History of the Quran - Knowledge (XXG)

4919:, pp. 203-30, where she argues that much of the classical Muslim understanding of the Koran rests on the work of storytellers and that this work is of very dubious historical value. These storytellers contributed to the tradition on the rise of Islam, and this is evident in the steady growth of information: "If one storyteller should happen to mention a raid, the next storyteller would know the date of this raid, while the third would know everything that an audience might wish to hear about it." 53 Then, comparing the accounts of the raid of Kharrar by Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, Crone shows that al-Waqidi, influenced by and in the manner of the storytellers, "will always give precise dates, locations, names, where Ibn Ishaq has none, accounts of what triggered the expedition, miscellaneous information to lend color to the event, as well as reasons why, as was usually the case, no fighting took place." 2674:

Quran. Other sections or fragments of this magnificent manuscript lie scattered in various collections all over the world. A Turkish note ascribes the Quran to the hand of the Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and thus demonstrates the high significance of this manuscript. The text is written in Eastern Kufic, a monumental script that was developed in Iran in the late 10th century. The writing and the illumination of the manuscript bear witness to the great artistic skills of the calligrapher and the illustrator. The manuscript is at the Bavarian State Library in Munich, Germany. Out of seven complete or nearly complete semi-Kufic Qurans from before the end of the eleventh century, four contain a verse count. Although a small sample, it does suggest that the use of a verse count was a prevalent and quite deeply rooted practice in semi-Kufic Qurans between ca. 950 and ca. 1100.

2927:. The upper text has exactly the same verses and the same order of suras and verses as the standard Quran. The order of the suras in the lower text of the Sana'a codex is different from the order in the standard Quran. In addition, the lower text exhibits extensive variations from the counterpart text in the standard Quran; such that the lower text represents the only surviving early quranic manuscript that does not conform to the 'Uthmanic tradition. The majority of these variations add words and phrases, so as to emphasize or clarify the standard quranic reading. Some scholars have proposed parallels for these variations in reports of variants in 'companion codices' that were kept by individual companions to the Prophet outside of the mainstream tradition of 'Uthman; but these correspondences are much the minority. 1364:, describes the way in which the final version of the Quran was fixed: "the prophet recited the book before Gabriel every year in the month of Ramadan, and in the month in which he died he recited it before him twice." It is believed that toward the end of Muhammad's life a special act of revelation occurred in which a final and complete version of the Quran was created. The term 'recite', which is used here, is referring to the custom where a Quranic scholar recites the entire Quran from beginning to end a number of times before a senior scholar. According to this tradition the act of recital is being performed by Muhammad, with the angel Gabriel playing the role of superior authority. 2435:, with six. Professor Sean Anthony has discussed the textual history of these two surahs in detail and noted that their presence in mushafs modelled after Ubayy's (and to a lesser extent, certain other companions) is "robustly represented in our earliest and best sources". While we lack material evidence in the form of manuscripts, he notes that many of the Muslim sources make direct material observations of the surahs in such mushafs. The order of suras in Ubayy's codex is said to have differed from that of Uthman's and Ibn Masʿud's as well, although these are structural differences rather than textual variations. The surah order of the lower text of the early seventh century 2182:(685-705 CE). References to the Quran (or "Islam" as a new religion) are absent from seventh-century Christian literature describing the early conquerors coming out of Arabia and their beliefs. For example, when the Emir of the immigrants and Patriarch of the local Christians did have a religious colloquium there was much discussion of the scriptures but no mention of the Quran, which some have taken as an indication that the Quran had not been put into circulation. The Christians reported the Emir was accompanied by "learned Jews", that the immigrants "accepted the Torah just as the Jews and Samaritans", though none of the sources described the immigrants as Jews. 2080:

codex is faithful has been the prevalent Shia view ever since the Buyids period. Some Shia scholars have thus questioned the authenticity of those traditions that allege textual differences with the Uthmanid codex, tracing them to the Ghulat, or to early Sunni traditions, while Sunnis have in turn blamed Shias for originating the falsification claims and accused them of espousing such views, often indiscriminately. Other Shia scholars have reinterpreted the traditions that may suggest the alteration of the Quran. For instance, a tradition ascribed to Ali suggests that a fourth of the Quran is about the House of Muhammad, or the

1691: 1334:, who also memorized it or wrote it down. Before the Quran was commonly available in written form, speaking it from memory prevailed as the mode of teaching it to others. The practice of memorizing the whole Quran is still practised among Muslims. Millions of people have memorized the entire Quran in Arabic. This fact, taken in the context of 7th-century Arabia, was not an extraordinary feat. People of that time had a penchant for recited poetry and had developed their skills in memorization to a remarkable degree. Events and competitions that featured the recitation of elaborate poetry were of great interest. 2622:

shaft with a pronounced right-sided foot, set at a considerable distance from the following letter. Also, unlike the Hijazi scripts, these are often richly illuminated in gold and other colours. Another difference is that sura headings are clearly marked and enclosed in rectangular panels with marginal vignettes or palmettes protruding into the outer margins. These Qurans of the early Abbasid period were also bound in wooden boards, structured like a box enclosed on all sides with a movable upper cover that was fastened to the rest of the structure with leather thongs.

1311:, which could be translated into a number of ways: 'I do not read' or 'what am I to read/recite?' or 'I will not read/recite'. Gabriel pressed him "until all the strength went out of me; thereupon he released me and said: 'Read!'" This was repeated three times and upon the third, Gabriel released him and said, "Read in the name of the Sustainer who created humankind from a clot! Read! And your Sustainer is the most Beautiful." After this Muhammad continued to have revelations sporadically over a period of twenty-three years, until shortly before his death in 11/632. 2563: 1967:, is widely believed to have compiled his own transcript of the Quran. In particular, there are reports that Ali and some other companions of Muhammad collected the verses of the Quran during the lifetime of the prophet, while other reports emphasize that Ali prepared his codex immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. This latter group of reports may have been fabricated to imply consensus about the caliphate of Abu Bakr, that is, the preoccupation of Ali with his codex in these reports is intended to justify his widely-rumored absence in the 2689:

scripts, which differ greatly from current writing. Economic factors may also have played a part because while the "new style" was being introduced, paper was also beginning to spread throughout the Muslim world, and the decrease in the price of books triggered by the introduction of this new material seems to have led to an increase in its demand. The "new style" was the last script to spread throughout the Muslim world before the introduction of printing. It remained in use until the 13th century, at which point it was restricted to titles only.

