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24:(1803–1873), and modified and refined by agricultural scientists who worked on samples of soil in laboratories, greenhouses, and on small field plots. The soils were rarely examined below the depth of normal tillage. These chemists held the "balance-sheet" theory of plant nutrition. Soil was considered a more or less static storage bin for plant nutrients—the soils could be used and replaced. This concept still has value when applied within the framework of modern soil science, although a useful understanding of soils goes beyond the removal of nutrients from soil by harvested crops and their return in manure, lime, and fertilizer.
141:(1846–1903) and N. M. Sibirtsev (1860–1900) was developing a new concept of soil. The Russian workers conceived of soils as independent natural bodies, each with unique properties resulting from a unique combination of climate, living matter, parent material, relief, and time. They hypothesized that properties of each soil reflected the combined effects of the particular set of genetic factors responsible for the soil's formation. Hans Jenny later emphasized the functionally relatedness of soil properties and soil formation. The results of this work became generally available to Americans through the publication in 1914 of
219:
Neither system definitely linked the classes of its higher categories, largely influenced by genetic concepts initiated by the
Russian soil scientists, to the soil series and their subdivisions that were used in soil mapping in the United States. Both systems reflected the concepts and theories of soil genesis of the time, which were themselves predominantly qualitative in character. Modification of the 1938 system in 1949 corrected some of its deficiencies but also illustrated the need for a reappraisal of concepts and principles. More than 15 years of work under the leadership of
210:, as well as in the basic sciences that underlie them, have added new tools and new dimensions to the study of soil formation. As a consequence, the formation of soil has come to be treated as the aggregate of many interrelated physical, chemical, and biological processes. These processes are subject to quantitative study in soil physics, soil chemistry, soil mineralogy, and soil biology. The focus of attention also has shifted from the study of gross attributes of the whole soil to the co-varying detail of individual parts, including grain-to-grain relationships.
169:, the Russian concept was broadened and adapted to conditions in the United States. This concept emphasized individual soil profiles to the subordination of external soil features and surface geology. By emphasizing soil profiles, however, soil scientists at first tended to overlook the natural variability of soils which can be substantial even within a small area. Overlooking the variability of soils seriously reduced the value of the maps which showed the location of the soils.
181:
examining the soils. Marbut tried to make clear that examination of the soils themselves was essential in developing a system of Soil
Classification and in making usable soil maps. In spite of this, Marbut's work reveals his personal understanding of the contributions of geology to soil science. His soil classification of 1935 depends heavily on the concept of a "normal soil", the product of equilibrium on a landscape where downward erosion keeps pace with soil formation.
40:
skilled in the necessary field methods and in scientific correlation appropriate to the study of soils. They conceived soils as mainly the weathering products of geologic formations, defined by landform and lithologic composition. Most of the soil surveys published before 1910 were strongly influenced by these concepts. Those published from 1910 to 1920 gradually added greater refinements and recognized more soil features but retained fundamentally geological concepts.
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placed in field manuals for highway engineers of some States during the 1930s and 1940s. Nevertheless, the changes in soil surveys during this period were mainly responses to the needs of farming, ranching, and forestry. During the 1950s and 1960s nonfarm uses of the soil increased rapidly. This created a great need for information about the effects of soils on those nonfarm uses.
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464:"The latest edition of The Nature and Properties of Soils, published in 2016, cites Lehmann's 2015 paper and acknowledges that "our understanding of the nature and genesis of soil humus has advanced greatly since the turn of the century, requiring that some long-accepted concepts be revised or abandoned."
