History of manufactured fuel gases

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cylinder-shaped purifier tower which gas was then passed through, from the bottom to the top. After the charge of slaked lime had lost most of its absorption effectiveness, the purifier was then shut off from the flow of gas, and either was opened, or air was piped in. Immediately, the sulfur-impregnated slaked lime would react with the air to liberate large concentrations of sulfuretted hydrogen, which would then billow out of the purifier house, and make the gas-works, and the district, stink of sulfuretted hydrogen. Though toxic in sufficient concentrations or long exposures, the sulfuret was generally just nauseating for short exposures at moderate concentrations, and was merely a health hazard (as compared to the outright danger of "blue billy") for the gas-works employees and the neighbors of the gas-works. The sulfuretted lime was not toxic, but not greatly wanted, slightly stinking of the odor of the sulfuret, and was spread as a low grade fertilizer, being impregnated with ammonia to some degree. The outrageous stinks from many gas-works led many citizens to regard them as public nuisances, and attracted the eye of regulators, neighbors, and courts.

1061:". Originally, the waste of the purifier house was flushed into a nearby body of water, such as a river or a canal. However, after fish kills, the nauseating way it made the rivers stink, and the truly horrendous stench caused by exposure of residuals if the river was running low, the public clamoured for better means of disposal. Thus it was piled into heaps for disposal. Some enterprising gas entrepreneurs tried to sell it as a weed-killer, but most people wanted nothing to do with it, and generally, it was regarded as waste which was both smelly and poisonous, and gas-works could do little with, except bury. But this was not the end of the "blue billy", for after burying it, rain would often fall upon its burial site, and leach the poison and stench from the buried waste, which could drain into fields or streams. Following countless fiascoes with "blue billy" contaminating the environment, a furious public, aided by courts, juries, judges, and masters in chancery, were often very willing to demand that the gas-works seek other methods of purification – and even pay for the damages caused by their old methods of purification. 1140:

of dynamos or generators producing electric current; To be injected under the grate of the producer in the indirectly fired bench, so as to prevent the formation of clinker, and to aid in the water-gas shift reaction, ensuring high-quality secondary combustion; As a reactant in the (carburetted) water gas plant, as well as driving the equipment thereof, such as the numerous blowers used in that process, as well as the oil spray for the carburettor; For the operation of fire, water, liquid, liquor, and tar pumps; For the operation of engines driving coal and coke conveyor-belts; For clearing of chemical obstructions in pipes, including naphthalene & tar as well as general cleaning of equipment; For heating cold buildings in the works, for maintaining the temperature of process piping, and preventing freezing of the water of the gasholder, or congealment of various chemical tanks and wells.

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scrubber consisted of a tall cylindrical vessel, which contained trays or bricks which were supported on grids. The water, or weak gas liquor, trickled over these trays, thereby keeping the exposed surfaces thoroughly wetted. The gas to be purified was run through the tower to be contacted with the liquid. In 1846 George Lowe patented a device with revolving perforated pipes for supplying water or purifying liquor. At a later date, the Rotary Washer Scrubber was introduced by Paddon, who used it at Brighton about 1870. This prototype machine was followed by others of improved construction; notably by Kirkham, Hulett, and Chandler, who introduced the well-known Standard Washer Scrubber, Holmes, of Huddersfield, and others. The Tower Scrubber and the Rotary Washer Scrubber made it possible to completely remove ammonia from the gas.

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arduous and time-consuming process that used large amounts of retort house labor. Another class of appliances introduced were apparatuses – and ultimately, machines – for retort loading and unloading. Retorts were generally loaded by using an elongated scoop, into which the coal was loaded – a gang of men would then lift the scoop and ram it into the retort. The coal would then be raked by the men into a layer of even thickness and the retort sealed. Gas production would then ensue – and from 8 – 12 hours later, the retort would be opened, and the coal would be either pulled (in the case of "stop-ended" retorts) or pushed (in the case of "through" retorts) out of the retort. Thus, the retort house had heavy manpower requirements – as many men were often required to bear the coal-containing scoop and load the retort.

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pushed out of the retort – rather than pulled out of the retort. One interesting modification of the "through" retort was the "inclined" retort – coming into its heyday in the 1880s – a retort set on a moderate incline, where coal was poured in at one end, and the retort sealed; following pyrolysis, the bottom was opened and the coke poured out by gravity. This was adopted in some gas-works, but the savings in labor were often offset by the uneven distribution and pyrolysis of the coal as well as clumping problems leading to failure of the coal to pour out of the bottom following pyrolysis that were exacerbated in certain coal types. As such, inclined retorts were rendered obsolescent by later advances, including the retort-handling machine and the vertical retort system.

1500:) developed this ingenious process to turn oil into a gas very similar to that produced by the pyrolysis of coal using a catalytic backflush of already produced gas and steam to provide a hydrogen atmosphere to stimulate disassociation of the oil with the minimal production of lampblack. Singlehandedly revolutionized gasmaking on the Pacific Coast, as oil was plentiful compared to coal, and could be turned into a gas capable of drop-in replacement for coal gas, eliminating the need for coal to be shipped by water transport from Australia and the Far East to Pacific ports at high expense. The Improved Jones Process and evolutions of that process continued to be used on the Pacific Coast until the end of the manufactured gas age. 342:. He applied for and received a patent for this invention in 1799, with an addition in 1801. He launched a marketing campaign in Paris in 1801 by printing a pamphlet and renting a house where he put on public demonstrations with his apparatus. His goal was to raise sufficient funds from investors to launch a company, but he failed to attract this sort of interest, either from the French state or from private sources. He was forced to abandon the project and return to the civil engineering corps. Although he was given a forest concession by the French government to experiment with the manufacture of tar from wood for naval use, he never succeed with the thermolamp, and died in uncertain circumstances in 1805. 30: 717:

greater heat retention, greater durability, and other positive qualities. Cast-iron retorts were used in small gas works, due to their compatibility with the demands there, with the cast-iron retort's lower cost, ability to heat quickly to meet transient demand, and "plug and play" replacement capabilities. This outweighed the disadvantages of shorter life, lower temperature margins, and lack of ability to be manufactured in non-cylindrical shapes. Also, general gas-works practice following the switch to fire-clay retorts favored retorts that were shaped like a "D" turned 90 degrees to the left, sometimes with a slightly pitched bottom section.

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natural gas directly from the well to gas distribution systems. Natural gas was superior to the manufactured gas of that time, being cheaper – extracted from wells rather than manufactured in a gas-works – more user friendly – coming from the well requiring little, if any, purification – and safer – due to the lack of carbon monoxide in the distributed product. Upon being shut down, few former manufactured gas plant sites were brought to an acceptable level of environmental cleanliness to allow for their re-use, at least by contemporary standards. In fact, many were literally abandoned in place, with process wastes left

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location, due to low energy content and that it was mostly composed of deadly carbonic oxide. Used for standard domestic gas needs within institutions large enough to justify a hired man for the upkeep of the producer; these institutions often included work-houses, alms-houses, reformatories, orphanages, houses of correction, lunatic asylums, lyceums, industrial schools, and penitentiaries. Bulk heating, electric generation, and engine-running uses; also for welding purposes, as it possesses a "reducing flame" and a high temperature. N.B. One variant of producer gas was

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or water-cooled condenser, where it would be cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere or the water used. At this point, it enters the exhauster house and passes through an "exhauster", an air pump which maintains the hydraulic mains and, consequently, the retorts at a negative pressure (with a zero pressure being atmospheric). It would then be washed in a "washer" by bubbling it through water, to extract any remaining tars. After this, it would enter a purifier. The gas would then be ready for distribution, and pass into a gasholder for storage.

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the coal being washed off, exposing the full porous surface area of the coal of slightly to highly activated carbon below; in a heavy pile with poor heat transfer characteristics, the heat generated could lead to ignition. But storage in air-entrained confined spaces was not highly looked upon either, as residual heat removal would be difficult, and fighting a fire if it was started could result in the formation of highly toxic carbon monoxide through the water-gas reaction, caused by allowing water to pass over extremely hot carbon (H

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Instead of the retorts being heated directly by fire – the fire was placed a ways below and to one side of the retorts, brought to a very high heat, while the air supply was reduced and a small amount of steam introduced. Instead of evolving large quantities of heat to directly heat the retorts, the fire now evolved heated gasses – specifically carbon monoxide and due to the steam, a small amount of hydrogen as well, which are both highly combustible. These gasses rise from the fire into a channel which brings them to the "

1191: 980: 1211:, and the gas-works could provide it for them; and so the coal tar was stored on site in large underground tanks. As a rule, these were single wall metal tanks – that is, if they were not porous masonry. In those days, underground tar leaks were seen as merely a waste of tar; out of sight was truly out of mind; and such leaks were generally addressed only when the loss of revenue from leaking tar "wells", as these were sometimes called, exceeded the cost of repairing the leak. 713:

ends. Though practical for the earliest gas works, this quickly changed once the early gas-works served more than a few customers. As the size of such vessels grew – the need became apparent for efficiency in refilling retorts – and it was apparent that filling one-ended vertical retorts was easy; removing the coke and residues from them after the carbonization of coal was far more difficult. Hence, gas retorts transitioned from vertical vessels to horizontal tubular vessels.