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he remembered. Later, he discovered that the only person who had any record of that verse had been killed in the battle of Yamama and as a result the verse was lost. Some of the Companions recalled that same verse, one person being 'A'isha, Muhammad's youngest wife. She is believed to have said that a sheet on which two verses, including the one on stoning, were under her bedding and that after Muhammad died, a domestic animal got into the room and ate the sheet. Experts on hadith literature have rejected this hadith, as all

2314: 1469: 2792:. Its publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur’an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur’an has a single, unambiguous reading", i.e. that of the 1924 Cairo version. Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 – the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, 1605:, during the expedition there were 10,000 Kufan warriors, 6,000 in Azerbaijan and 4,000 at Rayy. A large number of soldiers disagreeing about the correct way of reciting the Quran may have caused Hudhayfah to promote a unified text. An example of the confusion at this time is seen during a campaign in Tabaristan, where one of the soldiers asked Hudhayfah, "How did the Messenger of God pray?" Hudhayfah told him the soldier prayed before fighting. 2380:. It is reported that he learned around seventy suras directly from Muhammad, who appointed him as one of the first teachers of Quranic recitation. Later he was appointed to an administrative post in Kufa by the caliph ʿUmar, where he became a leading authority on the Quran and Sunnah. Some sources suggest that Ibn Masʿud refused to destroy his copy of the Quran or to stop teaching it when the ʿUthmanic codex was made official. 2903:

alterations. Any such alteration also would have been mentioned by Uthman's political opponents and assassins yet none accused him of this. Finally, he argues that if Uthman had altered the Quran, Ali would have restored it to its original state upon the death of Uthman, especially if verses of his rule had been removed. Instead Ali is seen promoting the Quran during his reign, which is evidence that there was no alteration.

2301:, however, expressed reservations about the reliability of the radiocarbon dates proposed for the Birmingham leaves, noting instances elsewhere in which radiocarbon dating had proved inaccurate in testing Qurans with an explicit endowment date. Mustafa Shah has suggested that the grammatical marks and verse separators in the Birmingham leaves are inconsistent with the proposed earlier range of the proposed radiocarbon dates. 2670:(died 118/736), respectively – and three for Kūfa, those of ʿAsim (died 127/744), Ḥamza (died 156/772), and al-Kisaʾi (died 189/804). His attempt to limit the number of canonical readings to seven was not acceptable to all, and there was strong support for alternative readings in most of the five cities. In the present day the most common reading that is in general use is that of 'Aasim al-Kufi through Hafs. 1657:, Uthman's collection of the Quran was metaphorical, not physical. He did not collect the verses and suras in one volume, but in the sense that he united the Muslims on the reading of one authoritative recension. al-Khoei also argues that the one reading on which Uthman united the Muslims was the one in circulation among most Muslims, and that it reached them through uninterrupted transmission from Muhammad. 2174:, who instead projected the event two centuries after the time of Muhammad. In 1999, Cook and Crone argued that "there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century." Crone, however, abandoned her earlier views, stating that it is "difficult to doubt" that Muhammad uttered "all or most" of the Qur'an and that this is with "reasonable assurance". 2899:

Quran by Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman occurred significantly after the caliphate was decided, and so if Ali's rule had been mentioned, there would have been no need for the Muslims to gather to appoint someone. The fact that none of the Companions mentioned this supposed alteration, either at the beginning of the caliphate or after Ali became caliph, is regarded as proof that this alteration did not occur.

68: 1590:(r. 23/644–35/655), about twenty years after the death of Muhammad in 650 CE, though the date is not exact because it was not recorded by early Arab annalists. The Qur'anic canon is the form of the Quran as recited and written in which it is religiously binding for the Muslim community. This canonical corpus is closed and fixed in the sense that nothing in the Quran can be changed or modified. 129: 2021:), among others. Supporting Ali's right to the caliphate after Muhammad, Shia polemists readily cited such reports to charge that explicit references to Ali had been removed by senior companions for political reasons. Yet the accusation that some words and verses were altered or omitted in the Uthmanid codex also appears in the Shia tradition. Among others, such reports can be found in 1349:, and for this reason he would recite the Quranic verses to his Companions for them to memorize. Therefore, it is unknown whether the Quran was ever written and collected during the time of Muhammad. While writing was not a common skill during Muhammad's time, Mecca, being a commercial center, had a number of people who could write. Some scholars believe that several scribes including 27: 1906: 1537: 1161: 2219: 2068:). By contrast, any difference between the two codices is rejected by Sunnis because Ali did not impose his recension during his caliphate, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali deliberately remained silent about this divisive matter. Fearing persecution for themselves and their followers, later Twelver Imams may have also adopted religious dissimulation ( 1632:

earliest known scholar to emphasize the importance of Ḥafṣah's codex for the collection of the caliph ʿUthmān's recension – also serves as the authority for the accounts of the destruction of Ḥafṣah's scrolls (ṣuḥuf)." After her death, he reported that Hafsa's brother inherited the manuscripts and allowed Uthman or according to some versions,

2084:, while another fourth is about their enemies. The Uthmanic codex certainly does not meet this description but the inconsistency can be explained by another Shia tradition, which states that the verses of the Quran about the virtuous are primarily directed at the Ahl al-Bayt, while those verses about the evildoers are directed first at their enemies. 2416:, a Medinan Muslim who served as a secretary for Muhammad. It is believed that he may have been more prominent as a Quranic specialist than Ibn Masʿud during Muḥammad's lifetime. There are reports that he was responsible for memorizing certain important revelations on legal matters, which from time to time Muhammad asked him to recite. In a few 1429:"So I started looking for the Holy quran and collected it from (what was written on) palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, and also from men who knew it by heart, until I found the last verse of Surat at-Tauba (repentance) with Abi Khuzaima al-Ansari, and I did not find it with anybody other than him. (Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 6, p. 478). 1173: 2680:(died 940), an accomplished calligrapher from Baghdad, was also a prominent figure at this time. He became vizir to three Abbasid caliphs and is credited with developing the first script to obey strict proportional rules. Ibn Muqla's system was used in the development and standardization of the Quranic script, and his 4527:

How the Qurʾan came into being and why it looks the way it does has proven to be a continual focus of attention for scholarship. Most accounts accept the basic framework of the Muslim memory, with the role of Muhammad as the recipient of revelation and the role subsequent caliphs in bringing the text