223:
culminated in a new soil classification system. This became the official classification system of the U.S. National
Cooperative Soil Survey in 1965 and was published in 1975 as Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. The Smith system was adopted
205:
concisely summarized and illustrated many of the basic principles of modern soil science to that date. Since 1940, time has assumed much greater significance among the factors of soil formation, and geomorphological studies have become important in determining the time that soil material at any place
176:
The concept of soil was gradually broadened and extended during the years following 1930, essentially through consolidation and balance. The major emphasis had been on the soil profile. After 1930, morphological studies were extended from single pits to long trenches or a series of pits in an area of
39:
Early soil surveys were made to help farmers locate soils responsive to different management practices and to help them decide what crops and management practices were most suitable for the particular kinds of soil on their farms. Many of the early workers were geologists because only geologists were
443:
The present paradigm views humus as a system of heteropolycondensates, largely produced by the soil microflora, in varying associations with clay (Anderson 1979). Because this conceptual model, and simulation models rooted within the concept, do not accommodate a large char component, a considerable
227:
Another factor has had an immense impact on soil survey, especially during the 1960s. Before 1950, the primary applications of soil surveys were farming, ranching, and forestry. Applications for highway planning were recognized in some States as early as the late 1920s, and soil interpretations were
152:
The early enthusiasm for the new concept and for the rising new discipline of soil science led some to suggest the study of soil could proceed without regard to the older concepts derived from geology and agricultural chemistry. Certainly the reverse is true. Besides laying the foundation for a soil
148:
The
Russian concepts were revolutionary. Properties of soils no longer were based wholly on inferences from the nature of the rocks or from climate or other environmental factors, considered singly or collectively; rather, by going directly to the soil itself, the integrated expression of all these
172:
Furthermore, early emphasis on genetic soil profiles was so great as to suggest that material lacking a genetic profile, such as recent alluvium, was not soil. A sharp distinction was drawn between rock weathering and soil formation. Although a distinction between these sets of processes is useful
31:
and applied it within the framework of their own discipline. They described soil as disintegrated rock of various sorts—granite, sandstone, glacial till, and the like. They went further, however, and described how the weathering processes modified this material and how geologic processes shaped it
412:
A new generation of soil studies powered by modern microscopes and imaging technologies has revealed that whatever humus is, it is not the long-lasting substance scientists believed it to be. Soil researchers have concluded that even the largest, most complex molecules can be quickly devoured by
218:
In both the classification of Marbut and the 1938 classification developed by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, the classes were described mainly in qualitative terms. Classes were not defined in quantitative terms that would permit consistent application of the system by different scientists.
128:
Dokuchaev considers the soil as a natural body having its own genesis and its own history of development, a body with complex and multiform processes taking place within it. The soil is considered as different from bedrock. The latter becomes soil under the influence of a series of soil-forming
260:
Soil organic matter is significantly different than understood by soil science prior to the 21st century. Flaws in the established paradigm were made apparent in 1999 when soil models could not accommodate the large charcoal component present in
Chernozems. In 2016 soil science textbooks began
180:
Marbut emphasized strongly that classification of soils should be based on morphology instead of on theories of soil genesis, because theories are both ephemeral and dynamic. He perhaps overemphasized this point to offset other workers who assumed that soils had certain characteristics without
43:
The balance-sheet theory of plant nutrition dominated the laboratory and the geological concept dominated field work. Both approaches were taught in many classrooms until the late 1920s. Although broader and more generally useful concepts of soil were being developed by some soil scientists,
184:
Clarification and broadening of the concept of a soil science also grew out of the increasing emphasis on detailed soil mapping. Concepts changed with increased emphasis on predicting crop yields for each kind of soil shown on the maps. Many of the older descriptions of soils had not been
84:
was worthy of study and appealed for recognition of soil science as a discipline. In the 1862 work, he presented a proposal for soil profile description, discussed the physical and chemical properties of soils, and proposed classification of soils based on mineral properties.
504:
Lehmann is pushing to replace the old dichotomy of stable and unstable carbon with a "soil continuum model" of carbon in progressive stages of decomposition. But this model and others like it are far from complete, and at this point, more conceptual than mathematically
129:
factors—climate, vegetation, country, relief and age. According to him, soil should be called the "daily" or outward horizons of rocks regardless of the type; they are changed naturally by the common effect of water, air and various kinds of living and dead organisms.
177:
a soil. The morphology of a soil came to be described by ranges of properties deviating from a central concept instead of by a single "typical" profile. The development of techniques for mineralogical studies of clays also emphasized the need for laboratory studies.