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would be rejuvenated, without emitting noxious sulfuretted hydrogen gas, the sulfur being retained in the iron ore. Then it could be reinserted into the purifier, and reused and rejuvenated multiple times, until it was thoroughly embedded with sulfur. It could then be sold to the sulfuric acid works for a small profit. Lime was sometimes still used after the iron ore had thoroughly removed the sulfuret of hydrogen, to remove carbonic acid (carbon dioxide, CO

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was incorporated for this purpose in 1817. After some difficulties with the apparatus and financial problems, the company hired an English engineer with experience in gaslight. It began to flourish, and by the 1830s, the company was supplying gas to 3000 domestic customers and 100 street lamps. Companies in other cities followed, the second being Boston Gas Light in 1822 and New York Gas Light Company in 1825. A gas works was built in Philadelphia in 1835.

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Coal would be introduced from each side of the retort. The coke produced would be removed from both sides also. Gangs of stokers worked 12-hour shifts, although the labor was not continuous. The work was also seasonal, with extra help being required in the winter time. Machine stoking required more uniform placement of the retorts. Increasing cost of labor increased the profit margin in experimenting with and instituting machine stoking.

954:/aspirator type exhauster used a substantial steam jet/venturi to maintain the negative pressure in the hydraulic main and condenser. This type of exhauster was mechanically simple, had no moving parts, and thus, had virtually no potential to fail. However, it consumed a comparatively large amount of steam. Often used as a backup exhauster; in this role it continued as a reliable backup until the end of the age of manufactured gas. 1104: 823: 3117: 327: 1573:

off, and steam passed through the now superhot feedstock, leading to the decomposition of the steam and scavenging of carbon from the feedstock. Generally mixed with coal gas, valued for being able to be produced "just in time" with 1 hour's notice, unlike coal gas, which would require 4+ days to bring online from idle. Low labor and capital costs, however, high, inefficient use of anthracite/coke feedstock.

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channels for the passage of the air of combustion. The bricks thus transfer the heat of the exhaust to the air of combustion, preheating it. This provides for a much greater degree of thermal efficiency in the retort-bench, causing it to be able to use far less coke, since air that is preheated by waste heat is already hot when it enters the fire to be burnt, or the "tuyere" to fuel secondary combustion.

834: 845: 580:, due to the reputation of gas-works as highly undesirable neighbors, and the noxious pollution known to issue from such, especially in the early days of manufactured gas, gas-works were on extremely short notice from the courts that (detectable) contamination outside of their grounds – especially in residential districts – would be severely frowned upon. Indeed, many actions for the abatement of 856: 889: 487:

over 50,000 was without gaslight. Five years later, there were only two towns over 10,000 that were without gaslight. In London, the growth of gaslight was rapid. New companies were founded within a few years of the Gas Light and Coke Company, and a period of intense competition followed as companies competed for consumers on the boundaries of their respective zones of operations.

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they would terminate in an inverted "U" with the leg of the "U" disappearing into a long, trough-shaped structure (with a covered top) made of cast iron called a hydraulic main that was placed atop the row of benches near their front edge. It ran continuously along the row of benches within the retort house, and each ascension pipe from each retort descended into it.

224: 2626: 306:, to investigate ballooning. They did so, building apparatus to generate lighter than air inflammable gases from coal and other inflammable substances. In 1785 Minckeleers used some of this apparatus to gasify coal to light his lecture hall at the university. He did not extend gas lighting much beyond this, and when he was forced to flee Leuven during the 784: 1081:), and any ammonia still aeroform after its travels through the works. But it was not made noxious as before, and usually could fetch a decent rate as fertilizer when impregnated with ammonia. This finally solved the greatest pollution nuisances of the gas-works, but still lesser problems remained – not any that the purifier house could solve, though. 491:, in the various editions of his book on gaslight, gives a good sense of how rapidly the technology spread in the capital. In 1815, he wrote that there were 4000 lamps in the city, served by 26 miles (42 km) of mains. In 1819, he raised his estimate to 51,000 lamps and 288 miles (463 km) of mains. Likewise, there were only two 749:" – small holes similar to "nostrils", located adjacent to the retorts, which shoot the "furnace-gasses" out of them. Adjacent "tuyeres" emit a large amount of "secondary air", which is preheated air, that, upon mixing with the furnace gasses, causes them to ignite and burst into flame and bathe the exterior of the retorts in heat. 381:. Boulton & Watt then instigated another small-scale series of experiments. With ongoing patent litigation and their main business of steam engines to attend to, the subject was dropped once again. Gregory Watt, James Watt's second son, while traveling in Europe saw Lebon's demonstrations and wrote a letter to his brother, 800:

Still, there would be less tar to deal with later. Second, the liquid seal also provided defense against air being drawn into the hydraulic main: if the main had no liquid within, and a retort was left open with the pipe not shut off, and air were to combine with the gas, the main could explode, along with nearby benches.

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investigated distillation, and became aware that the gas produced in the distillation of wood and coal could be useful for lighting, heating, and as an energy source in engines. He took out a patent for distillation processes in 1794, and continued his research, eventually designing a distillation oven known as the

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using gas for purposes other than illuminating during the 1870s; for cooking, for the heating of dwelling-houses, for making domestic hot water, for raising steam, for industrial and chemical purposes, and for stationary internal combustion engine-driving purposes – which were previously met by employing coal;

500:. Even then, no laws were passed regulating the entire industry until 1847, although a bill was proposed in 1822, which failed due to opposition from gas companies. The charters approved by Parliament did, however, contain various regulations such as how the companies could break up the pavement, etc. 930:

The hydrocarbon condensates removed in the order heavy tars, medium tars and finally light tars and oil fog. About 60-65% of the tars would be deposited in the hydraulic main. Most of this tar was heavy tars. The medium tars condensed out during the passage of the products between the hydraulic and

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However, after the early years of gas, research proved that a very deep, excessive seal on the hydraulic main threw a backpressure upon all the retorts as the coal within was gasifying, and this had deleterious consequences; carbon would likely deposit onto the insides of retorts and ascension pipes;

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There were two purposes to the liquid seal: first, to draw off some of the tar and liquor, as the gas from the retort was laden with tar, and the hydraulic main could rid the gas of it, to a certain degree; further tar removal would take place in the condenser, washer/scrubber, and the tar extractor.

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Within each retort-house, the retort benches would be lined up next to one another in a long row. Each retort had a loading and unloading door. Affixed to each door was an ascension pipe, to carry off the gas as it was evolved from the coal within. These pipes would rise to the top of the bench where

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These two advances turned the old, "directly fired" retort bench into the advanced, "indirectly fired", "regenerative" or "generative" retort bench, and lead coke usage within the retort benches (in the larger works) to drop from upwards of 40% of the coke made by the retorts to factors as low as 15%

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in the period 1805–1812. Further improvements were made at the Gas Light and Coke Company, as well as by the growing number of gas engineers such as John Malam and Thomas Peckston after 1812. Boulton & Watt contributed the basic design of the retort, condenser, and gasometer, while Clegg improved

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from falling into public use, and inadvertently causing the release of the wastes therein contained. Others have fallen into public use, and without proper reclamation, have caused – often severe – health hazards for their users. When and where necessary, former manufactured gas plants are subject to

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in the first place. The injunction not only regulated the gas manufacturing process – forbidding the use of lime purification – but also provided that if nuisances of any sort were to issue from the works – a permanent injunction forbidding the production of gas would issue from the court. Indeed, as

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Gas lighting was one of the most debated technologies of the first industrial revolution. In Paris, as early as 1823, controversy forced the government to devise safety standards (Fressoz, 2007). The residues produced from distilled coal were often either drained into rivers or stored in basins which

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and Rubens Peale, who lit their museum with gaslight, which they had seen on a trip to Europe. The brothers convinced a group of wealthy people to back them in a larger enterprise. The local government passed a law allowing the Peales and their associates to lay mains and light the streets. A company

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France's first gas company was also promoted by Frederick Winsor after he had to flee England in 1814 due to unpaid debts. He tried to found another gas company in Paris, but it failed in 1819. The government was also interested in promoting the industry, and in 1817 commissioned Chabrol de Volvic to

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Heat recovery appliances could also be classed with boilers. As the gas industry applied scientific and rational design principles to its equipment, the importance of thermal management and capture from processes became common. Even the small gasworks began to use heat-recovery generators, as a fair

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were constructed of a variety of materials, brick, stone, concrete, steel, or wrought iron. The holder or floating vessel is the storage reservoir for the gas, and it serves the purpose of equalizing the distribution of the gas under pressure, and ensures a continuity of supply, while gas remains in

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Scrubbers which utilized water were designed in the 25 years after the foundation of the industry. It was discovered that the removal of ammonia from the gas depended upon the way in which the gas to be purified was contacted by water. This was found to be best performed by the Tower Scrubber. This

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The hot gas was saturated with water vapor and accounted for the largest portion of the total work of condensation. Water vapor has to lose large quantities of heat, as did any liquefiable hydrocarbon. Of the total work of condensation, 87% was accounted for in removing water vapor and the remainder

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The battery condenser was a long and narrow box divided internally by baffle-plates which cause the gas to take a circuitous course. The width of the box was usually about 2 feet, and small tubes passed from side to side form the chief cooling surface. The ends of these tubes were left open to allow

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Winsor waged his campaign intermittently to 1807, when the investors constituted a committee charged with obtaining an act of Parliament. They pursued this task over the next three years, encountering adversities en route, the most important of which was the resistance by Boulton & Watt in 1809.