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The main characteristic of these scripts was their writing style. The letters in most of these manuscripts are heavy-looking, relatively short and horizontally elongated. The slanted isolated form of the alif that was present in the Umayyad period completely disappeared and was replaced by a straight

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After Uthman had the other codices destroyed there were still variations in the reading and the text of this Quran. However, scholars deny the possibility of great changes of the text arguing that addition, suppression or alteration would have led to controversy 'of which there is little trace'. They

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may occur below the text of the Birmingham manuscript, offering a potentially even earlier text, but more recent ultraviolet testing of the leaves has ruled out this possibility. Likewise, recent work on the orthography of Quranic manuscripts has demonstrated that all early manuscripts, excluding the

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Alternatively, the recension of Ali may have matched the Uthmanic codex, save for the ordering of its content, but it was rejected for political reasons as it also included the partisan commentary of Ali, who is often counted among the foremost exegetes of the Quran. The implication that the Uthmanid

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draws special attention to Zayd's statement, "I found two verses of Sura al-Bara'a with Abu Khuzaima al-Ansari," as demonstrating that Zayd's own writings and memorization were not deemed sufficient. Everything required verification. The compilation was kept by the Caliph Abu Bakr, after his death by

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signifies a single and united entity and does not apply to a text which is scattered and not collected. However, Alan Jones has explored the use of this word in the Quran, finding that there is no evidence that it was used in such a "concrete sense" in reference to the Quran and other scriptures, but

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proposes, on palaeographic grounds, a date for the lower text in the second half of the first century AH (hence 672 – 722 CE) and summarises the character of the Sana'a Palimpsest, "The scriptio inferior of the Codex Ṣanʿāʾ I has been transcribed in a milieu which adhered to a text of

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Al-Khoei also argues that by the time 'Uthman became caliph, Islam had spread to such an extent that it was impossible for anyone to remove anything from the Quran. Uthman could have altered the text but he would have been unable to convince all those who had memorized the Quran to go along with his

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addresses this issue and argues for the authenticity and completeness of the Quran on the basis that it was compiled during the lifetime of Muhammad. His argument is based on hadiths and on critically analysing the situation during and after the life of Muhammad. He states that the collection of the

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However, some Sunni literature contains reports that suggest that some of the revelations had already been lost before the collection of the Quran initiated by Abu Bakr. In one report, 'Umar was once looking for the text of a specific verse of the Quran on stoning as a punishment for adultery, which

2638:(died 786) devised a tashkil system to replace that of Abu al-Aswad. His system has been universally used since the early 11th century, and includes six diacritical marks: fatha (a), damma (u), kasra (i), sukun (vowel-less), shadda (double consonant), madda (vowel prolongation; applied to the alif). 2480:

is translated: "If the son of Adam were given a valley full of riches, he would wish a second one; and if he were given two valleys full of riches, he would surely ask for a third. Nothing will fill the belly of the son of Adam except dust, and Allah is forgiving to him who is repentant." This text

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Reasons given for the overwhelming popularity of Hafs and Asim range from the fact that it is easy to recite, to the simple statement that "God has chosen it". Ingrid Mattson credits mass-produced printing press mushafs with increasing the availability of the written Quran but also diminishing the

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from Muhammad. (Bukhari, VIII, No. 444-47.) According to Ibn 'Abbas (No. 445) and 'Ubay (No. 446) this text was at times thought to be part of the Quran. However, Ubay himself clarifies that after sura 102: "I had been revealed, did not consider the above to be part of the Quran." (Bukhari, VIII,

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of the Quran. By some Shia accounts, Ali offered his codex for official use after the death of Muhammad but was turned down by some of the companions. Alternatively, Ali may have offered his codex for official use to Uthman during his caliphate but the caliph rejected it in favor of other variants

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Another argument some Shia and Sunni scholars bring up is the importance that Muhammad attached to the Quran. They believe that since Muhammad put so much importance to the Quran he had to have ordered the writing of it during his lifetime. For example, Zayd ibn Thabit reported, "We used to record

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Muslims believe that Gabriel brought the word of God to Muhammad verbatim, and the Quran was divinely protected from any alteration or change. The Quran emphasizes that Muhammad was required only to receive the sacred text and that he had no authority to change it. It is also believed that God did

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This "new style" is defined by breaks and angular forms and by extreme contrasts between the thick and thin strokes. The script was initially used in administrative and legal documents, but then it replaced earlier Quranic scripts. It is possible that it was easier to read than the early 'Abbasid

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Unlike the manuscripts from the Umayyad Dynasty, many of the early Abbasid manuscripts were copied in a number of volumes. This is evident from the large scripts used and the smaller number of lines per page. Early Quranic manuscripts provide evidence for the history of the Quranic text and their

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The earliest codices of the Quran found in the Umayyad period were most likely made in single volumes, which can be determined from the large fragments that have survived. Also during this time, the format of the codex went from being vertical to horizontal in the 8th century. It is believed this

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The Arabic script as we know it today was unknown in Muhammad's time (as Arabic writing styles have progressed through time) and the Quran was preserved through memorization and written references on different materials. As Arab society started to evolve into using writing more regularly, writing

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denounced these reports as lies fathered upon Ibn Mas'ud." Most of the other differences involve only altered vowels with the same consonantal text, which caused variations in recitation. Ramon Harvey notes that Ibn Masʿūd's reading continued in use, and was even taught as the dominant reading in

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Many historians, including Emran El-Badawi and Fred Donner, have written rejoinders to arguments from the revisionist school and in favor of a canonization date in the time of Uthman. Although few, some seventh-century material evidence exists for the Quran, primarily from coins and commemorative

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During this time the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem in 72/691–92 was done, which was complete with Quranic inscriptions. The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock in fact represent the earliest known dated passages from the Quran. In these inscriptions, many letters are already

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The 11th-century eastern Quranic manuscript contains the 20th juz' (section) of a Quran that originally consisted of 30 parts. The arrangement into 30 parts corresponds to the number of days in the month of Ramadan, during which the Muslim is obliged to fast and to read through the whole of the

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During this time, there was a diversity of styles in which the Quran was written. One characteristic seen in most of these manuscripts is the elongated shafts of the free-standing alif and the right-sided tail (foot) of the isolated alif. Also, these manuscripts do not have headings of chapters

