medieval Theories of Aesthetics" 3019:The essence of form in sacred art 1128:Of the association psychologists 1013:Essays on the Intellectual Powers 605:Critique of the Power of Judgment 304:consonantia sive debita proportio 3113: 2767:, Encyclopedia Britannica (2013) 1750: 1579:. The primary goal is to create 1423:overlooks the central market of 800:, and the aims of dualization. 435:, Bellori is the predecessor of 306:(consonance or proportion), and 296:The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas 3276:. University of Chicago Press. 2816:Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe (2005). 1761:needs additional citations for 841:Contributions by German savants 3218:10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 3185:A History of Modern Aesthetics 2962:Sebastian Alackapally (2002). 1729:is a concept originating from 1717:Aboriginal religious painting. 1680:Japanese pottery and porcelain 180:distinctly recognized (in the 1: 2765:Rasa: Indian Aesthetic Theory 2252:Idea: a Concept in Art Theory 1926:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 1887:Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 683:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 551:Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 308:claritas sive splendor formae 2723:Arindam Chakrabarti (2016). 2459:The Healing Wisdom of Africa 2268:Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 2156:. pp. Book II, 1269.a4. 1431:Arab art has the context of 369:Il Cannocchiale aristotelico 191: 163: 157: 128: 122: 52:existed in classical Greek. 3197:. Oxford University Press. 3157:Educational Theatre Journal 2463:. TarcherPerigee. pp.  2126:Kraut, Richard (May 2001). 2101:Plato. Ion Or: On the Iliad 1081:Passing by the name of Sir 887:B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle 867:Auf experimentalen Asthetik 302:(integrity or perfection), 212:Western medieval aesthetics 3361: 2780:Susan L. Schwartz (2004). 1524: 1261:adire cloth and combs, or 1178: 794:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 739:The World as Will and Idea 737:. Schopenhauer (see also 697:Dialectic of the Hegelians 689:, Bd. x., and Bosanquet's 545:System of Moral Philosophy 2989:Harold G. Coward (1980). 2608:Department of Islamic Art 1427:. Unique Malian aesthetic 1138:The Emotions and the Will 613:Analytic of the Beautiful 559:. In his best-known work 314:Baroque and Neoclassicism 300:integritas sive perfectio 3290:Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz, 3043:Ariel Glucklich (1994). 2923:Peter Lavezzoli (2006). 1922:Friedrich Schleiermacher 1834:believed in beauty as a 1691:An important concept in 1181:Beauty (ancient thought) 1157:Principles of Psychology 1093:. He discusses, in his 1055:The analytical theorists 1030:Lectures on Metaphysics, 917:) is to be found in the 778:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 587:'s speculations, in his 383:- developed a theory of 24:Ancient Greek aesthetics 3231:. Motilal Banarsidass. 3140:Encyclopædia Britannica 2950:Emmie Te Nijenhuis 1974 2455:Somé, Malidoma (1999). 2060:Konstan, David (2014). 1918:August Wilhelm Schlegel 1811:, thought to be either 1070:Henry Home (Lord Kames) 919:Cours de belles lettres 666:Transcendental Idealism 617:Analytic of the Sublime 397:Giovanni Pietro Bellori 3270:Rowell, Lewis (2015). 3081:The meaning of dadirri 2684:CalligraphyIslamic.com 2554:10.7453/gahmj.2015.044 2490:The Spirit of Intimacy 2488:Somé, Sonbofu (2000). 2195:L’estetica del Barocco 1999:Henry Home, Lord Kames 1975: 1914:Friedrich von Schlegel 1875: 1872:Violin and Candlestick 1823: 1718: 1683: 1619:Indian classical music 1428: 1381: 1347: 1320: 1289: 563:, he complemented the 228: 3343:History of aesthetics 3292:History of Aesthetics 1974:, self-portrait, 1745 1970: 1862: 1807: 1722:Aboriginal aesthetics 1716: 1678: 1419:'s signature trio of 1414: 1379: 1342: 1314: 1283: 1066:Elements of Criticism 825:, the two Schlegels ( 805:aesthetic education ( 409:Accademia di San Luca 219: 176:Aristotle's views on 18:history of aesthetics 3306:"Ancient Aesthetics" 3225:Tarla Mehta (1995). 3046:The Sense of Adharma 2128:"Aristotle's Ethics" 1856:, and definiteness. 1770:improve this article 1122:Philosophical Essays 1108:, in his well-known 823:Wilhelm von Humboldt 495:Age of Enlightenment 335:aesthetic, such as " 3191:Ananda Lal (2004). 2881:, pp. 327–333. 2869:, pp. 249–252. 2845:, p. 308, 492. 2750:Natalia Lidova 2014 2445:, pp. 287–288. 2433:, pp. 285–289. 2421:, pp. 286–287. 2272:(1767), p. 36. 