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in 1722. In the last two decades of the eighteenth century, as more gases were being discovered and the techniques and instruments of pneumatic chemistry became more sophisticated, a number of natural philosophers and engineers thought about using gases in medical and industrial applications. One of

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internal combustion engine for which it was an ideal fuel, as well as small-sized, reliable gas producers, which allowed the easy generation of producer gas nearly anywhere a supply of anthracite or coke was available. Gas generally not distributed past the walls of the production site, but used on

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Wood was used as a feedstock during the early days (1820s - 1850s) of manufactured gas in certain areas of the United States, due to lack of development of coal resources. Wood was carbonized in a manner similar to coal; however, the gas evolved was markedly inferior to that of coal in lighting and

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Coal storage was designed to alleviate this problem. Two methods of storage were generally used; underwater, or outdoor covered facilities. To the outdoor covered pile, sometimes cooling appurtenances were applied as well; for example, means to allow the circulation of air through the depths of the

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Steam was in use in many areas of the gasworks, including: For the operation of the exhauster; For scouring of pyrolysis char and slag from the retorts and for clinkering the producer of the bench; For the operation of engines used for conveying, compressing air, charging hydraulics, or the driving

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Gasholders may be either single or telescopic in two or more lifts. When it is made in the telescopic form, its capacity could be increased to as much as four times the capacity of the single-lift holder for equal dimensions of tank. The telescopic versions were found to be useful as they conserved

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Unless the cooling water was exceptionally clean, the water-tube condenser was preferred. The major difference between the multitubular and water-tube condenser was that in the former the water passed outside and around the tubes which carry the hot gas, and in the latter type, the opposite was the

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From the retort, the gas would first pass through a tar/water "trap" (similar to a trap in plumbing) called a hydraulic main, where a considerable fraction of coal tar was given up and the gas was significantly cooled. Then, it would pass through the main out of the retort house into an atmospheric

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As the wastes produced by former manufactured gas plants were persistent in nature, they often (as of 2009) still contaminate the site of former manufactured gas plants: the waste causing the most concern today is primarily coal tar (mixed long-chain aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, a byproduct

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I have been rather astonished to hear the effects of gas works treated as nothing...every man, in these days, must have sufficient experience, to enable him to come to the conclusion, that, whether a nuisance or not, a gas manufactory is a very disagreeable thing. Nobody can doubt that the volatile

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Machine stoking or power stoking was used to replace labor and minimize disruptions due to labor disputes. Each retort typically required two sets of three stokers. Two of the stokers were required to lift the point of the scoop into the retort, while the third would push it in and turn it over.

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According to Meade, the gasworks of the early 20th century generally kept on hand several weeks of coal. This amount of coal could cause major problems, because coal was liable to spontaneous combustion when in large piles, especially if they were rained upon, due to the protective dust coating of

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Originally, purifiers were simple tanks of lime-water, also known as cream or milk of lime, where the raw gas from the retort bench was bubbled through to remove the sulfuret of hydrogen. This original process of purification was known as the "wet lime" process. The lime residue left over from the

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In general, the temperature of the gas in the hydraulic main varies between 140-160 F. The constituents most liable to be lost were benzene, toluene, and, to some extent, xylene, which had an important effect on the ultimate illuminating power of the gas. Tars were detrimental for the illuminating

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The horizontal condenser was an extended foul main with the pipe in a zigzag pattern from end to end of one of the retort-house walls. Flange connections were essential as blockages from naphthalene or pitchy deposits were likely to occur. The condensed liquids flowed down the sloping pipes in the

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Several advanced retort-house appliances were introduced for improved efficiency and convenience. The compressed-air or steam-driven clinkering pick was found to be especially useful in removing clinker from the primary combustion area of the indirectly fired benches – previously clinkering was an

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The introduction of heat recuperation for the preheating of the air of primary and secondary combustion. By causing the exhaust of the retort-bench to pass through a maze of refractory brickwork, substantial quantities of heat can be extracted from it. On the other side of the exhaust channels are

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The introduction of the "indirectly fired" retort bench. The early "directly fired" retort bench consisted of retorts suspended over a coke fire, which heated the retorts and drove the carbonization of coal within to coke, and the evolution of gas. The introduction of indirect firing changed this.

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Both the era of consolidation of gas-works through high-pressure distribution systems (1900s–1930s) and the end of the era of manufactured gas (1955–1975) saw gas-works being shut down due to redundancies. What brought about the end of manufactured gas was that pipelines began to be built to bring

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Gaslight spread to other European countries. In 1817, a company was founded in Brussels by P. J. Meeus-Van der Maelen, and began operating the following year. By 1822, there were companies in Amsterdam and Rotterdam using English technology. In Germany, gaslight was used on a small scale from 1816

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From 1812 to approximately 1825, manufactured gas was predominantly an English technology. A number of new gas utilities were founded to serve London and other cities in the UK after 1812. Liverpool, Exeter, and Preston were the first in 1816. Others soon followed; by 1821, no town with population

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The following year, the committee tried again, succeeding with the acquiescence of Boulton & Watt because they renounced all powers to manufacture apparatus for sale. The act required that the company raise £100,000 before they could request a charter, a condition it took the next two years to

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Earliest processes from 1895, came into industrial-scale use by 1918 (Meade, p. 766–769). Numerous processes developed, many in Germany, Austria, and other Continental nations. Potential of retaining over 75% energy of feedstock in gas with heat recovery from raw gas (Meade, p. 762), as

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Introduced in 1876. Became a common process during the heady days of gas-lighting from the 1870s to the first decade of the 20th century, especially useful for mixing with coal gas. Process had similar positives and negatives as straight water gas, but also had illuminant value, as well as higher

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Manufacture known since late 1830s. However, not optimized for profitable generation until approximately 1865–70. Produced using an intermittent process; first, the exothermic "blow", where the feedstock was heated by blowing air through it, followed by an endothermic "run", where the air was cut

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This steam or gas engine powered device compressed the gas for injection into the high-pressure mains, which in the early 1900s began to be used to convey gas over greater distances to the individual low pressure mains, which served the end-users. This allowed the works to serve a larger area and

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This large-scale gas meter precisely measured gas as it issued from the works into the mains. It was of the utmost importance, as the gasworks balanced the account of issued gas versus the amount of paid for gas, and strived to detect why and how they varied from one another. Often it was coupled

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The "gas nuisance" was finally solved by the "iron ore" process. Enterprising gas-works engineers discovered that bog iron ore could be used to remove the sulfuretted hydrogen from the gas, and not only could it be used for such, but it could be used in the purifier, exposed to the air, whence it

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Coal gas coming directly from the bench was a noxious soup of chemicals, and removal of the most deleterious fractions was important, for improving the quality of the gas, for preventing damage to equipment or premises, and for recovering revenues from the sale of the extracted chemicals. Several

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The annular atmospheric condenser was easier to control with respect to cooling rates. The gas in the tall vertical cylinders was annular in form and allowed an inside and outside surface to be exposed to cooling air. The diagonal side pipes conveyed the warm gas to the upper ends of each annular

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Retorts were usually made of cast iron during the early days. Early gas engineers experimented extensively with the best shape, size, and setting. No one form of retort dominated, and many different cross-sections remained in use. After the 1850s, retorts generally became made of fire clay due to

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building, the national library, etc. A public company was created for this purpose in 1818. Private companies soon followed, and by 1822, when the government moved to regulate the industry, four were operating in the capital. The regulations passed then prevented the companies from competing, and

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was a French civil engineer working in the public engineering corps who became interested while at university in distillation as an industrial process for the manufacturing of materials such as tar and oil. He graduated from the engineering school in 1789, and was assigned to Angoulême. There, he

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was used to supplement manufactured fuel gas supplies, eventually completely displacing it. Gas ceased to be manufactured in North America by 1966 (with the exception of Indianapolis and Honolulu), while it continued in Europe until the 1980s. "Manufactured gas" is again being evaluated as a fuel

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As extremely finely divided particles were also suspended in the gas, it was impossible to separate the particulate matter solely by a reduction of vapor pressure. The gas underwent processes to remove all traces of solid or liquid matter before it reached the wet purification plant. Centrifugal

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Further increases in efficiency and safety were seen with the introduction of the "through" retort, which had a door at front and rear. This provided for greater efficiency and safety in loading and unloading the retorts, which was a labor-intensive and often dangerous process. Coal could now be

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Initially, retort benches were of many different configurations due to the lack of long use and scientific and practical understanding of the carbonization of coal. Some early retorts were little more than iron vessels filled with coal and thrust upon a coal fire with pipes attached to their top

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the rise of the "smoke nuisance" in the 1850s, brought about by the domestic and commercial use of coal, in many cities and metropolises; direct combustion of coal being a particularly notorious source of pollution; which the widespread use of gas could abate, especially with the commencement of

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As the electric age came into being, the gas-works began to use electricity – generated on site – for many of the smaller plant functions previously performed by steam or gas-powered engines, which were impractical and inefficient for small, sub-horsepower uses without complex and failure-prone

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was the construction in which the retorts were located for the carbonization (synonymous with pyrolysis) of the coal feedstock and the evolution of coal gas. Over the years of manufactured gas production, advances were made that turned the retort-bench from little more than coal-containing iron

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to pass a bill empowering the king to grant the charter, but Boulton & Watt felt their gaslight apparatus manufacturing business was threatened and mounted an opposition through their allies in Parliament. Although a parliamentary committee recommended approval, it was defeated on the third

346:

Winzler, an Austrian chemist who ran a saltpetre factory in Blansko. Under the patronage of the aristocratic zu Salm family, he built a large one in Brno. He moved to Vienna to further his work. The thermolamp, however, was used primarily for making charcoal and not for the production of gases.