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Before Uthman established the canon of the Quran, there may have been different versions or codices in complete state, though none has yet been discovered. Such codices as may exist never gained general approval and were viewed by Muslims as individuals' personal copies. With respect to partial

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The above quoted hadith refers to the manuscripts of the Quran compiled during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr, which were inherited by Caliph Umar's daughter Hafsa, a wife of Muhammad, and then returned to her, as promised. Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson note that "Zuhrī – the

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work became the standard way of writing the Quran. However it was later perfected by Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022), the master calligrapher who continued Muqla's tradition. Muqla's system became one of the most popular styles for transcribing Arabic manuscripts in general, being favoured for its

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In one of the hadith Muhammad is recorded as saying: "I leave among you two things of high estimation: the Book of God and my Family." Some scholars argue that this provides evidence that the Quran had been collected and written during this time because it is not correct to call something

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together clearly separated. Some scholarship has wanted to challenge the originality and source of the text itself, tracing it to other religious communities (especially Christian: Lüling 2003; Luxenberg 2007). Others have tried to refine the Muslim accounts of revelation and collection.

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It is believed upon Hudhayfah's request Uthman obtained the sheets of the Quran from Ḥafṣa and appointed a commission consisting of Zayd and three prominent Meccans, and instructed them to copy the sheets into several volumes based on the dialect of Quraysh, the main tribe of Mecca.

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By the time of Uthman's caliphate, there was a perceived need for clarification of Qur'an reading. The Caliphate had grown considerably, expanding into Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Iran, bringing into Islam's fold many new converts from various cultures with varying degrees of isolation.

2453:("haste"), is translated as: "O Allah, we worship You and to You we pray and prostrate and to You we run and hasten to serve You. We hope for Your mercy and we fear Your punishment. Your punishment will certainly reach the disbelievers." These two pieces are said to constitute 2630:

The New Abbasid Style (NS) began at the end of the 9th century C.E. and was used for copying the Quran until the 12th centuries, and maybe even as late as the 13th century. Unlike manuscripts copied in Early Abbasid scripts, NS manuscripts had vertical formats.

1322:"Sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell. This form of inspiration is the hardest of them all and then it passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says." 2270:

to the seventh century. With the discovery of earlier manuscripts which conform to the Uthmanic standard, the revisionist view fell out of favor and has been described as "untenable", with western scholarship generally supporting the traditional date.

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Some authors believe that, as long as Muhammad was alive, there was always the expectation of further revelation as well as occasional abrogations. Any formal collection of the material already revealed could not properly be considered a complete text.

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codices, there is opinion that "the search for variants in the partial versions extant before the Caliph Uthman's alleged recension in the 640s has not yielded any differences of great significance". The two most influential codices at this time are ʿ

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text. He chose seven well-known Quran teachers of the 2nd/8th century and declared that their readings all had divine authority, which the others lacked. He based this on the popular ḥadith in which Muhammad says the Quran was revealed to him in

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instead evidence points to an "abstract meaning". He further considers the role of writing among Arabs in the early seventh century and accounts in the Sira of the dictation of parts of the Quran to scribes towards the end of the Medinan period.

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change to horizontal formats and thick/heavy-looking scripts may have been done to show the superiority of the Quran and to distinguish the Islamic tradition from the Jewish and Christian ones, who used vertical formats for their scriptures.

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This explanation of Ubay also makes it very clear that the companions of Mohammad did not differ at all about what was part of the Quran and what was not part of the Quran when the revelation had ceased. It is also important to note that the

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was the first to compile the Quran shortly after Muhammad died. The canonization process is believed to have been highly conservative, although some amount of textual evolution is also indicated by the existence of companion codices like the

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formal features tell us something about the way art and its deeper meaning were perceived in the classical age of Islam. Both its script and layout turned out to be constructed according to elaborate geometrical and proportional rules.

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in Bukhari, VIII, No. 446, that Ubay at some early stage held this sentence to be part of the Quran). However, the tangible manuscripts of these copies of the Quran have not survived but were destroyed, having been considered obsolete.

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either contain narrators charged with dishonesty in disclosing sources or simply conflict with the majority version of the report, which all have authentic routes of transmission but omit the part about the piece of paper being eaten.

2580:, the fifth Umayyad caliph (65/685–86/705). Under Abd al-Malik's reign, Abu'l Aswad al-Du'ali (died 688) founded the Arabic grammar and invented the system of placing large coloured dots to indicate the tashkil. The Umayyad governor 1288:) to describe Muhammad. The majority of Muslim scholars interpret this word as a reference to an illiterate individual, though some modern scholars instead interpret it as a reference to those who belong to a community without a 2883:

Certain Shia scholars state that Ali's predecessors wilfully excluded all references to the right of Ali to be the caliph after Muhammad died. Some Shias questioned the integrity of the Uthmanic codex, stating that two surahs,

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Most Muslims believe that Quran, as it is presented today, is complete and untouched, supported by their faith in Quranic verses such as "We have, without doubt, sent down the Reminder ; and We will assuredly guard it ".

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In his codex, Ali may have arranged the verses in the order by which they were revealed to Muhammad, though this claim has been questioned by some. The codex of Ali may have also included additional information on the

2654:". During this time there was strong Quranic traditions in Kufa, Baṣra, Medina, Damascus, and Mecca. Due to this, Ibn Mujāhid selected one reading each for Medina, Mecca, Baṣra, and Damascus – those of 2504:, since the notebook was not meant for public use and he himself knew well what to make of his own notes. All companions of Mohammad are said to have had their own copies of the Quran, with notes, for personal use. 1326:

At times, it was also reported that the experience was painful for Muhammad. For example, he had been heard saying, "Never once did I receive a revelation without thinking that my soul had been torn away from me."

2057:). As the faithful recension of the Quran, the codex of Ali is thus said to have been longer than the official one, with explicit references to Ali. This view was apparently popular among Shia scholars before the 2106:

Until around the 1970s, non-Muslim scholars assumed the traditional narrative of the origin story of the Quran. In the 1970s, historians in the field of Islamic origins began to question Islamic "literary

2244:

was written about a century after Muhammad died and all later narratives by Islamic biographers contain far more details and embellishments about events which are entirely lacking in Ibn Ishaq's text.

2290:. Puin noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography in the manuscript. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. 2103:

The origin of the Quran has been a subject of sustained academic research. There have also been a number of proposals for refinement of the traditional view and even its fundamental re-evaluation.

