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lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation." Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was in the
297:
519:
137:
511:
423:
219:
580:, British Patent no. 5022. Although different forms of cement already existed (Pozzolanic cement was used by the Romans as early as 100 B.C. and even earlier by the ancient Greek and Chinese civilizations) and were in common usage in Europe from the 1750s, the discovery made by Aspdin used commonly available, cheap materials, making concrete construction an economical possibility.
17:
492:
887:
to become a significant tool for structural analysis and design. The development of finite element programs has led to the ability to accurately predict the stresses in complex structures, and allowed great advances in structural engineering design and architecture. In the 1960s and 70s computational
752:
design. Wilhelm Ritter formulated the truss theory for the shear design of reinforced concrete beams in 1899, and Emil Mörsch improved this in 1902. He went on to demonstrate that treating concrete in compression as a linear-elastic material was a conservative approximation of its behaviour. Concrete
747:
and others furthering of the understanding of its behaviour. Maillart noticed that many concrete bridge structures were significantly cracked, and as a result left the cracked areas out of his next bridge design - correctly believing that if the concrete was cracked, it was not contributing to the
851:
Another innovation that Fazlur Khan developed was the concept of X-bracing, which reduced the lateral load on the building by transferring the load into the exterior columns. This allowed for a reduced need for interior columns thus creating more floor space, and can be seen in the John
Hancock
650:(Belper West Mill), using cast iron columns and timber beams within the depths of brick arches that formed the floors. The exposed beam soffits were protected against fire by plaster. This mill at Belper was the world's first attempt to construct fireproof buildings, and is the first example of
835:
structural systems for tall buildings. He defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting
599:
in Paris, using steel mesh reinforcement similar to that used by Lambot and
Wilkinson. Monier took the idea forward, filing several patents for tubs, slabs and beams, leading eventually to the Monier system of reinforced structures, the first use of steel reinforcement bars located in areas of
807:
developed a mathematical basis for finite element analysis. This led in 1956 to the publication by J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's of a paper on the "Stiffness and
Deflection of Complex Structures". This paper introduced the name "finite-element method" and is widely
484:
753:
design and analysis has been progressing ever since, with the development of analysis methods such as yield line theory, based on plastic analysis of concrete (as opposed to linear-elastic), and many different variations on the model for stress distributions in concrete in compression
58:
were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because it is a structural form which is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).
875:
and Kurt
Schafer published the culmination of almost ten years of work on the strut and tie method for concrete analysis - a tool to design structures with discontinuities such as corners and joints, providing another powerful tool for the analysis of complex concrete geometries.
549:
of 1826 he explored a great range of different structural theory, and was the first to highlight that the role of a structural engineer is not to understand the final, failed state of a structure, but to prevent that failure in the first place. In 1826 he also established the
376:). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the mathematical representation and design of building structures.
790:
went on to develop the plasticity theory of structures, providing a powerful tool for the safe design of steel structures. The possibility of creating structures with complex geometries, beyond analysis by hand calculation methods, first arose in 1941 when
763:
with a patent in 1928, gave a novel approach in overcoming the weakness of concrete structures in tension. Freyssinet constructed an experimental prestressed arch in 1908 and later used the technology in a limited form in the
433:
Further advances in the mathematics needed to allow structural engineers to apply the understanding of structures gained through the work of
Galileo, Hooke and Newton during the 17th century came in the 18th century when
595:. He patented his system of mesh reinforcement and concrete in 1855, one year after W.B. Wilkinson also patented a similar system. This was followed in 1867 when a reinforced concrete planting tub was patented by
101:. No theory of structures existed and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained by
895:
Developments in the understanding of materials and structural behaviour in the latter part of the 20th century have been significant, with detailed understanding being developed of topics such as
108:
No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the
743:
constructed 200 reinforced concrete bridges in
Germany between 1890 and 1897 The great pioneering uses of reinforced concrete however came during the first third of the 20th century, with
693:
was built by
Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin, demonstrating the potential of construction using iron, despite the fact that steel construction was already being used elsewhere.
191:
Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.
316:
and side vaults, to build tall spacious structures, some of which were built entirely of stone (with iron pins only securing the ends of stones) and have lasted for centuries.
1351:
Hoogenboom P.C.J., "Discrete
Elements and Nonlinearity in Design of Structural Concrete Walls", Section 1.3 Historical Overview of Structural Concrete Modelling, August 1998,
923:, and the increasing range of different structures and the increasing complexity of those structures has led to increasing specialisation of structural engineers.