584:

brought before the courts did result in unfavorable verdicts for gas manufacturers – in one study on early environmental law, actions for nuisance involving gas-works resulted in findings for the plaintiffs 80% of the time, compared with an overall plaintiff victory rate of 28.5% in industrial

345:

Although the thermolamp received some interest in France, it was in Germany that interest was the greatest. A number of books and articles were written on the subject in the period 1802–1812. There were also thermolamps designed and built in Germany, the most important of which were by Zachaus

1235:

This device injected a fine mist of naphtha into the outgoing gas so as to avoid the crystallization of naphthalene in the mains, and their consequent blockage. Naphtha was found to be a rather effective solvent for these purposes, even in small concentrations. Where troubles with naphthalene

1064:

This led to the development of the "dry lime" purification process, which was less effective than the "wet lime" process, but had less toxic consequences. Still, it was quite noxious. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) was placed in thick layers on trays which were then inserted into a square or

634:

regulation of pollution from gas-works (in the case of the UK, with the passage of the Gas-works Clauses Act 1847), which increased the cost of pollution, previously being near zero, leading to the development of technologies that abated the ongoing pollution nuisances (in many cases, turning

134:

in the 1820s. The technology increased in scale. After a period of competition, the business model of the gas industry matured in monopolies, where a single company provided gas in a given zone. The ownership of the companies varied from outright municipal ownership, such as in Manchester, to

1052:

As such, the removal of the sulfuret of hydrogen was given the highest level of priority in the gas-works. A special facility existed to extract the sulfuret of hydrogen – known as the purifier. The purifier was the most important facility in the gas-works, if the retort-bench itself is not

807:

Later retort systems (many types of vertical retorts, especially ones in continuous operation) which had other anti-oxygen safeguards, such as check valves, etc., as well as larger retorts, often omitted the hydraulic main entirely and went straight to the condensers – as other apparatus and

709:

vessels over an open fire to a massive, highly efficient, partially automated, industrial-scale, capital-intensive plant for the carbonization of large amounts of coal. Several retort benches were usually located in a single "retort house", which there was at least one of in every gas works.

642:

the development of high-pressure gas mains, and compressors (1900s); these were capable of efficiently transporting gas over long distances, allowing one manufactured gas plant to supply a relatively large area – leading to the concentration of gas-manufacturing operations, instead of their

396:

was a major motivating force behind the development of the apparatus. He had an avid interest in technology, and had introduced a series of technological innovations at the Salford Mill, such as iron frame construction and steam heating. He continued to encourage the development of gaslight

795:

The hydraulic main had a level of a liquid mixture of (initially) water, but, following use, also coal tar, and ammoniacal liquor. Each retort ascension pipe dropped under the water level by at least a small amount, perhaps by an inch, but often considerably more in the earlier days of gas

629:

However, as time went by, gas-works began to be seen as more as a double-edged sword – and eventually as a positive good, as former nuisances were abated by technological improvements, and the full benefits of gas became clear. There were several major impetuses that drove this phenomenon:

428:, and then in London in 1804. Once in London, Winsor began an intense campaign to find investors for a new company that would manufacture gas apparatus and sell gas to consumers. He was successful in finding investors, but the legal form of the company was a more difficult problem. By the 720:

With the introduction of the fire-clay retort, higher heats could be held in the retort benches, leading to faster and more complete carbonization of the coal. As higher heats became possible, advanced methods of retort bench firing were introduced, catalyzed by the development of the

758:

of the coke made by the retorts, leading to an improvement in efficiency of an order of magnitude. These improvements imparted an additional capital cost to the retort bench, which caused them to be slowly incorporated in the smaller gas-works, if they were incorporated at all.

1464:

Initial experiments in 1817–1825, which were failures; began to be used widely in 1860s. Simpler, much less labor-intensive manufacturing process. Oil very expensive feedstock compared to coal; prices (and illuminous efficacy per ft) double to triple that of regular coal gas.

911:

case. Thus when only muddy water pumped from rivers or canals was available; the water-tube condenser was used. When the incoming gas was particularly dirty and contained an undesirable quantity of heavy tar, the outer chamber was liable to obstruction from this cause.

957:

Reciprocating exhausters of various types. Steam engine-driven exhauster used cylinder pump to pump gas. Relatively reliable, but inefficient, using large quantities of steam, but less than the ejector type exhauster. Used in the early days of exhausters, but quickly

1236:

developed, as it occasionally did even after the introduction of this minor carburettor, a team of workers was sent out to blow steam into the main and dissolve the blockage; still, prior to its introduction, naphthalene was a very major annoyance for the gasworks.

1135:

As the years went by, boilers (for the raising of steam) became extremely common in most gas-works above those small in size; the smaller works often used gas-powered internal combustion engines to do some of the tasks that steam performed in larger workings.

146:. For this use, gases that burned with a highly luminous flame, "illuminating gases", were needed, in contrast to other uses (e.g. as fuel) where the heat output was the main consideration. Accordingly, some gas mixtures of low intrinsic luminosity, such as 1153:

mechanical linkages. As the benefits of electric illumination became known, sometimes the progressive gasworks diversified into electric generation as well, as coke for steam-raising could be had on-site at low prices, and boilers were already in the works.

1115:

the holder. They are cylindrical like an inverted beaker and work up and down in the tank. In order to maintain a true vertical position, the vessel has rollers which work on guide-rails attached to the tank sides and to the columns surrounding the holder.

1013:

in the gas was known to decrease illumination; thus various facilities within the gas-works were tasked with the removal of these deleterious effluents. But these do not compare to the most hazardous contaminant in the raw coal gas: the sulfuret of hydrogen

153:

In the second half of the 19th century, the manufactured fuel gas industry diversified from lighting to include heat and cooking uses. The threat from electrical light in the later 1870s and 1880s drove this trend strongly. The gas industry did not cede the

1605:

cost, due to oil/tar use. Variable illuminant yield, depending on amount/quality of oil spray. As gas steadily lost ground as an illuminant, extensive carburetting reduced to low values or carburetting omitted entirely, representing a return to water gas.

495:

in London in 1814, and by 1822, there were seven and by 1829, there were 200 companies. The government did not regulate the industry as a whole until 1816, when an act of Parliament created the post of inspector for gasworks, the first holder of which was

135:

completely private corporations, such as in London and most North American cities. Gas companies thrived during most of the nineteenth century, usually returning good profits to their shareholders, but were also the subject of many complaints over price.

796:

manufacture. The gas evolved from each retort would thus bubble through the liquid and emerge from it into the void above the liquid, where it would mix with the gas evolved from the other retorts and be drawn off through the foul main to the condenser.

255:, their chemical properties were not. Gases were regarded in keeping the Aristotelean tradition of four elements as being air, one of the four fundamental elements. The different sorts of airs, such as putrid airs or inflammable air, were looked upon as 1227:

with a dynamic regulator to keep pressure constant, or even to modulate the pressure at specified times (a series of rapid pressure spikes was sometimes used with appropriately equipped street-lamps to automatically ignite or extinguish such remotely).

1047:

Manufactured gas was originally distributed to affluent consumers, who known to possess silver goods of varying sorts. If exposed to a sulfurous atmosphere, silver tarnishes, and a sulfurous atmosphere would be present in any house lit with sulfuretted

1616:

Manufactured by a complex, staged process where as coal travelled down the vertical axis of an upright, semi-cylindrical reaction chamber, it would be subject to different chemical reactions based on what was being fed into that area of the reaction

804:

and the bottom layer of tar with which the gas would have to travel through in a deeply sealed main robbed the gas of some of its illuminating value. As such, after the 1860s, hydraulic mains were run at around 1 inch of seal, and no more.

319: 385:, informing him of this potential competitor. This prompted James Watt Jr. to begin a gaslight development program at Boulton & Watt that would scale up the technology and lead to the first commercial applications of gaslight. 115:. Although precursors can be found, it was these two engineers who elaborated the technology with commercial applications in mind. Frederick Winsor was the key player behind the creation of the first gas utility, the London-based 1174:

pile and the carrying off of heat. Amounts of storage varied, often due to local conditions. Works in areas with industrial strife often stored more coal. Other variables included national security; for instance, the gasworks of

2359:

Further information on this development late in the public domain period (pre-1923) is likely in non-public domain, out of print publications ("orphaned works"), and that researchers with time might investigate this interesting

1368:

The oldest type, introduced in 1798 by Murdoch, et al.; when the term "manufactured gas" or "town gas" is used without qualifiers, it generally refers to coal gas. Substantially greater illuminant yield with use of special

278:

expanded the list with his discovery of methane in 1776. It had also been known for a long time that inflammable gases could be produced from most combustible materials, such as coal and wood, through the process of

643:

geographic distribution; this resulted in gas-works being able to be located away from residential and commercial districts, where their presence could result in discomfort and concern for the inhabitants thereof;

517:

then decided to give further impulse to the development of the French industry by sending people to England to study the situation there, and to install gaslight at a number of prestigious buildings, such as the

424:, who had witnessed Lebon's demonstrations in Paris. He had tried unsuccessfully to purchase a thermolamp from Lebon, but remained taken with the technology, and decided to try his luck, first in his hometown of 878:

Typically, plants using cast-iron mains and apparatus allowed 5 square feet of superficial area per 1,000 cubic feet of gas made per day. This could be slightly reduced when wrought iron or mild steel was used.

1511:

Manufactured by the incomplete combustion of varying carboniferous feedstocks in an extremely hot (>= 1100 °C), limited-oxygen atmosphere aided by the injection of a small, stoichiometric flow of

1584:

Manufactured by passing just-produced, super-hot water gas through a superheated "carburettor" into which petroleum or coal tar oil is sprayed, accomplishing the "cracking" of the oil into the gas.

819:

Condensers were either air cooled or water cooled. Air cooled condensers were often made up from odd lengths of pipe and connections. The main varieties in common use were classified as follows:

392:

in 1803–1804, Boulton & Watt prepared an apparatus for the textile firm of Philips & Lee in Salford near Manchester in 1805–1806. This was to be their only major sale until late 1808.