2446:("separation"), is translated as: "O Allah, we seek your help and ask your forgiveness, and we praise you and we do not disbelieve in you. We separate from and leave him who sins against you." 2420:, Ubay is seen in a variety of roles. For instance, the "sheets" of Ubay are sometimes mentioned in some instances instead of those of Ḥafsa, and sometimes he is also mentioned in some 2550:) to indicate prolongation or vowels were absent as well. Due to this there were endless possibilities for the mispronunciation of the word. The Arabic script as we know it today, the 1624:, and, according to some accounts, Mecca, and ordered that all other variant copies of the Quran be destroyed. This was done everywhere except in Kufa, where some scholars argue that 3129: 3665: 2258:

A number of important manuscript discoveries have also played a role in supporting the traditional date of the canonization of the Quran. Partial Quranic manuscripts such as the

2147:, and contemporary non-Arabic literature, that they argued provided "hard facts" and an ability to crosscheck, although the fundamental questions in the field remain unsolved. 2745:

and for minute details, not identical to any older system. The Cairo edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran with the exception of those used in all

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recorded verses of the Quran. This provides an explanation as to how the Quran existed in written form during the life of Muhammad, even if it was not compiled into one text.

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During the manuscript age, the Quran was the most copied Arabic text. It was believed that copying the Quran would bring blessings on the scribe and the owner.

5223:"Two 'Lost' Sūras of the Qurʾān: Sūrat al-Khalʿ and Sūrat al-Ḥafd between Textual and Ritual Canon (1st -3rd/7th -9th Centuries) [Pre-Print Version]" 4782: 2383:

There are two points on which Ibn Masʿud's version is alleged to differ from the ʿUthmanic text: the order of the suras and some variants in the readings.

2211:(Q 112). Inscriptions like these at the Dome of the Rock were particularly intended to declare the primacy of the new religion of Islam over Christianity. 2507:

The Islamic reports of these copies of the Quran of the companions of Mohammad only tell of various differences according to reports that reached them (

7046: 2941: 6947:

Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.).

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of Ubay because it was for his own personal use; that is, in his private notebook, where he did not always distinguish between Quranic material and

567: 4964: 2404:

Kufa for at least a century after his death, in a paper discussing how some of his distinctive readings continued to play a role in Hanafi fiqh.

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further state that even though Uthman became unpopular among Muslims, he was not charged with alteration or mutilation of the Quran in general.

7212: 3625: 1501: 879: 3765: 7182: 7163: 7100: 6889: 6846: 6813: 6762: 6693: 6643: 6585: 6541: 6500: 6441: 6312: 6266: 6043: 5863: 3999: 3480: 3455: 3334: 3238: 3106: 3044: 2156: 146: 40: 5922: 1023: 547: 2573:

The earliest known manuscripts of the Quran are collectively called the Hijazi script, and are mostly associated with the Umayyad period.

2725:) is the Quran that was used throughout almost all the Muslim world until the Saudi Quran of 1985. The Egyptian edition is based on the " 1307:

described that the first Quranic revelation occurred when the angel Gabriel visited Muhammad and asked him to recite. Muhammad responded

5540: 3137: 2862:. Methodological differences aside, speculation alludes to a spirit of cooperation. Bergsträsser was certainly impressed with the work. 513: 283: 6454: 3395: 2215:

has also argued in favor an early date for the collection of the Quran on the basis of its absence of anachronisms from later periods.

2167:. Although hadith agree that the task of canonization had been completed by the end of the reign of Uthman, they agree on little else. 1690: 7144: 6112: 5631: 5326: 5174: 5150: 4916: 4831: 4710: 3797: 3376: 1203: 1996:, who is hidden from the public by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil. 77: 7089: 7005: 6982: 6960: 6937: 6366: 6211: 6195: 6170: 6093: 6005: 5932: 5806: 5763: 5699: 5479: 5404: 5371: 5129:

F. E. Peters, The Quest of the Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Aug.,1991), p. 293

5117: 4903: 4794: 4086: 3923: 3898: 3873: 3848: 3749: 3675: 3574: 3549: 3520: 3168: 3069: 2567: 2160: 1791: 1581: 903: 716: 508: 503: 420: 230: 212: 110: 54: 6068: 6026: 5980: 5781: 3086: 988: 193: 2131:(i.e. the biography of the prophet) – upon which the traditional account of the Quran were based. They employed a " 4517: 3304:

Goldfield, Isaiah (1980). "The Illiterate Prophet (Nabi Ummi): An inquiry into the development of a dogma in Islamic tradition".

2961: 1567: 386: 165: 7205:

Corpus Coranicum: comprehensive website on early Quran manuscripts by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities

2956: 2635: 1728: 679: 559: 403: 7067: 7031: 6838: 6677: 6400: 4634: 2581: 625: 150: 3952: 2663: 1016: 950: 269: 172: 5894: 2848:

Prominent committee members included Islamic scholar, Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Husayni al-Haddad, Egypt's senior Qur'an Reader (

7132: 6482: 5162: 5138: 3785: 2384: 1936: 1262:

in 610 CE, when Muhammad, at the age of forty, received the first visit from the angel Gabriel, reciting to him the first

1231: 926: 335: 5188: 2760:

had started work on the project in 1907 but it was not until 10 July 1924 that the "Cairo Qur’an" was first published by

2645:(died 324/936). His goal was to restrict the number of reliable readings and accept only those based on a fairly uniform 2542:

which lacked precision because distinguishing between consonants was impossible due to the absence of diacritical marks (

2027:

by the ninth-century Shia exegete Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari, though he has been widely accused of connections to the

803:

Others are that it is a name given to the book by God, without any previous etymology, that the word comes from the verb

2011: 1425:, Muhammad's main scribe, to gather the written fragments held by different members of the community. Ibn Thabit noted: 5747: 5064:"The 'Grace of God' as evidence for a written Uthmanic archetype: the importance of shared orthographic idiosyncrasies" 2780:

labels as errors, found in Qur’anic texts used in state schools. To do this they chose to preserve one of the fourteen

7242: 2294: 2263: 1393:

According to Sunni scholars, during the life of Muhammad parts of the Quran, though written, were scattered among his

1070: 921: 693: 310: 179: 5167:

The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments

5143:

The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments

3790:

The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments

983: 715:(believed to have received the Quran through revelation between 610 and 632 CE), to the emergence, transmission, and 7137:

The History of the Qur'anic Text from Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments

6780:

Saadi, Abdul-Massih (2008). "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).