188:
During the 1930s, soil formation was explained in terms of loosely conceived processes, such as "podzolization", "laterization", and "calcification". These were presumed to be unique processes responsible for the observed common properties of the soils of a region.
109:
88:
Vasily
Dokuchaev is recognized today as more influential than Fallou, however in the years closely following Dokuchaev's death, Fallou was regarded as the founder of modern soil science by Dokuchaev's student, influential Russian pedologist
149:
factors could be seen in the morphology of the soils. This concept required that all properties of soils be considered collectively in terms of a completely integrated natural body. In short, it made possible a science of soil.
621:
Paton, T. R., and
Humphreys, G. S., 2007, A critical evaluation of the zonalistic foundations of soil science in the United States. Part I: The beginning of soil classification: Geoderma, v. 139, p. 257 –
375:
Humphreys, G. S., and
Mitchell, P. B., 1983, A preliminary assessment of the role of bioturbation and rainwash on sandstone hillslopes in the Sydney Basin, in Australian and New Zealand Geomorphology Group, p.
627:
Paton, T. R., and
Humphreys, G. S., 2007, A critical evaluation of the zonalistic foundations of soil science in the United States. Part II: The pragmatism of Charles Kellogg: Geoderma, v. 139, no. 268 –
125:. Previously, soil had been considered a product of physicochemical transformations of rocks, a dead substrate from which plants derive nutritious mineral elements. Soil and bedrock were in fact equated.
366:
Wilkinson, M. T., and Humphreys, G. S., 2005, Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates: Australian Journal of Soil Research, v. 43, p.767-779.
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quantitative enough and the units of classification had been too heterogeneous for making yield and management predictions needed for planning the management of individual farms or fields.
603:, 1983, A preliminary assessment of the role of bioturbation and rainwash on sandstone hillslopes in the Sydney Basin, in Australian and New Zealand Geomorphology Group, p. 66–80.
157:
provides a firm basis on which to group the results of observation, experiments, and practical experience and to develop integrated principles that predict the behavior of the soils.
330:Étude des sols de la Russie // Compte rendu: Congrès géologique international, 7-me session, Russie, 1897. St. Pétersbourg: M. Stassuléwitsch, 1899. P. 73-125: carte : 2 pl.
61:
357:
Shaler, N. S., 1891, The origin and nature of soils, in Powell, J. W., ed., USGS 12th Annual report 1890-1891: Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 213-45.
52:(1875–1967) in the United States and soil scientists in Russia, the necessary data for formulating these broader concepts came from the field work of the soil survey.
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609:, 2005, Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates: Australian Journal of Soil Research, v. 43, p. 767–779.
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655:
585:, 1891, The origin and nature of soils, in Powell, J. W., ed., USGS 12th Annual report 1890-1891: Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, p. 213-45.
93:(1867–1927). Fallou's historical status as founder is supported by Moscow soil scientist and bibliographer of Russian soil science, Arseny Yarilov, Editor of
316:
545:"The theory of soil organic carbon accumulation that's in that textbook has been proven mostly false ... and we're still teaching it." (Gregg Sanford)
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in soil formation. There is now ample evidence to support Darwin's conclusions, and in many areas biota that burrow in soil are major agents of
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562:, 1926. Quelques réflexions sur l'histoire de la pédologie // Annales de la science agronomique française et étrangère. Vol. 43. P. 132–153.
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Darwin, C., 1881, The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with observations on their habits: London, John Murray
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As of 2021, few yet understand that the classic textbook theory of soil organic matter accumulation "has been proven mostly false".
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A major re-evaluation of soil formation and the role of biota commenced in the 1980s, as soil-geomorphologists began to re-evaluate
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Johnson, D. L., 1990, Biomantle evolution and the redistribution of earth materials and artifacts: Soil Science, v. 149, p. 84-102
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soil's abundant and voracious microbes. The magic molecule you can just stick in the soil and expect to stay there may not exist.
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36:(1841–1906) monograph (1891) on the origin and nature of soils summarized the late 19th century geological concept of soils.