2113:, pp. 285–286. 2041:Mathematics and art 1961:Ludwig Wittgenstein 1945:Arthur Schopenhauer 1731:Aboriginal cultures 1693:Japanese aesthetics 1687:Japanese aesthetics 1590:-Hindu philosopher 1449:Islamic theologians 1293:Egyptian aesthetics 1136:, in his treatise, 1015:(viii. "Of Taste") 789:Goethe and Schiller 711:J. K. F. Rosenkranz 373:Giambattista Marino 325:classical antiquity 3255:. BRILL Academic. 3247:Emmie Te Nijenhuis 2690:on 31 October 2018 2661:2007-12-01 at the 2311:Unknown parameter 1976: 1899:Friedrich Schiller 1876: 1824: 1742:Western aesthetics 1719: 1684: 1486:Chinese aesthetics 1429: 1382: 1348: 1336:and architecture. 1321: 1290: 1095:Analysis of Beauty 987:La Science du beau 229: 3283:978-0-226-73034-9 3238:978-81-208-1057-0 3204:978-0-19-564446-3 3091:"Oscar Wilde" by 3056:978-0-19-508341-5 3029:978-81-208-0090-8 3002:978-81-208-0181-3 2975:978-81-208-1803-3 2952:, pp. 34–42. 2936:978-0-8264-1815-9 2909:978-94-011-3762-1 2867:Wallace Dace 1963 2857:, pp. 22–24. 2829:978-1-4411-0381-9 2799:978-0-231-13144-5 2736:978-1-4725-2430-0 2071:978-0-19-992726-5 1995:Francis Hutcheson 1930:philosophy of art 1910:philosophy of art 1802: 1801: 1794: 1631:in the listener. 1527:Rasa (aesthetics) 1521:Indian aesthetics 1385:Navajo aesthetics 1324:Yoruba aesthetics 1002:The Intuitionists 819:Jean Paul Richter 813:Jean Paul Richter 798:J. J. Winckelmann 541:Francis Hutcheson 3350: 3329: 3315: 3287: 3266: 3242: 3221: 3208: 3180: 3144: 3119: 3117: 3116: 3105: 3102: 3096: 3089: 3083: 3078: 3072: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2986: 2980: 2979: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2941: 2940: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2893: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2858: 2855:Tarla Mehta 1995 2852: 2846: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2813: 2804: 2803: 2787: 2777: 2768: 2762: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2720: 2711: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2686:. 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In his work, 907:Yves Marie André 891:Charles Perrault 626:does not reside 525:Characteristicks 465:De arte graphica 381:Baltasar Gracián 365:Emanuele Tesauro 272:sense perception 253:church buildings 194: 166: 160: 131: 125: 77:Of the views of 3360: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3348: 3347: 3333: 3332: 3318: 3304: 3301: 3284: 3269: 3263: 3245: 3239: 3224: 3211: 3205: 3190: 3169:10.2307/3204783 3154: 3151: 3125: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3075: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3015: 3014: 3010: 3003: 2988: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2961: 2960: 2956: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2922: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2895: 2894: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2849: 2843:Ananda Lal 2004 2841: 2837: 2830: 2815: 2814: 2807: 2800: 2779: 2778: 2771: 2763: 2756: 2748: 2744: 2737: 2722: 2721: 2714: 2707: 2703: 2693: 2691: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2663:Wayback Machine 2652: 2648: 2627: 2623: 2613: 2611: 2602: 2601: 2597: 2583: 2579: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2500: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2475: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2403: 2401: 2400:. 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Hamilton 1026: 1009: 1004: 995: 993:British writers 970: 955:Hippolyte Taine 947: 945:Hippolyte Taine 931: 923:Charles Batteux 911:Essay on Beauty 875: 843: 815: 791: 775: 747: 727: 699: 679: 655: 650: 600:Immanuel Kant's 597: 582: 553: 538: 517: 502: 497: 393: 321: 316: 214: 201: 111: 75: 26: 12: 11: 5: 3358: 3357: 3354: 3346: 3345: 3335: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3316: 3300: 3299:External links 3297: 3296: 3295: 3288: 3282: 3267: 3261: 3243: 3237: 3222: 3209: 3203: 3188: 3181: 3163:(3): 249–254. 3150: 3147: 3146: 3145: 3135:Chisholm, Hugh 3107: 3106: 3097: 3093:Richard Ellman 3084: 3073: 3062: 3055: 3035: 3028: 3008: 3001: 2981: 2974: 2954: 2942: 2935: 2915: 2908: 2883: 2871: 2859: 2847: 2835: 2828: 2805: 2798: 2769: 2754: 2742: 2735: 2712: 2701: 2671: 2646: 2621: 2595: 2577: 2528: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2498: 2480: 2473: 2447: 2435: 2423: 2411: 2384: 2382:, p. 287. 2351: 2349:, p. 288. 2322: 2294: 2274: 2261: 2258:. p. 242. 2248:Erwin Panofsky 2239: 2226: 2199: 2186: 2184:, p. 286. 2159: 2144: 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