2800:

diversity of qira'at. Written text has become canonical and oral recitation has lost much of its previous equality.

2325:. The double layer reveals the additions made on the first text of the Quran and the differences with today's Koran. 2163:

of the Quran to the mid-7th century, placing it instead in the late-7th century, based on some reports found in the

6358: 5429: 2826: 2677: 2439:

palimpsest is known to have similarities with that reported of Ubayy (and to a lesser extent, that of Ibn Mas'ud).

4951: 2395:, the two short suras with which the Quran ends (Suras 113 and 114)), he then states that "early scholars such as 139: 7237: 7232: 6533: 4656: 3961: 2951: 2932:

the Qurʾan different from the ʿUthmanic tradition as well as from the Qurʾanic codices of Ibn Masʿūd and Ubayy".

2525: 1743: 1331: 1065: 720: 161: 46: 5692:

Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary

3202: 2817:

but otherwise included it as an unnumbered line of text preceding the other 112 chapters, with the exclusion of

2609: 2562: 81: 7015: 6429: 6376: 5971: 5040: 4969: 3957: 3739: 1964: 1819: 1406: 7198: 6603: 5189:"The Legal Epistemology of Qur'anic Variants: The Readings of Ibn Masʿūd in Kufan fiqh and the Ḥanafī madhhab" 4858: 2855: 2734: 2807:

within the Quranic text, reached consensus following the 1924 Edition, which included it as the first verse (

6992:

Kohlberg, Etan (2009). "Life and Works of al-Sayyārī". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.).

6392: 6296: 6141: 5245: 2742: 2577: 2196: 2179: 1660:

This is one of the most contested issues and an area where many non-Muslim and Muslim scholars often clash.

1633: 1506: 1128: 1030: 2427:

His version of the Quran is said to have included two short suras not in the Uthmanic or Ibn Masʿud texts:

1601:

reported this problem to the caliph and asked him to establish a unified text. According to the history of

5518: 3974: 2976: 2353: 1880: 1824: 1809: 1598: 1304: 1196: 1048: 1011: 635: 620: 5691: 3497: 2928: 2298: 6924: 6726: 6492: 6346: 6063: 6021: 5975: 5827: 5776: 5294: 3864:

Al-Tabari (1989). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Jacob Lassner; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Shater (eds.).

2895: 2777: 1753: 1654: 1511: 1491: 1433: 1035: 965: 295: 2554:, which has pointed texts and is fully vowelled was not perfected until the middle of the 9th century. 2004:

Some Sunni reports allege that the official Uthmanid codex of the Quran is incomplete, as detailed in

7047:"The Speaking Qur'an and the silent Qur'an: A Study of the Principles and Development of Imāmī Shī'ī 6478: 6137: 3408: 2667: 2392: 2318: 2302: 2234: 2175: 1885: 1738: 1560: 1468: 939: 807:(قرن, 'to join, to yoke'), referring to the gathering together of revelation, and that it comes from 542: 537: 7209: 7020: 5586: 4930: 2655: 6059: 2850: 2757: 2738: 2712: 2681: 2126: 1300: 1121: 886: 855: 672: 425: 2313: 1639:

It is generally accepted that the Uthmanic text comprises all 114 suras in the order known today.

186: 7077: 6903: 6819: 6789: 6768: 6738: 6729:(2008). "Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.). 6707: 6599: 6555: 6547: 6326: 5869: 5839: 5830:(2008). "Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.). 5734: 5673: 5522: 5441: 5275: 5095: 4878: 4044: 4036: 3965: 3868:. Gautier H. A. Juynboll (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 2–6. 3607: 3428: 2373: 2267: 1953: 1625: 1496: 1338: 1289: 1254:, which had become a sanctuary for pagan deities and an important trading center) in the cave of 1133: 872: 704: 495: 408: 391: 305: 6595: 5471: 5463: 5396: 5388: 5363: 5355: 3840: 3832: 2596:(suras). Instead, a blank space is left at the end of one sura and at the beginning of another. 1981: 958: 6797: 6433: 3036: 2685:

legibility. The eleventh century Quran is one of the earliest dated manuscripts in this style.

7178: 7159: 7140: 7085: 7063: 7027: 7001: 6978: 6956: 6933: 6895: 6885: 6861: 6857: 6842: 6809: 6758: 6746: 6699: 6689: 6649: 6639: 6611: 6581: 6537: 6496: 6437: 6396: 6362: 6318: 6308: 6280: 6262: 6191: 6166: 6089: 6039: 6001: 5928: 5859: 5847: 5802: 5759: 5755: 5695: 5660:

Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings".

5627: 5475: 5400: 5367: 5322: 5263: 5170: 5146: 5113: 4899: 4790: 4630: 4082: 3995: 3919: 3894: 3869: 3844: 3793: 3745: 3671: 3570: 3545: 3516: 3476: 3451: 3372: 3330: 3234: 3164: 3102: 3065: 3040: 2924: 2838: 2830: 2704: 2461:

prayer after recitation of suras from the Quran). They are in fact identical to some parts of

2253: 2225:. The structure, the oldest extant example of early Islamic architecture, was completed in 691 2132: 1993: 1929: 1705: 1421:

ordered the collection of the hitherto scattered pieces of the Quran into one copy, assigning

1217: 1189: 1006: 862: 838: 772: 600: 6669: 6575: 6521: 5544: 7041: 6877: 6873: 6801: 6781: 6750: 6730: 6685: 6631: 6627: 6462: 6417: 6300: 6256: 6081: 6077: 6035: 5993: 5989: 5851: 5831: 5794: 5790: 5665: 5433: 5267: 5203: 5085: 5075: 4870: 4028: 3987: 3983: 3599: 3590:

Modarressi, Hossein (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'an: A Brief Survey".

3537: 3420: 3324: 3094: 3028: 2966: 2946: 2912: 2773: 2722: 2708: 2436: 2413: 2340: 2275: 2259: 2222: 2192: 1857: 1834: 1828: 1710: 1587: 1398: 1354: 1239: 1177: 1145: 1138: 777: 413: 396: 300: 6304: 4835: 4718: 3098: 2240:

Skeptical scholars, nonetheless, point out that the earliest account of Muhammad's life by

7216: 6517: 6276: 3914:

al-Tabari (1990). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Sharter (eds.).