579:, 1881, The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with observations on their habits: London, John Murray
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Ponomarenko, E.V.; Anderson, D.W. (2001), "Importance of charred organic matter in Black Chernozem soils of Saskatchewan",
818:
597:, 1990, Biomantle evolution and the redistribution of earth materials and artifacts: Soil Science, v. 149, p. 84–102.
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has been subjected to soil-forming processes. Meanwhile, advances in soil chemistry, soil physics, soil mineralogy, and
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Paton, T. R., Humphreys, G. S., and Mitchell, P. B., 1995, Soils: A New Global View: London, UCL Press Limited.
1965:
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Glinka K.D. The great soil groups of the world and their development. Michigan: Edwards bros. 1927. 234 p.
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into landforms such as glacial moraines, alluvial plains, loess plains, and marine terraces. Geologist
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The scientific basis of soil science as a natural science was established by the classical works of
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for some purposes, rock and mineral weathering and soil formation are commonly indistinguishable.
145:'s textbook in German and especially through its translation into English by C.F. Marbut in 1927.
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developed his collected field observations of soil into a systematic approach. He explained why
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science with its own principles, the new concept makes the other sciences even more useful.
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573:, Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. URL accessed on 2004-11-30.
307:, Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. URL accessed on 2004-11-30.
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If the humus paradigm is coming to an end, the question becomes: What will replace it?
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addressing the need to abandon long-accepted, but now outdated, concepts.
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in the U.S. and many other nations for their own classification system.
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change in conceptual understanding (a paradigm shift) appears imminent.
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97:(means soil science). Yarilov titled his 1904 article about Fallou in
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The early geologists generally accepted the balance-sheet theory of
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Few outside the field of soil science have heard of humus's demise.
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Krasil'nikov, N.A. (1958) Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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A Soil-Science Revolution Upends Plans to Fight Climate Change
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Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology
591:, 1995, Soils: A New Global View: London, UCL Press Limited
101:"Friedrich Albert Fallou, Founder of Soil Science".
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20:were based on ideas developed by a German chemist,
1744:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
1780:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists
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74:Pedology or General and Special Soil Science
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1754:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
1860:Soil Science Society of America Journal
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1832:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
1293:Canadian system of soil classification
607:Wilkinson, M. T., and Humphreys, G. S.
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601:Humphreys, G. S., and Mitchell, P. B.
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1770:International Union of Soil Sciences
567:Soil Survey: Early Concepts of Soil.
301:Soil Survey: Early Concepts of Soil.
64:F.A. Fallou before his death in 1877
1797:Soil and Water Conservation Society
571:Soil Survey Manual USDA Handbook 18
305:Soil Survey Manual USDA Handbook 18
1277:Unified Soil Classification System
809:Soil retrogression and degradation
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1939:Knowledge (XXG):WikiProject Soil
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517:Popkin, Gabriel (27 July 2021),
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456:Popkin, Gabriel (27 July 2021),
427:Canadian Journal of Soil Science
404:Popkin, Gabriel (27 July 2021),
274:List of Russian Earth scientists
70:First Principles of Soil Science
1803:Soil Science Society of America
1808:World Congress of Soil Science
1792:Soil Science Society of Poland
1298:Australian Soil Classification
1289:(French classification system)
244:'s early ideas on the role of
135:Russian school of soil science
1:
819:Soil compaction (agriculture)
91:Konstantin Dmitrievich Glinka
1760:German Soil Science Society
1318:List of vineyard soil types
2003:
1775:International Year of Soil
1303:Polish Soil Classification
742:Environmental soil science
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1327:Non-systematic soil types
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747:Agricultural soil science
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565:Soil Survey Staff, 1993.