1476:

Staged partial reaction of petroleum oil using steam at high temperature in catalytic environment. The gas produced by the partially reacted and partially cracked oil is the gas distributed.

247:, and others. Until the eighteenth century, gas was not recognized as a separate state of matter. Rather, while some of the mechanical properties of gases were understood, as typified by 1420:

Carbonization (pyrolysis) of petroleum (the heating of the petroleum feedstock in the absence of oxygen.) The gas produced by the heated & decomposed oil is the gas distributed.

1388:

Carbonization (pyrolysis) of the timber feedstock (the heating of the timber feedstock in the absence of oxygen.) The volatiles evolved from the heated wood is the gas distributed.

885:

Water cooled condensers were mainly constructed from riveted mild steel plates (which form the outer shell) and steel or wrought-iron tubes. There were two distinct types used:

652:, and never adequately disposed of. In the United States, an EPA report from 1999 indicates that there are 3,000 to 5,000 former manufactured gas plant sites around the country. 2954: 867:

same direction as the gas. As long as gas flow was slow, this was an effective method for the removal of naphthalene. Vertical air condensers had gas and tar outlets.

591:

both preliminary and permanent could and were often issued in cases involving gas works. For example, the ill reputation of gas-works became so well known that in

373:

in Cornwall at the time, and made some small scale experiments with lighting his own house with coal gas. He soon dropped the subject until 1798, when he moved to

2776: 627:

products which arise from the distillation of coal are extremely offensive. It is quite contrary to common experience to say they are not so...every man knows it.

48:, important for lighting, heating, and cooking purposes throughout most of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, began with the development of 3076: 64:

of combustible materials, usually coal, but also wood and oil, by heating them in enclosed ovens with an oxygen-poor atmosphere. The fuel gases generated were

295:

One of the results of the ballooning craze of 1783–1784 was the first implementation of lighting by manufactured gas. A professor of natural philosophy at the

1756:(1983). "Le "Mémoire sur l'air inflammable" de Jean-Pierre Minckelers (1748 - 1824): édition critique d'après les manuscrits et l'édition originale de 1784". 564:

polluted (and still pollute) the soil. One early exception was the Edinburgh Gas Works where, from 1822, the residues were carted and later piped to the

1144:

amount of steam could be generated for "free" simply by capturing process thermal waste using water-filled metal tubing inserted into a strategic flue.

2853: 2207: 1952:

Johannes Körting, Geschichte der Deutschen Gasindustrie mit Vorgeschichte und bestimmenden Einflǜssen des Auslandes, Vulkan, 1963, p. 104-5, 107

445: 1304:) of the coal feedstock (the heating of the coal feedstock in the absence of oxygen.) The gas produced by the hot coal is the gas distributed. 162:, a refractory mesh bag heated to incandescence by a mostly non-luminous flame within, dramatically increased the efficiency of gas lighting. 2949: 613: 535:, one if its leaders, signed an agreement with the government in Hanover, and the gas lamps were used on streets for the first time in 1826. 1343:). In addition, prior to treatment, contains coal tars (complex aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons), ammoniacal liquor (gaseous ammonia, NH 3161: 528: 29: 2068: 871:

cylinder. Butterfly valves or dampers were fitted to the top of each vertical air pipe, so that the amount of cooling could be regulated.

1391:

Resulting products unknown. Probably marsh gas, hydrogen, and carbonic oxide, along with some hydrocarbons and organics, like turpentine.

1943:

Johannes Körting, Geschichte der Deutschen Gasindustrie mit Vorgeschichte und bestimmenden Einflǜssen des Auslandes, Vulkan, 1963, p. 89

1800: 1182:

had some 1 million tons of coal (6 months of supply) in gigantic underwater bunker facilities half a mile long (Meade 2e, p. 379).

875:

air to pass through. The obstruction caused by the tubes played a role in breaking up and throwing down the tars suspended in the gas.

2404: 1044:

vapour. In a dwelling-house, this could lead to the formation of irritating, poisonous and corrosive atmospheres where and when burnt.

1545:, known for both its consistent yield and that ammonia could be obtained as a byproduct. Slight modifications of producer necessary. 574:

in the UK and the US clearly held though, the construction and operation of a gas-works was not the creation of a public nuisance or

369:, when, while investigating distillation processes sometime in 1792–1794, he began using coal gas for illumination. He was living in 1874: 1272: 532: 497: 1497: 1916:

Jean-Pierre Williot, Naissance d'un service public: le gaz a Paris, Rive droite-Institu d'histoire de l'industrie, 1999, p. 29-30

1934:

Jean-Pierre Williot, Naissance d'un service public: le gaz a Paris, Rive droite-Institu d'histoire de l'industrie, 1999, p. 47-8

1925:

Jean-Pierre Williot, Naissance d'un service public: le gaz a Paris, Rive droite-Institu d'histoire de l'industrie, 1999, p. 33-4

405: 1401:

heating qualities. Still very useful for lighting. This wood gas produced solely through pyrolysis should not be confused with

1423:

As distributed, contains an extremely high proportion of simple hydrocarbon "illuminants", including oliefant gas (ethylene, C

3146: 3005: 2968: 2806: 1127:

The gasworks had numerous small appurtenances and facilities to aid with diverse gas management tasks or auxiliary services.

206:

once again as a potentially cleaner way of generating power from coal, although nowadays such gases are likely to be called "

3141: 3120: 3081: 2964: 2762: 2450: 3060: 3033: 2914: 2878: 2769: 552: 2069:"'Knowing' Industrial Pollution: Nuisance Law and the Power of Tradition in a Time of Rapid Economic Change, 1840–1864" 2825: 2820: 2431: 1973:""Decoupling" For Energy Distributors: Changing 19th Century Tariff Structures To Address 21st Century Energy Markets" 142:, as a convenient substitute for candles and oil lamps in the home. Gas lighting became the first widespread form of 3040: 2893: 2840: 1665: 732: 417: 116: 1685: 1628:), a small quantity of simple hydrocarbon illuminants, along with small quantities of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. 3156: 3151: 2919: 2883: 2835: 1813: 666: 565: 244: 1717:

Gyung Kim, Mi Gyung (March 2006). "'Public' Science: Hydrogen Balloons and Lavoisier's Decomposition of Water".

2888: 2815: 2530: 2369: 2208:"A century later, utilities still face billions in potential liabilities from obsolete manufactured gas plants" 296: 2258:

Thomas Newbigging, "Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers", 8th Edition, Walter King, London, 1913, page 150

1190: 107:

The first attempts to manufacture fuel gas in a commercial way were made in the period 1795–1805 in France by

2862: 2830: 2577: 2267:

Thomas Newbigging, Handbook for Gas Engineers and Managers, 8th Edition, Walter King, London(1913), page 208

421: 266:

was in fact a different sort of gas altogether from atmospheric air, other gases were identified, including

179: 2019: 683: 3025: 2665: 2560: 2555: 2540: 2397: 1005:

in the gas might lead to corrosion problems (and the extracted ammonium sulfate was a decent fertilizer),

510: 299: 1556:

Manufactured by the reaction of extremely hot feedstock and steam in a superheated non-oxygen atmosphere.

509:

study the technology and build a prototype plant, also in Paris. The plant provided gas for lighting the

3050: 2789: 2565: 2550: 2179: 523:

Paris was effectively divided between the various companies operating as monopolies in their own zones.

433: 207: 1961:

David P. Erlick, "The Peales and Gas Lights in Baltimore", Maryland Historical Magazine, 80, 9-18(1985)

256: 1795:

Volume IV The Industrial Revolution c 1750 to c 1850, edited Charles Singer, et al, Clarendon, Oxford

3055: 2989: 2909: 2785: 1214:

Ammoniacal liquor was stored on site as well, in similar tanks. Sometimes the gasworks would have an

726: 49: 1686:"Celebrating 100 Years as The Standard for Safety: The Compressed Gas Association, Inc. 1913 – 2013" 1029:

The gas-works and adjacent district would smell of rotten eggs when the gas-works was producing gas;

979: 2984: 2924: 2670: 1095: 722: 609: 555:, established in 1837, opened the first gasworks in Australia, at Millers Point in Sydney in 1841. 527:

onwards, but the first gaslight utility was founded by English engineers and capital. In 1824, the

393: 69: 53: 3102: 2680: 2640: 2334: 2104: 2096: 2049: 1734: 1406: 307: 289: 190: 182:

for cooking. Other technological developments in the late nineteenth century include the use of

2112: 922: 919:

separators, such as the Colman Cyclone apparatus were utilized for this process in some plants.

899: 326: 3086: 2462: 2445: 2390: 2293: 2281:. Common Commodities and Industries. London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. pp. 11–30. 2249:

Alwyne Meade, Modern Gasworks Practice, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1916, pages 296-299

2240:

Alwyne Meade, Modern Gasworks Practice, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1916, pages 291-292

2231:

Alwyne Meade, Modern Gasworks Practice, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1916, pages 286-291

2166:. Edinburgh, Scotland; London, England: Wm. Green and Sons; Stevens & Sons, Ltd. 1905: 513 2088: 1870: 1796: 661: 366: 354: 203: 194: 178:) on a smaller scale, although its use too declined with the advent of electric lighting, and 2326:

The Improved Jones Oil Gas Process Now In Operation At The Potrero Gas-Works in San Francisco

2324: 2080: 2041: 1899: 1726: 1536:

Produced in early days of coal gasification; however, only became common after invention of

1215: 1074: 1015: 514: 416:

The first company to provide manufactured gas to consumer as a utility was the London-based

378: 275: 240: 231:

Pneumatic chemistry developed in the eighteenth century with the work of scientists such as

60:" (also known as "manufactured fuel gas", "manufactured gas" or simply "gas") were made by 17: 2944: 2535: 2346: 2192: 1972: 1409:

produces its synthesis gas through the complete gasification process, as described below.