82:
which has the oldest and longest Qanat (older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km) that also spread to other cultures having had contact with the
Persian.
396:
1457:
565:
presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy.
438:
pioneered much of the mathematics and many of the methods which allow structural engineers to model and analyse structures. Specifically, he developed the
1517:
1522:
1432:
1406:
1013:
615:. He gained patents for the process in 1855 and 1856 and successfully completed the conversion of cast iron into cast steel in 1858. Eventually
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845:
630:
During the late 19th century, great advancements were made in the use of cast iron, gradually replacing wrought iron as a material of choice.
1201:
1057:
811:
High-rise construction, though possible from the late 19th century onwards, was greatly advanced during the second half of the 20th century.
460:, providing a tool using equilibrium of forces and compatibility of geometry to solve structural problems. In 1717 Jean Bernoulli wrote to
538:
Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, materials science and structural analysis underwent development at a tremendous pace.
658:, a collaboration between Strutt and Bage, which by using a full cast iron frame represented the world's first "fire proofed" building.
857:
837:
828:
1227:
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on the topic of discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework. This was the forerunner to the development of
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1237:
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976:
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1527:
439:
499:
416:
1028:
Qanat, Kariz and
Khattara: Traditional Water Systems in the Middle East - By Peter Beaumont, Michael E. Bonine, Keith Stanley
689:. The Forth Bridge was one of the first major uses of steel, and a landmark in bridge design. Also in 1889, the wrought-iron
327:
produced many engineering designs based on scientific observations and rigour, including a design for a bridge to span the
1503:"World Expos. A history of structures". Isaac LĂłpez CĂ©sar. A history of architectural structures over the last 150 years.
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844:. This laid the foundations for the tube structures used in most later skyscraper constructions, including the
464:
explaining the principle of virtual work, while in 1726 Daniel Bernoulli wrote of the "composition of forces".
140:
Archimedes is said to have remarked about the lever: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth."
892:
roof. Many modern structures could not be understood and designed without the use of computational analysis.
942:
937:
884:
856:
was also designed by Khan for the John Hancock Center in 1969. Later buildings with sky lobbies include the
800:
331:. Though dismissed at the time, the design has since been judged to be both feasible and structurally valid
920:
900:
732:
631:
558:, allowing engineers for the first time to both understand structural behaviour and structural materials.
35:
1436:
1410:
735:'s firm used his patented reinforced concrete system to build thousands of structures throughout Europe.
713:
555:
273:
written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with extensive sections on materials and
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109:
105:
and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.
1010:
518:
364:, outlining the sciences of the strength of materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining
85:
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by
861:
792:
787:
760:
756:
705:
662:
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301:
215:, underpin much of the mathematics and understanding of structures in modern structural engineering.
164:. It remained the largest man-made structure for millennia and was considered an unsurpassed feat in
541:
Though elasticity was understood in theory well before the 19th century, it was not until 1821 that
916:
904:
820:
783:, allowing the real stresses of many complex structures to be approximated quickly and accurately.
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592:
588:
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1502:
387:, providing a scientific understanding of elasticity of materials and their behaviour under load.
912:
896:
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717:
642:, was the first building in the world with an interior iron frame. It was built in 1797. In 1792
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446:(1700–1782) circa 1750 - the fundamental theory underlying most structural engineering design.
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908:
765:
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412:
404:, providing for the first time an understanding of the fundamental laws governing structures.
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312:(11th to 14th centuries) builders were able to balance the side thrust of vaults with that of
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Developments in concrete continued with the construction in 1848 of a rowing boat built of
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Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part Ii: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
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recognised as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.
545:
formulated the general theory of elasticity in a mathematically usable form. In his
475:
formula, greatly advancing the ability of engineers to design compression elements.
1037:
The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development and Technology by Hans E. Wulff
768:
in France in 1930. He went on to build six prestressed concrete bridges across the
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The understanding of the physical laws that underpin structural engineering in the
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40:
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The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by
211:. Archimedes's work on this and his work on calculus and geometry, together with
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776:
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was the first structural engineer known by name and constructed the first known
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Another notable engineering feat from antiquity still in use today is the qanat
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analysis was used in a significant way for the first time on the design of the
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in the US and Wayss & Freitag in Germany also patented systems. The firm
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made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures in
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Structural engineering theory was again advanced in 1930 when Professor
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Turner, J.; Clough, R.W.; Martin, H.C.; Topp, L.J. (1956) p.803-23, 854
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In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the development of powerful
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used in construction. One reason for their success is their accurate
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Again taking reinforced concrete design forwards, from 1892 onwards
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designed structural systems that remain fundamental to many modern
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Bessemer converter, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England (2002)
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In the 15th and 16th centuries and despite lacking beam theory and
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Archimedes used the principles derived to calculate the areas and
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and others. The depth and breadth of knowledge now available in
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underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the
79:
144:
The recorded history of structural engineering starts with the
796:
354:
with the publication of three great scientific works. In 1638
603:
Steel construction was first made possible in the 1850s when
456:(1667–1748), is also credited with formulating the theory of
696:
During the late 19th century, Russian structural engineer
1141:
Newton, Isaac;Leseur, Thomas; Jacquier, François. (1822)
819:
and which he employed in his structural designs for the
654:. This was later improved upon with the construction of
245:, many of which are still standing today. They include
1190:
Bradley, Robert E.; Sandifer, Charles Edward (2007).