3889:

Al-Tabari (1990). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Sharter (eds.).

2971: 2822: 2814: 2765: 2208: 2171: 2093: 1852: 1786: 1771: 1586:

According to Islamic tradition, the process of canonization ended under the third caliph,

1553: 1529: 1442: 1422: 1350: 890: 767:

644–656 CE), leading the Quran as it exists today to be known as the Uthmanic codex. Some

742: 724: 7113: 4817: 4040: 4017:"Did Ḥafṣah Edit the Qurʾān? A Response with Notes on the Codices of the Prophet's Wives" 4016: 3893:. Stephen Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 8. 3282: 2825:

of separating and numbering verses, and thus standardized a different verse numbering to

1273:. Muslims believe that Muhammad continued to have revelations until his death in 632 CE. 2178:

continues to hold that the Quran did not reach its final compilation until the reign of

7247: 6881: 5621: 3969: 2859: 2642: 2364:

used by Ibn Mas'ud, Ubayy, and Zaid b. Thabit and finding no differences between them.

2230: 1976: 665: 648: 552: 274: 6866:

The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu

6832: 1258:. According to Islamic belief, the revelations started one night during the month of 7226: 7055: 6907: 6823: 6782: 6772: 6731: 6711: 6559: 6529: 6488: 6451: 6418: 6330: 6085: 5997: 5873: 5832: 5798: 5279: 5099: 4691: 4048: 3991: 3918:. R. Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 42. 3029: 2892:(the Guardianship), which dealt with the virtues of Muhammad's family, were removed. 2750: 2726: 2698: 2357: 2336: 2310:

Sanaa manuscript, descend from a common Uthmanic archetype, and so cannot predate it.

2237:, that the majority of the Quran at the least goes back in some fashion to Muhammad. 2124:(i.e. the accounts of what the Islamic prophet Muhammad approved of or did not), and 2058: 1814: 1669: 1402: 822:(قرآن), with only Ibn Kathir's tradition excluding the letter, reading it instead as 811:(قرائن), the plural of a word variously translatable as 'evidence', 'yoke', 'union'. 750: 457: 444: 365: 345: 6381: 3653:. Translated by Siddiqui, Mohammed Swaleh. Birmingham: Darul Ish'at. pp. 191–6. 6970: 6551: 6284: 5112:

Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur’ān Manuscripts. Lexington Books.

4661: 2746: 2287: 1989: 1985: 1922: 1910: 1898: 1541: 1405:

were killed, steps began to be taken to collate the body of material. The death of

1346: 1315:

not make himself known through the revelations; it was his will that was revealed.

1255: 1243: 1165: 1060: 653: 430: 340: 92: 7199:

Dated Muslim Texts From 1-72 AH / 622-691 AD: Documentary Evidence For Early Islam

3538:"The word made visible: Arabic script and the committing of the Qur'an to writing" 2834: 88: 7204: 3228: 2854:). Noteworthy Western scholars/academics working in Egypt during the era include 711:, is the timeline ranging from the inception of the Quran during the lifetime of 6618:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 8. Translated by Behn, Wolfgang H. 6607: 6413: 5645: 3727:. Translated by Kidwai, A.R. Karachi: Qur'anic Arabic Foundation. pp. 34–5. 2916: 2761: 2646: 2576:

Most of the fundamental reform to the manuscripts of the Quran took place under

2212: 2144: 2136: 2081: 1733: 1646:

Muslim scholars about the origins of the Quran may differ in some respects from

1075: 731: 452: 128: 6612:"The Genesis of the Authorized Redaction of the Koran under the Caliph ʿUthmān" 5014: 4992: 814:

Nine out of the ten imams of recitation have it read in their tradition with a

6635: 6252: 6231:

Behnam Sadeghi & Mohsen Goudarzi, "Sana'a and the Origins of the Qu'ran",

5591: 5080: 5063: 4032: 3866:

The History of al-Tabari: The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt

2920: 2793: 2781: 2730: 2659: 2651: 2457:(that is, supplications which Muhammad sometimes made in morning prayer or in 2306: 1516: 1409:

was most significant, as he was one of the very few who had been entrusted by

768: 746: 481: 6899: 6703: 6653: 2789: 1617: 1612:

When the task was finished Uthman kept one copy in Medina and sent others to

7082:

Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shi'ite Literature

6793: 6742: 6354: 5959: 5843: 5718: 5608: 5437: 5271: 5250: 3542:

Texts, documents, and artefacts : Islamic studies in honour of D.S. Richards

2818: 2396: 2388: 2241: 2159:

in the 1970s offered a newfound challenge to the conventional dating of the

2140: 1992:. In Twelver belief, the codex is now in the possession of their last Imam, 1776: 1602: 1361: 735: 4896:

Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing

2776:

was not to delegitimize the other qir’at, but to eliminate that, which the

2229:

It is typically accepted nowadays, including among skeptical scholars like

1651: 264: 6805: 6754: 5855: 5207: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4679: 3255: 2218: 1330:

After Muhammad would receive revelations, he would later recite it to his

2400: 2377: 2343:

project is an ongoing effort to develop a critical edition of the Quran.

2279: 1875: 1781: 1621: 1483: 1418: 1410: 1342: 1318:

According to tradition, Muhammad described the experience of revelation:

1235: 846: 759:(undotted Arabic text) being officially canonized under the third caliph 738: 712: 630: 595: 5445: 2741:

of Kufa. It uses a set of additional symbols and an elaborate system of

749:, relying upon both textual fragments and the memories of those who had 5677: 5577: 5526: 4602:. Vol. The Quran in its historical context. Routledge. p. 29. 3611: 2919:

dated to the range 578-669 CE with 95% confidence. The manuscript is a

2809: 2804: 2204: 2200: 1270: 1259: 1093: 1055: 469: 359: 354: 7022:

The Divine Guide In Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam

5581: 5321:, Richard Bell, W. Montgomery Watt, Edinburgh University Press, 1995, 5090: 4882: 4859:"Forgotten Witness: Evidence For The Early Codification Of The Qur'an" 4586:

Neva & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000

4559:

Neva & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000

3432: 3184: 7026:. Translated by Streight, David. State University of New York Press. 6869: 6681: 6623: 6619: 6425: 6388: 6292: 6145: 6073: 6031: 5985: 5786: 5259: 3979: 2483: 2322: 2297:, which, in 2015, was dated between 568 and 645 with 95.4% accuracy. 2164: 2119: 2109: 2071: 2028: 1988:

to his successor, as part of the esoteric knowledge available to the

1968: 1486: 1456: 1394: 1227: 1103: 898: 867: 760: 529: 464: 5895:"Popularity of the recitation of Hafs from 'Aasim. Fatwa No: 118960" 5669: 5590:), an Islamic symbol used as a dividing system is to facilitate the 5495: 5222: 3603: 3230:

Early Islam: A Critical Reconstruction Based on Contemporary Sources

1381:

the Quran from parchments in the presence of the Messenger of God."