1320: 1283: 1179: 1037: 539: 488: 475: 412:: A contemporary caricature of Winsor's lighting of Pall Mall, by George Rowlandson (1809) 362: 271: 159: 112: 81: 2032:

Ronalds, B.F. (2019). "Bonnington Chemical Works (1822-1878): Pioneer Coal Tar Company".

696:

the gasometer and introduced lime purification and the hydraulic main, another purifier.

2625: 808:

buildings could be used for tar extraction, the main was unnecessary for these systems.

470: 2497: 1903: 1863: 1660: 1033: 1010: 382: 334: 263: 108: 1103: 822: 3135: 2696: 2108: 2053: 1738: 1041: 657: 621: 596: 437: 232: 131: 1001:

in the distributed gas might gum up the pipes (and could be sold for a good price),

2721: 2706: 2492: 2477: 2472: 2140:. Vol. XIV. Northport, Long Island, New York: Edward Thompson Co. p. 1149 1753: 1487:), and the balance of higher hydrocarbons and carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO). 1040:, and subsequently would react with the water vapor produced by combustion to form 833: 692: 425: 389: 280: 248: 236: 175: 171: 155: 143: 139: 101: 61: 2754: 2045: 844: 2159: 2135: 1587:

Contains high proportions of carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO) and hydrogen (H

1559:

Contains high proportions of carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO) and hydrogen (H

1496:

E.C. Jones, chief gas engineer of the San Francisco Gas Light Company (later the

691:

The basic design of gaslight apparatus was established by Boulton & Watt and

2743: 2738: 2645: 2522: 2487: 1655: 1370: 1057:"wet lime" process was one of the first true "toxic wastes", a material called " 1006: 997:

offensive fractions being present in a distributed gas might lead to problems –

888: 855: 576: 519: 223: 198: 2726: 2716: 2711: 2701: 2650: 1730: 1537: 1111: 1058: 588: 454: 429: 374: 2092: 1638:

compared to ~55% feedstock energy retention of other gasification processes.

138:

The most important use of manufactured gas in the early 19th century was for

2733: 2655: 2507: 1374: 1301: 915:

was used to cool permanent gases and to condensing liquefiable hydrocarbon.

318: 183: 167: 163: 1508:

Anthracite coal, coke, bituminous coal dust and waste, lignite, or biomass.

931:

the condenser. The lighter tars oil fog would travel considerably further.

783: 1519:) and carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO), limited amounts of hydrogen (H 1084:

Purifier designs also went through different stages throughout the years.

2675: 2660: 2611: 2512: 2482: 2467: 2440: 2413: 1650: 1542: 1402: 1324: 1218:

plant, to convert the liquor into fertilizer, which was sold to farmers.

1208: 1170:+ CO), which would be dangerous outside, but deadly in a confined space. 998: 678: 581: 571: 492: 303: 267: 252: 150:, were enriched with oil to make them more suitable for street lighting. 147: 89: 85: 73: 65: 57: 365:(sometimes Murdock) (1754–1839) was an engineer working for the firm of 2595: 2585: 2279:

Gas & Gas Making: Growth, Methods and Prospects of the Gas Industry

2100: 1890:

Falkus, M. E. (December 1967). "The British Gas Industry before 1850".

1692: 1377:, richer in hydrocarbons than most regular gas coal (bituminous coal). 1308: 1002: 370: 123: 97: 77: 436:

above a certain number of shareholders in England needed to receive a

283:. Stephen Hales, for example, had written about the phenomenon in the 2590: 2502: 2457: 2034:

International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology

2005:

William Strickland, Edward H Gill and Henry R. Campbell, ed. (1841).

1323:, CO), and simple hydrocarbon "illuminants", including oliefant gas ( 746: 531:

was founded in London to establish gas utilities in other countries.

127: 93: 2084: 729:, circa 1855–1870, leading to a revolution in gas-works efficiency. 440:

to incorporate, which meant that an act of Parliament was required.

1620:

Mix of carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO), marsh gas (methane, CH

1189: 1175: 1102: 1094: 978: 921: 898: 887: 854: 843: 832: 821: 782: 731: 682: 469: 404: 353: 325: 317: 302:

and two of his colleagues were asked by their patron, the Duke of

222: 197:

in Texas and Oklahoma were built to Chicago and other cities, and

186:

and machine stoking, although these were not universally adopted.

28: 2545: 538:

Gaslight was first introduced to the US in 1816 in Baltimore by

2758: 2386: 1297:

Primarily bituminous or cannel coal. Lignite occasionally used.

1865:

The Third Man, The Life and Times of William Murdoch 1754-1839

1455:), and a small amount of carbonic oxide (carbon monoxide, CO). 1276: 943:

Maintained hydraulic main and condenser at negative pressure.

444:

In that year, the committee made a serious attempt to get the

1307:

As distributed, contains a moderate proportion of marsh gas (

935:

power and were isolated from the gas as rapidly as possible.

34:

Drawing the retorts at the Great Gas Establishment Brick Lane

2382: 1022:

S). This was regarded as unacceptable for several reasons:

158:

market to electricity immediately, as the invention of the

603:

gas-works not yet even built – preventing it from causing

635:

discarded former pollutants into profitable by-products);

420:. It was founded through the efforts of a German émigré, 669:

laws, and can be subject to legally mandated cleanups.

1523:), and a very small quantity of swamp gas (methane, CH 1470:

Oil catalytic semi-water gas. (Improved Jones Process)

1591:), and moderate proportions of marsh gas (methane, CH 736:

Isometric view of a regenerative retort bench (1921)

3095: 3069: 3018: 2998: 2977: 2963: 2937: 2902: 2871: 2851: 2804: 2797: 2689: 2633: 2604: 2576: 2521: 2427: 2420: 2329:. Pacific Gas and Electric Company. pp. 11–17. 2134:McKinney, Wm. Mark; Mitchie, Thos. Johnson (1899). 1691:. www.cganet.com. 11 September 2013. Archived from 976:Final extractions of minor deleterious fractions. 330:

LeBon's thermolamp, from his patent (1799 and 1801)