1079:(1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)"
646:
had attempted to build a fireproof mill at Belper in
907:, temperature effects on materials, dynamics and
1123:Galileo, G. (Crew, H & de Salvio, A. (1954))
54:, the first architect in history known by name.
189:
681:, after the original design for the bridge by
561:Towards the end of the 19th century, in 1873,
554:as a property of materials independent of the
748:strength. This resulted in the revolutionary
578:"a superior cement resembling Portland Stone"
514:Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888.
479:Modern developments in structural engineering
8:
397:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
338:Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni
1306:Blank, A.; McEvoy, M.; Plank, R. (1993) p.2
1279:Nedwell, P.J.; Swamy, R.N.(ed). (1994) p.27
1102:. Museum of Science, Boston. Archived from
685:was rejected following the collapse of his
977:"Lecture Notes in Structural Engineering"
627:as the preferred metal for construction.
183:in two volumes, in which he sets out the
1261:Castigliano, C.A. (Andrews, E.S.) (1966)
1185:
1183:
982:. University of Colorado. Archived from
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968:
517:
509:
421:
135:
70:technology developed in the time of the
39:dates back to at least 2700 BC when the
15:
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199:of various geometric figures including
175:dates back to the 3rd century BC, when
1481:Schlaich, J., K. Schäfer, M. Jennewein
1232:. Imperial College Press. p. 62.
1166:. Imperial College Press. p. 69.
948:History of sanitation and water supply
846:construction of the World Trade Center
827:in 1973. Khan's central innovation in
772:, firmly establishing the technology.
712:and new structural geometries such as
361:Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences
156:in Egypt. In the 26th century BC, the
1229:The Science of Structural Engineering
1193:Leonhard Euler: Life, Work and Legacy
1163:The Science of Structural Engineering
128:and have been developing ever since.
7:
1458:"Evolution of Concrete Skyscrapers"
838:DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building
829:skyscraper design and construction
728:company in the late 19th century.
14:
1518:History of structural engineering
415:both independently developed the
429:portrait by Johann Georg Brucker
265:. Their methods are recorded by
1523:3rd-millennium BC introductions
700:developed analysis methods for
417:Fundamental theorem of calculus
1:
795:submitted his D.Sc thesis at
572:was patented by the engineer
440:Euler–Bernoulli beam equation
390:Eleven years later, in 1687,
379:This was followed in 1676 by
1081:. Cambridge University Press
181:On the Equilibrium of Planes
132:Early structural engineering
1431:Chris H. Luebkeman (1996).
1405:Chris H. Luebkeman (1996).
1270:Prentice, J.E. (1990) p.171
587:- the forerunner of modern
168:until the 19th century AD.
1544:
1150:Stillwel, J. (2002). p.159
1050:Ancient Water Technologies
781:Moment distribution method
600:tension in the structure.
407:Also in the 17th century,
372:giving rise to a constant
148:. In the 27th century BC,
74:, the predecessors of the
1216:Dugas, René (1988). p.231
833:"tube" and "bundled tube"
563:Carlo Alberto Castigliano
229:era aqueduct circa 19 BC.
1315:Labrum, E.A. (1994) p.23
1297:Swank, J.M. (1965) p.395
1288:Kirby, R.S. (1990) p.476
1226:Heyman, Jacques (1999).
1160:Heyman, Jacques (1999).
786:In the mid 20th century
710:lattice shell structures
281:techniques based on the
112:and the re-invention of
97:, rising to the role of
1528:History of construction
1377:Heyman, J. (1998) p.101
1077:The Works of Archimedes
1048:Mays, L. (2010-08-30).