72:(1857, 2nd ed. 1865) and
1897:Infiltration (hydrology)
1691:Geotechnical engineering
1313:List of U.S. state soils
165:Under the leadership of
137:under the leadership of
1966:List of soil scientists
1308:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
1287:Référentiel pédologique
1271:FAO soil classification
133:Beginning in 1870, the
78:Friedrich Albert Fallou
56:Friedrich Albert Fallou
1737:Societies, Initiatives
959:Soil water (retention)
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16:The early concepts of
1956:Category soil science
1640:Soil salinity control
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1721:Agricultural science
1615:Soil guideline value
1439:Calcareous grassland
1016:World Reference Base
50:George Nelson Coffey
1817:Scientific journals
1008:Soil classification
949:Soil organic matter
910:Pore water pressure
543:, Quanta Magazine,
523:, Quanta Magazine,
502:, Quanta Magazine,
482:, Quanta Magazine,
462:, Quanta Magazine,
410:, Quanta Magazine,
256:Soil organic matter
123:Vasily V. Dokuchaev
1912:Impervious surface
1192:USDA soil taxonomy
1018:for Soil Resources
905:Pore space in soil
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804:Soil contamination
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113:V. Dokuchaev with
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22:Justus von Liebig
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1519:Prime farmland
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1474:Fuller's earth
1471:
1466:
1464:Expansive clay
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1323:
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1079:
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966:
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946:
945:
944:
934:
929:
927:Soil biomantle
924:
919:
914:
913:
912:
907:
900:Soil structure
897:
892:
887:
882:
880:Soil fertility
877:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
851:
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840:
839:
838:
828:
823:
822:
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795:
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792:Soil formation
789:
784:
774:
768:
766:
762:
761:
754:
752:
750:
749:
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739:
737:Soil chemistry
734:
732:Soil mechanics
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
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672:
669:
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632:
631:
625:
617:
616:External links
614:
613:
612:
604:
598:
595:Johnson, D. L.
592:
586:
580:
574:
563:
555:
552:
550:
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509:
488:
468:
448:
433:(3): 285–297,
417:
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359:
350:
341:
332:
320:
309:
283:
281:
278:
277:
276:
269:
266:
257:
254:
238:Charles Darwin
233:
230:
215:
212:
194:
191:
162:
159:
131:
130:
126:
106:
103:
82:soil formation
57:
54:
29:soil fertility
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1999:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1967:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1951:
1950:Category soil
1942:
1940:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1908:
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1883:
1880:
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1875:
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1872:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1853:Soil Research
1850:
1848:
1847:
1846:Pochvovedenie
1843:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1829:
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1819:
1815:
1809:
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1707:
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1699:
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1686:Geomorphology
1684:
1682:
1679:
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1672:
1669:
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1655:Liming (soil)
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1600:
1596:
1586:
1585:Types of soil
1576:
1570:
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1564:Tropical peat
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1557:
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1450:
1449:Dry quicksand
1447:
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1291:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
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1269:
1268:
1266:
1264:Other systems
1262:
1256:
1253:
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1233:
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1228:
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1022:
1019:
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997:
995:
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983:
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979:
974:
972:
968:
960:
957:
956:
955:
954:Soil moisture
952:
950:
947:
943:
940:
939:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
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923:
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868:
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863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
849:
846:
845:
844:
841:
837:
834:
833:
832:
831:Soil salinity
829:
827:
824:
820:
817:
816:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
793:
790:
788:
787:Pedodiversity
785:
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775:
773:
770:
769:
767:
763:
758:
748:
745:
743:
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733:
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723:
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688:
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630:
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624:
620:
619:
615:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
583:Shaler, N. S.
581:
578:
575:
572:
568:
564:
561:
558:
557:
553:
546:
542:
541:
533:
530:
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522:
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513:
510:
506:
501:
500:
492:
489:
485:
481:
480:
472:
469:
465:
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460:
452:
449:
445:
440:
436:
432:
428:
421:
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414:
409:
408:
400:
397:
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388:
382:
379:
372:
369:
363:
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354:
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324:
321:
318:
313:
310:
306:
302:
297:
295:
293:
291:
289:
285:
279:
275:
272:
271:
267:
265:
262:
255:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
231:
229:
225:
222:
213:
211:
209:
204:
200:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
168:
161:Curtis Marbut
160:
158:
156:
150:
146:
144:
140:
136:
127:
124:
120:
119:
116:
111:
104:
102:
100:
99:Pochvovedenie
96:
95:Pochvovedenie
92:
86:
83:
79:
75:
71:
62:
55:
53:
51:
47:
41:
37:
35:
30:
25:
23:
19:
1987:Soil science
1858:
1851:
1844:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1706:Biogeography
1701:Hydrogeology
1676:Geochemistry
1598:Applications
1494:Martian soil
922:Soil horizon
895:Soil texture
870:Soil quality
826:Soil sealing
799:Soil erosion
727:Soil physics
722:Soil ecology
717:Soil zoology
707:Soil biology
675:
665:Soil science
606:
600:
594:
588:
582:
576:
570:
560:Agafonoff V.