1862: 1791:Elton, Arthur (1958), "Gas for light and heat" in 1009:in the gas might stop up the gas-mains, and even 673:Appliances and machinery of the historic gasworks 292:beginning in 1783, but other uses soon followed. 122:Manufactured gas utilities were founded first in 92:also contains significant quantities of unwanted 2160:"The English Reports (Rolls III: Bevan 8 – 12)" 259:with some impurities, much like muddied water. 119:, incorporated by royal charter in April 1812. 1776:Philippe Lebon ou l'homme aux mains de lumière 1254:Types of historically manufactured fuel gases 1123:Minor and incidental coal gas-works facilities 1026:The gas would smell of rotten eggs when burnt; 687:Horizontal view of a retort and furnace (1819) 2770: 2398: 1479:As distributed, contains 35 – 40% hydrogen (H 1249:Types of historically manufactured fuel gases 593:City of Cleveland vs. Citizens' Gas Light Co. 377:to work at Boulton & Watt's home base of 8: 2022:. Sydney Plaques, accessed 28 February 2011. 2007:Public Works In The United States Of America 1563:), and very low proportions of other gasses. 504:Manufactured gas in Europe and North America 1856: 1854: 740:Specifically, the two major advances were: 2974: 2801: 2777: 2763: 2755: 2424: 2405: 2391: 2383: 2294:"The Development of Oil Gas in California" 1595:) and mixed hydrocarbon illuminant gasses. 513:and the experiment was judged successful. 251:'s experiments and the development of the 2298:Proceedings of the American Gas Institute 2137:The Encyclopædia of Pleading and Practice 2067:Rosen, Christine Meisner (October 2003). 1515:Contains a high proportion of nitrogen (N 1194:Horizontal retorts with a stoking machine 401:Winsor and the Gas Light and Coke Company 202:source, as energy utilities look towards 1843:Chandler, Dean; A Douglas Lacey (1949). 1252: 946:There were several types of exhausters: 787:Cross section of a hydraulic main (1909) 605:annoying and offensive vapours and odors 56:in the 18th century. These "synthetic 1845:The rise of the gas industry in Britain 1677: 1240:High-pressure distribution booster pump 310:, he abandoned the project altogether. 2342: 2332: 2188: 2177: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 568:and processed into valuable products. 350:William Murdock and Boulton & Watt 2206:Balaraman, Kavya (October 11, 2021). 1036:, which would be quickly oxidized to 599:, a court went so far as to enjoin a 474:A coloured plate of a gas plant from 410:A Peep at the Gas-lights in Pall Mall 388:After an initial installation at the 7: 2323:E.C. Jones, L.B. Jones (June 1915). 2009:. London: John Weale. pp. 1–85. 1613:Gas-evolving coal or other organics. 1581:Water gas and petroleum or coal tar. 529:Imperial Continental Gas Association 2079:(4). History Cooperative: 565–597. 1483:), 45% – 50% marsh gas (methane, CH 983:Bubbling Washer for Ammonia Removal 104:, and must be purified before use. 1904:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1967.tb00150.x 1553:Coke or anthracite coal and steam. 1355:S), and the sulfuret of carbon (CS 1231:Anti-naphthalene minor carburettor 1032:The gas, upon burning, would form 616:, once remarked in his opinion in 397:technology at Boulton & Watt. 166:was also used from about 1898 for 25: 1273:Standard Temperature and Pressure 1207:The chemical industries demanded 533:Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet 480:A Practical Treatise on Gas-light 314:Philippe LeBon and the Thermolamp 262:After Joseph Black realized that 3116: 3115: 2624: 2370:"Literature of Manufactured Gas" 1351:OH), the sulfuret of hydrogen (H 1186:Coal stoking and machine stoking 892:Water Cooled Tubular Condensers 826:Horizontal Air Cooled Condenser 2950:Medieval Islamic World alchemy 1847:. London: British Gas Council. 896:(a) Multitubular condensers. 1: 2451:Underground coal gasification 2046:10.1080/17581206.2020.1787807 1073:), the bisulfuret of carbon ( 837:Vertical Air Cooled Condenser 547:Manufactured gas in Australia 457:granted the charter in 1812. 2020:Australian gas Light Company 1439:), as well as propane gas (C 1245:achieve economies of scale. 859:Battery Air Cooled Condenser 848:Annular Air Cooled Condenser 553:Australian Gas Light Company 100:compounds, as well as heavy 3162:Synthetic fuel technologies 1892:The Economic History Review 907:(b) Water-tube condensers. 863:(d) The battery condenser. 466:Manufactured gas in England 18:History of manufactured gas 3178: 1666:Gas Light and Coke Company 1405:as used today; the modern 1119:ground space and capital. 926:Colman "Cyclone" Separator 676: 461:Manufactured gas 1812–1825 418:Gas Light and Coke Company 126:, and then in the rest of 117:Gas Light and Coke Company 3111: 2622: 2292:Jones, Edward C. (1909). 2277:Webber, W. H. Y. (1918). 1971:Makholm, Jeff D. (2008). 1869:. London: Andre Deutsch. 1731:10.1080/00033790600610494 1610:Complete gasification gas 1447:), marsh gas (methane, CH 1347:, and aqueous ammonia, NH 770:Other gasworks facilities 667:environmental remediation 566:Bonnington Chemical Works 245:Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 214:Early history of fuel gas 1861:Griffiths, John (1992). 882:Water Cooled Condensers 288:the first such uses was 3019:On specific discoveries 1793:A History of Technology 1774:Veillerette, François. 1752:Jaspers, P. A. Th. M.; 1373:", which may be modern 46:history of gaseous fuel 2666:Natural-gas processing 2187:Cite journal requires 1814:"Bedeutende Südmährer" 1431:) and acetylene gas (C 1335:) and acetylene gas (C 1195: 1108: 1100: 984: 927: 904: 893: 860: 849: 838: 830:(a) Horizontal types 827: 816:Air Cooled Condensers 788: 737: 688: 483: 413: 359: 331: 323: 300:Jan Pieter Minckeleers 228: 41: 3147:History of technology 2428:Manufactured fuel gas 2073:Environmental History 1778:, Ed N Mourot, 1987. 1578:Carburetted water gas 1193: 1107:Telescoping Gasholder 1106: 1099:Single Lift Gasholder 1098: 982: 961:Blower-type exhauster 925: 902: 891: 858: 847: 836: 825: 786: 735: 686: 677:Further information: 473: 434:joint-stock companies 408: 357: 329: 321: 297:University of Louvain 226: 208:synthetic natural gas 32: 3142:History of chemistry 2805:Physical chemistry ( 2786:History of chemistry 1282:Light yield at STP ( 903:Water Tube Condenser 498:Sir William Congreve 111:, and in England by 38:The Monthly Magazine 3070:Scientific disputes 2852:Organic chemistry ( 2671:Natural gas storage 2368:Hatheway, Allen W. 2212:www.utilitydive.com 1319:), carbonic oxide ( 1255: 1007:naphthalene vapours 972:The Washer–scrubber 852:(c) Annular types 841:(b) Vertical types 723:open hearth furnace 610:Master of the Rolls 511:hôpital Saint Louis 394:George Augustus Lee 70:chemical substances 54:pneumatic chemistry 3103:Women in chemistry 2681:Pipeline transport 2641:Compressor station 1980:Energy Law Journal 1812:HalvaDenk, Helma. 1414:Oil pyrolytic gas. 1407:wood gas generator 1253: 1203:Tar/liquor storage 1196: 1148:Dynamos/generators 1109: 1101: 1003:ammoniacal vapours 985: 928: 905: 894: 861: 850: 839: 828: 789: 738: 689: 484: 414: 367:Boulton & Watt 360: 332: 324: 308:Brabant Revolution 285:Vegetable Staticks 229: 195:natural gas fields 42: 3129: 3128: 3087:Transfermium Wars 3030:Carbon nanotubes 3014: 3013: 2955:Indian metallurgy 2933: 2932: 2903:Applied chemistry 2872:Nuclear chemistry 2752: 2751: 2620: 2619: 2463:Blast furnace gas 2446:Coal gasification 1719:Annals of Science 1642: 1641: 1385:Timber resources. 662:contaminated land 204:coal gasification 16:(Redirected from 3169: 3157:Industrial gases 3152:Gas technologies 3119: 3118: 2975: 2915:Material science 2826:Electrochemistry 2821:Molecular theory 2802: 2779: 2772: 2765: 2756: 2628: 2425: 2407: 2400: 2393: 2384: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2361: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2344: 2340: 2338: 2330: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2274: 2268: 2265: 2259: 2256: 2250: 2247: 2241: 2238: 2232: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2115:on March 5, 2009 2111:. Archived from 2064: 2058: 2057: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2010: 2002: 1996: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1977: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1953: 1950: 1944: 1941: 1935: 1932: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1868: 1858: 1849: 1848: 1840: 1825: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1809: 1803: 1789: 1783: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1749: 1743: 1742: 1714: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1697: 1690: 1682: 1259:Manufactured gas 1256: 1216:ammonium sulfate 1075:carbon disulfide 1016:hydrogen sulfide 618:Haines v. Taylor 597:20 N. J. Eq. 201 585:nuisance cases. 515:King Louis XVIII 446:House of Commons 422:Frederick Winsor 276:Alessandro Volta 241:Joseph Priestley 227:Alessandro Volta 21: 3177: 3176: 3172: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3167: 3166: 3132: 3131: 3130: 3125: 3107: 3091: 3082:Joule–von Mayer 3065: 3041:Electrophoresis 3010: 2994: 2959: 2945:Chinese alchemy 2938:Ancient history 2929: 2898: 2867: 2847: 2793: 2783: 2753: 2748: 2685: 2629: 2616: 2600: 2572: 2517: 2429: 2416: 2411: 2374: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2358: 2354: 2341: 2331: 2322: 2321: 2317: 2307: 2305: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2216: 2214: 2205: 2204: 2200: 2186: 2176: 2169: 2167: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2118: 2116: 2085:10.2307/3985884 2066: 2065: 2061: 2031: 2030: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2004: 2003: 1999: 1989: 1987: 1975: 1970: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1911: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1860: 1859: 1852: 1842: 1841: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1811: 1810: 1806: 1801:978-019858108-6 1790: 1786: 1773: 1769: 1751: 1750: 1746: 1716: 1715: 1711: 1701: 1699: 1698:on 26 June 2017 1695: 1688: 1684: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1647: 1627: 1623: 1594: 1590: 1562: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1486: 1482: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1321:carbon monoxide 1318: 1314: 1300:Carbonization ( 1251: 1242: 1233: 1224: 1205: 1188: 1169: 1165: 1159: 1150: 1133: 1125: 1093: 1087: 1080: 1072: 1038:sulfur trioxide 1021: 994: 974: 968: 941: 814: 781: 772: 702: 681: 675: 561: 549: 506: 489:Frederick Accum 476:Frederick Accum 468: 463: 403: 363:William Murdoch 358:William Murdock 352: 316: 272:Henry Cavendish 257:atmospheric air 221: 216: 160:Welsbach mantle 144:street lighting 113:William Murdoch 82:carbon monoxide 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3175: 3173: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3134: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3123: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3105: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3077:Element naming 3073: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3064: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3037: 3036: 3028: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3009: 3008: 3002: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2992: 2987: 2981: 2979: 2972: 2965:Periodic table 2961: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2927: 2922: 2920:Nanotechnology 2917: 2912: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2866: 2865: 2859: 2857: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2844: 2843: 2836:Thermodynamics 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2812: 2810: 2799: 2795: 2794: 2784: 2782: 2781: 2774: 2767: 2759: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2730: 2729: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2684: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2637: 2635: 2634:Infrastructure 2631: 2630: 2623: 2621: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2614: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2582: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2558: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2527: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2516: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2498:Regasification 2495: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2448: 2437: 2435: 2422: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2409: 2402: 2395: 2387: 2363: 2362: 2352: 2315: 2284: 2269: 2260: 2251: 2242: 2233: 2224: 2198: 2189:|journal= 2151: 2126: 2059: 2040:(1–2): 73–91. 