955:water management system
943:History of architecture
938:History of construction
885:finite element analysis
840:which Khan designed in
817:high rise constructions
801:finite element analysis
524:Lattice shell structure
454:Johann (Jean) Bernoulli
1132:Chapman, Allan. (2005)
921:structural engineering
901:earthquake engineering
714:hyperboloid structures
632:Ditherington Flax Mill
535:
515:
507:
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471:went on to derive the
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261:, defensive walls and
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36:structural engineering
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706:thin-shell structures
556:second moment of area
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158:Great Pyramid of Giza
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110:Industrial Revolution
19:
1490:MacNeal, R.H. (1994)
1252:Hosford, W.F. (2005)
1073:Heath, T.L. (1897).
862:Petronas Twin Towers
831:was the idea of the
793:Alexander Hrennikoff
788:John Fleetwood Baker
757:Prestressed concrete
302:Notre Dame Cathedral
1368:Hewson, N.R. (2003)
905:composite materials
821:John Hancock Center
750:Salginatobel Bridge
741:AG fĂĽr Monierbauten
733:François Hennebique
619:would replace both
593:Joseph-Louis Lambot
589:reinforced concrete
543:Claude-Louis Navier
383:first statement of
300:Flying buttress at
179:published his work
160:was constructed in
118:History of concrete
1016:2008-02-18 at the
975:Victor E. Saouma.
897:fracture mechanics
890:Sydney Opera House
858:World Trade Center
852:Center. The first
718:Pipeline transport
702:tensile structures
536:
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497:
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400:, setting out his
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231:
213:Euclidean geometry
197:centers of gravity
142:
30:
1203:978-0-444-52728-8
1100:"Renaissance Man"
1059:978-90-481-8631-0
909:vibration control
766:Plougastel Bridge
761:Eugène Freyssinet
720:was pioneered by
656:Belper North Mill
495:Belper North Mill
413:Gottfried Leibniz
325:Leonardo da Vinci
314:flying buttresses
146:ancient Egyptians
122:physical sciences
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698:Vladimir Shukhov
652:fire engineering
609:Bessemer process
450:Daniel Bernoulli
444:Daniel Bernoulli
409:Sir Isaac Newton
392:Sir Isaac Newton
310:High Middle Ages
185:Law of the Lever
89:, such as stone
64:water management
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805:Richard Courant
759:, pioneered by
745:Robert Maillart
687:Tay Rail Bridge
677:in 1889, using
671:Sir John Fowler
570:Portland cement
552:elastic modulus
481:
462:Pierre Varignon
344:Galileo Galilei
271:De Architectura
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28:, Paris, France
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1433:"Bundled Tube"
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1407:"Tube-in-Tube"
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1395:Mir, A. (2001)
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933:Base isolation
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779:developed his
737:Thaddeus Hyatt
667:Benjamin Baker
644:William Strutt
638:, designed by
607:developed the
605:Henry Bessemer
480:
477:
473:Euler buckling
469:Leonhard Euler
436:Leonhard Euler
427:Leonhard Euler
402:Laws of Motion
381:Robert Hooke's
235:ancient Romans
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99:master builder
76:Persian Empire
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663:Forth Bridge
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348:Robert Hooke
341:
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223:Pont du Gard
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154:step pyramid
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825:Sears Tower
813:Fazlur Khan
803:. In 1942,
777:Hardy Cross
770:Marne River
611:to produce
585:ferrocement
385:Hooke's Law
329:Golden Horn
308:During the
304:(1163–1345)
259:lighthouses
209:hemispheres
205:paraboloids
187:, stating:
126:Renaissance
34:history of
1512:Categories
1468:2007-05-14
1443:2008-02-22
1417:2008-02-22
1110:2007-12-05
1085:2007-10-14
993:2007-11-02
960:References
866:Taipei 101
636:Shrewsbury
617:mild steel
394:published
358:published
291:chorobates
177:Archimedes
95:carpenters
881:computers
854:sky lobby
625:cast iron
568:In 1824,
279:surveying
267:Vitruvius
247:aqueducts
201:triangles
66:system.
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1046:p. 4 of
1014:Archived
927:See also
871:In 1987
726:Branobel
724:and the
467:In 1757
321:calculus
275:machines
263:harbours
243:concrete
114:concrete
87:artisans
56:Pyramids
913:fatigue
842:Chicago
526:of the
452:, with
366:gravity
356:Galileo
283:dioptra
269:in his
255:columns
251:thermae
239:masonry
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917:creep
679:steel
648:Derby
613:steel
591:- by
442:with
370:force
368:as a
287:groma
227:Roman
162:Egypt
116:(see
72:Medes
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