559:
544:
539:
532:
524:
519:
512:
503:
498:
491:
483:
478:
471:
463:
458:
451:
442:
430:
426:
420:
411:
406:
399:
390:
381:
371:
362:
353:
344:
335:
327:
323:
312:
304:
263:
259:
246:bioturbation
235:
232:Bioturbation
226:
221:Guy D. Smith
217:
208:soil biology
202:
196:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:C. F. Marbut
164:
151:
147:
132:
98:
94:
87:
73:
69:
67:
42:
38:
26:
15:
1902:Groundwater
1716:Archaeology
1650:Agroecology
1620:Soil survey
1559:Terra rossa
1554:Terra preta
1534:Spodic soil
1454:Duplex soil
1434:Brown earth
1414:Alkali soil
1404:Rhizosphere
1399:Laimosphere
1273:(1974–1998)
1230:Inceptisols
1137:Plinthosols
1102:Kastanozems
932:Soil carbon
855:Soil health
836:Alkali soil
765:Soil topics
690:Main fields
505:predictive.
250:pedogenesis
143:K.D. Glinka
44:especially
1892:Vegetation
1635:Soil value
1539:Stagnogley
1489:Lunar soil
1444:Dark earth
1429:Brickearth
1394:Pedosphere
1364:Soil crust
1172:Technosols
1157:Solonchaks
1077:Ferralsols
1042:Anthrosols
917:Soil crust
890:Soil color
875:Soil value
777:Pedosphere
702:Edaphology
577:Darwin, C.
554:Literature
280:References
199:Hans Jenny
193:Hans Jenny
1921:Petrichor
1696:Hydrology
1681:Petrology
1625:Soil test
1524:Quicksand
1469:Fill dirt
1409:Bulk soil
1255:Vertisols
1245:Spodosols
1235:Mollisols
1225:Histosols
1210:Aridisols
1182:Vertisols
1177:Umbrisols
1167:Stagnosol
1132:Planosols
1127:Phaeozems
1107:Leptosols
1092:Gypsisols
1082:Fluvisols
1062:Chernozem
1057:Cambisols
1052:Calcisols
1047:Arenosols
971:Soil type
860:Soil life
214:Guy Smith
115:chernozem
1981:Category
1877:Land use
1870:See also
1726:Agrology
1509:Paleosol
1424:Blue goo
1379:Gypcrust
1250:Ultisols
1220:Gelisols
1215:Entisols
1205:Andisols
1200:Alfisols
1162:Solonetz
1152:Retisols
1147:Regosols
1122:Nitisols
1117:Luvisols
1112:Lixisols
1097:Histosol
1087:Gleysols
1072:Durisols
1067:Cryosols
1037:Andosols
1027:Acrisols
937:Soil gas
697:Pedology
268:See also
197:In 1941
1954:
1756:(India)
1671:Geology
1459:Eluvium
1419:Bay mud
1384:Caliche
1374:Hardpan
1369:Claypan
1359:Subsoil
1354:Topsoil
1240:Oxisols
1142:Podzols
1032:Alisols
1020:(1998–)
843:Soil pH
676:History
569:(html)
303:(html)
240:'s and
76:(1862)
1943:
1569:Yedoma
1504:Muskeg
376:66-80.
1549:Takir
1484:Loess
681:Index
1799:(US)
1788:(UK)
1782:(US)
1514:Peat
1349:Loam
1344:Clay
1339:Silt
1334:Sand
772:Soil
628:276.
622:267.
18:soil
1499:Mud
435:doi
1983::
441:,
431:81
429:,
287:^
252:.
1914:/
1000:e
993:t
986:v
657:e
650:t
643:v
437::
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