2024: 2012: 1997: 1963: 1954: 1945: 1936: 1927: 1918: 1909: 1898:(3): 494–508. 1882: 1875: 1850: 1826: 1804: 1784: 1767: 1744: 1725:(3): 291–318. 1709: 1676: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1663: 1661:Industrial gas 1658: 1653: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1624:), hydrogen (H 1621: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1547: 1546: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1506: 1502: 1501: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1473:Petroleum oil. 1471: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1452: 1451:), hydrogen (H 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1417:Petroleum oil. 1415: 1411: 1410: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1378: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1316: 1315:), hydrogen (H 1312: 1305: 1298: 1295: 1291: 1290: 1287: 1280: 1271:Heat yield at 1269: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1250: 1247: 1241: 1238: 1232: 1229: 1223: 1220: 1204: 1201: 1187: 1184: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1155: 1149: 1146: 1132: 1129: 1124: 1121: 1092: 1089: 1078: 1070: 1050: 1049: 1045: 1034:sulfur dioxide 1030: 1027: 1019: 1011:carbon dioxide 993: 990: 973: 970: 966: 965: 964:Turboexhauster 962: 959: 955: 940: 937: 813: 810: 780: 779:Hydraulic main 777: 771: 768: 755: 754: 750: 701: 698: 674: 671: 645: 644: 640: 636: 560: 559:Law and safety 557: 548: 545: 505: 502: 467: 464: 462: 459: 402: 399: 383:James Watt Jr. 351: 348: 335:Philippe LeBon 322:Philippe LeBon 315: 312: 264:carbon dioxide 220: 217: 215: 212: 189:In the 1890s, 148:blue water gas 109:Philippe LeBon 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3174: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3137: 3122: 3114: 3113: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3098: 3094: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3061:Haber process 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3035: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3007: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2905: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2855: 2850: 2842: 2839: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2817: 2816:Atomic theory 2814: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2775: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2761: 2760: 2757: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2697:Bunsen burner 2695: 2694: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2657: 2654: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2642: 2639: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2589: 2587: 2584: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2567: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2514: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2447: 2444: 2443: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2408: 2403: 2401: 2396: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2371: 2356: 2353: 2348: 2336: 2328: 2327: 2319: 2316: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2285: 2280: 2273: 2270: 2264: 2261: 2255: 2252: 2246: 2243: 2237: 2234: 2228: 2225: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2199: 2194: 2181: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2152: 2139: 2138: 2130: 2127: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2063: 2060: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2028: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2013: 2008: 2001: 1998: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1940: 1937: 1931: 1928: 1922: 1919: 1913: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1878: 1876:0-233-98778-9 1872: 1867: 1866: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1815: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1748: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1713: 1710: 1694: 1687: 1681: 1678: 1671: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1648: 1644: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1422: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1326: 1322: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1285: 1281: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1248: 1246: 1239: 1237: 1230: 1228: 1222:Station meter 1221: 1219: 1217: 1212: 1210: 1202: 1200: 1192: 1185: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1156: 1154: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1130: 1128: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1113: 1105: 1097: 1091:The gasholder 1090: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1076: 1066: 1062: 1060: 1054: 1046: 1043: 1042:sulfuric acid 1039: 1035: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 991: 989: 981: 977: 971: 969: 963: 960: 956: 953: 949: 948: 947: 944: 938: 936: 932: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 901: 897: 890: 886: 883: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 857: 853: 846: 842: 835: 831: 824: 820: 817: 811: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 785: 778: 776: 769: 767: 763: 759: 751: 748: 743: 742: 741: 734: 730: 728: 724: 718: 714: 710: 707: 699: 697: 694: 685: 680: 672: 670: 668: 663: 659: 658:carbonization 653: 651: 641: 637: 633: 632: 631: 628: 623: 619: 615: 614:Lord Langdale 611: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 583: 579: 578: 573: 569: 567: 558: 556: 554: 546: 544: 541: 536: 534: 530: 524: 521: 516: 512: 503: 501: 499: 494: 490: 481: 477: 472: 465: 460: 458: 456: 450: 447: 441: 439: 438:royal charter 435: 432:of 1720, all 431: 427: 423: 419: 411: 407: 400: 398: 395: 391: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 356: 349: 347: 343: 341: 336: 328: 320: 313: 311: 309: 305: 301: 298: 293: 291: 286: 282: 277: 273: 269: 265: 260: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 233:Stephen Hales 225: 218: 213: 211: 209: 205: 200: 196: 192: 187: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 151: 149: 145: 141: 136: 133: 132:North America 129: 125: 120: 118: 114: 110: 105: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 39: 35: 31: 27: 19: 3046:Gaseous fuel 3045: 2863:Biochemistry 2831:Spectroscopy 2722:Gas lighting 2707:Gas cylinder 2493:Producer gas 2478:Landfill gas 2473:Gasification 2373:. 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Roegiers 1656:Pintsch gas 1371:cannel coal 1268:Composition 1265:Manufacture 589:Injunctions 577:malum in se 520:Paris Opera 199:natural gas 168:gas cooking 3136:Categories 2727:Gas mantle 2717:Gas heater 2712:Gas engine 2702:Gas burner 2651:Gas holder 2308:January 5, 1764:: 217–252. 1672:References 1538:Otto cycle 1284:std candle 1112:Gasholders 1059:blue billy 1053:included. 958:obsoleted. 950:The steam 455:George III 430:Bubble Act 375:Birmingham 340:thermolamp 290:ballooning 219:Precursors 58:fuel gases 50:analytical 3056:Gunpowder 3006:Nonmetals 2910:Cosmetics 2798:By branch 2734:Gas stove 2656:Gas meter 2508:Water gas 2345:ignored ( 2335:cite book 2304:: 410–451 2109:237549516 2093:1084-5453 2054:221115202 1986:: 157–172 1739:218637051 1550:Water gas 1458:1000–1500 1375:oil shale 1302:pyrolysis 1262:Feedstock 1166:O + C = H 939:Exhauster 812:Condenser 582:nuisances 540:Rembrandt 449:reading. 426:Brunswick 274:in 1766. 191:pipelines 184:water gas 164:Acetylene 3121:Category 3051:Graphene 3034:timeline 2999:By class 2969:timeline 2925:Pharmacy 2854:timeline 2841:timeline 2807:timeline 2790:timeline 2676:Odorizer 2661:Gasworks 2612:Hydrogen 2513:Wood gas 2483:Mond gas 2468:Blau gas 2441:Coal gas 2414:Fuel gas 2217:June 17, 1651:Blau gas 1645:See also 1617:chamber. 1543:Mond gas 1498:PG&E 1403:wood gas 1382:Wood gas 1325:ethylene 1294:Coal gas 1209:coal tar 992:Purifier 679:Gasworks 656:of coal 572:Case law 493:gasworks 304:Arenberg 268:hydrogen 253:air pump 90:Coal gas 86:ethylene 74:hydrogen 68:of many 66:mixtures 3026:Battery 2894:Weapons 2879:Fission 2596:Propane 2586:Autogas 2566:Bio-SNG 2432:History 2101:3985884 1631:330–400 1598:400–700 1530:100–170 1490:500–700 1397:< 10 1362:500–650 1309:methane 1275:(STP) ( 1131:Boilers 952:ejector 747:tuyeres 727:Siemens 650:in situ 624:, that 371:Redruth 124:England 98:ammonia 78:methane 36:, from 2884:Fusion 2591:Butane 2503:Syngas 2458:Biogas 2375:27 May 2107: 2099: 2091: 2052: 1990:26 May 1873: 1819:22 May 1799: 1737: 1634:> 8 1512:steam. 1289:Notes 1180:Berlin 601:future 482:(1815) 453:fill. 243:, and 128:Europe 94:sulfur 40:(1821) 3096:Other 2889:Power 2605:Other 2421:Types 2105:S2CID 2097:JSTOR 2050:S2CID 1976:(PDF) 1735:S2CID 1696:(PDF) 1689:(PDF) 1601:10–25 1566:~ 300 1493:10–18 1461:40–60 1365:10–18 1176:Tegel 193:from 174:(see 2690:Uses 2546:HCNG 2377:2012 2347:help 2310:2011 2219:2022 2193:help 2172:2009 2146:2009 2121:2009 2089:ISSN 1992:2012 1871:ISBN 1821:2012 1797:ISBN 1758:Lias 1704:2013 1311:, CH 1286:/ft) 1279:/ft) 1077:, CS 1048:gas. 704:The 608:the 551:The 379:Soho 170:and 130:and 96:and 84:and 52:and 44:The 2578:LPG 2561:SNG 2556:NGC 2551:LNG 2541:CNG 2536:CBM 2531:APG 2081:doi 2042:doi 1900:doi 1727:doi 1569:nil 1533:nil 1327:, C 1277:BTU 1178:in 1018:, H 999:Tar 725:by 478:'s 270:by 210:". 180:LPG 88:. 3138:: 2990:Al 2339:: 2337:}} 2333:{{ 2300:. 2296:. 2210:. 2184:: 2182:}} 2178:{{ 2162:. 2103:. 2095:. 2087:. 2075:. 2071:. 2048:. 2038:89 2036:. 1984:29 1982:. 1978:. 1896:20 1894:. 1853:^ 1829:^ 1762:10 1760:. 1733:. 1723:63 1721:. 1527:). 1359:). 620:, 612:, 595:, 239:, 235:, 80:, 76:, 2985:F 2971:) 2967:( 2856:) 2809:) 2792:) 2788:( 2778:e 2771:t 2764:v 2434:) 2430:( 2406:e 2399:t 2392:v 2379:. 2349:) 2312:. 2302:4 2221:. 2195:) 2191:( 2174:. 2164:L 2148:. 2123:. 2083:: 2077:8 2056:. 2044:: 1994:. 1906:. 1902:: 1879:. 1823:. 1782:. 1741:. 1729:: 1706:. 1626:2 1622:4 1593:4 1589:2 1561:2 1525:4 1521:2 1517:2 1485:4 1481:2 1453:2 1449:4 1445:8 1443:H 1441:3 1437:2 1435:H 1433:2 1429:4 1427:H 1425:2 1394:? 1369:" 1357:2 1353:2 1349:4 1345:3 1341:2 1339:H 1337:2 1333:4 1331:H 1329:2 1317:2 1313:4 1168:2 1164:2 1079:2 1071:2 1020:2 1014:( 20:)

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Knowledge (XXG)

History of manufactured fuel gases

Index