788:

While there are various proposed etymologies, one is that the word '

4874: 3475:. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 165–166. 3424: 2372:

The most influential of the allegedly varying codices was that of ʿ

6322: 6108: 5566:

Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008

4965:"Birmingham Qur'an manuscript dated among the oldest in the world" 4952:"Birmingham Qur'an manuscript dated among the oldest in the world" 4769:

Saadi, "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources", 2008

4757:

Saadi, "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources", 2008

4274: 4272: 3391: 2718: 2608: 2561: 2538:

skills evolved accordingly. Early Quranic Arabic was written in a

2312: 2283: 2217: 2114: 1748: 1647: 1296: 1267: 1251: 1247: 946: 815: 789: 764: 708: 476: 330: 246: 6128:, vol. 6, pg. 269, hadith #26,359. Beirut: Mu`assasah al-Risalah. 2837:, which became widely accepted following 1924. A large number of 5752:

Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses

4954:. University of Birmingham. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3346: 2876: 2842: 2785: 2539: 2278:

occurred in 1972, during the restoration of the Great Mosque of

1643: 1613: 1438: 1414: 1263: 1221: 1098: 755: 2833:. It adopted the chronological order of chapters attributed to 1971:

meeting where Abu Bakr was elected caliph after Muhammad died.

5509:

Yasser Tabbaa (1991). "The transformation of Arabic writing".

5420:

Alan George (2007). "Geometry of early Qur'anic Manuscripts".

4459: 4457: 4455: 4136: 4134: 3450:. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. p. 165. 2335:, has concluded that it is not possible to develop a reliable 2170:

The first to dispute the traditional date of canonization was

2135:" approach to this literature, including as evidence relevant 1949: 1682: 122: 61: 20: 7060:

Approaches to the History of the Interpretation Of The Qur'ān

5924:

The Story of the Qur'an: Its History and Place in Muslim Life

2387:

lists three reports concerning the omission of three suras, (

4247: 4245: 4220: 4218: 4216: 1303:(who lived about 250 years after Muhammad), Muhammad's wife 723:. The history of the Quran is a major focus in the field of 6670:"Some Explorations of the Intertwining of Bible and Qur'ān" 3916:

The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate

3891:

The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate

2772:) edition." The goal of the government of the newly formed 2339:

of the Quran based on the sources currently available. The

6258:

No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam

4179: 4177: 4175: 4173: 3326:

No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam

2613:

Folio from a late 8th century Quran in early Abbasid style

6156: 6154: 4832:"1591026342 : 9781591026341:Hidden Origins of Islam" 4752: 4750: 4748: 4060: 4058: 4021:

Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association

3667:

Introducing A.E. Housman (1859-1936): Preliminary Studies

3649:

Usmani, Mohammad Taqi (2000). Abdur Rehman, Rafiq (ed.).

6165:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 150–158. 5775:

Albin, Michael W. (2006). "Printing of the Qurʾān". In

5457: 5455: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5335: 6674:

Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in Scriptural Intertextuality

5068:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

3826: 3824: 3822: 3035:. London, England: Harvard University Press. pp. 1984:

that the codex of Ali has been handed down from every

4650: 4648: 4646: 4554: 4552: 3060:

Leemhuis, Fred (2006). Jane Dammen MacAuliffe (ed.).

2321:. The upper layer is the verses 265–271 of the surah 1980:

available to him. As for its fate, it is believed in

1234:, the revelation of the Quran to the Islamic prophet 6024:(2006). "Preface". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). 3723:

Hasan, Sayyid Siddiq; Nadwi, Abul Hasan Ali (2000).

3260:

Turkish Foundation of Religion Encyclopedia of Islam

2376:, an early convert who became a personal servant to 2069: 2022: 2005: 1372:(book) when it is merely in the memories. The word 1277: 7210:

Several early Qur'ans: information, zoomable images

6420:

Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam

3085:Esposito, John L. (2004). Esposito, John L. (ed.). 3031:

Muhammad and the Believers: at the Origins of Islam

153:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 7045: 7019: 6993: 6948: 6923: 6380: 6190:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 172. 4516: 4081:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175. 3951: 3569:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 173. 3515:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 172. 800:(فعلان), thus resulting in the meaning 'reading'. 5822: 5820: 5818: 4598:Fred Donner (2008). Gabriel Said Reynolds (ed.). 2424:instead of Zayd, dictating the Quran to scribes. 6868:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6. 6834:Creating the Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Study 4015:Anthony, Sean W.; Bronson, Catherine L. (2016). 3950:Welch, A. T.; Paret, R.; Pearson, J. D. (1960). 2803:Muslim disagreement over whether to include the 2768:, as such, it is sometimes known as the "royal ( 5295:"An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'an" 4931:"New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?" 2558:Umayyad Period (44/661–132/750) – Hijazi script 1427: 1320: 6289:The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions 5911:(Qatari Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs) 2566:Single folio from an early 8th century Quran, 2412:The second most influential codex was that of 1397:, much of it as private possession. After the 6283:. In Blidstein, Moshe; Silverstein, Adam J.; 5015:"Birmingham's ancient Koran history revealed" 4993:"Birmingham's ancient Koran history revealed" 2520:Early manuscripts to the final canonical text 1930: 1561: 1445:, his daughter and one of Muhammad's widows. 1197: 673: 8: 6577:Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition 5728: 5726: 4787:The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions 3670:. Cambridge scholars publisher. p. 47. 3189:International Journal of Middle East Studies 2641:Another central figure during this time was 1283: 796:(قرء, 'to read') in the verbal noun pattern 6526:Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam 4818:"Emran El-Badawi | Faculty | MCL" 4446: 4410: 4398: 4374: 4290: 4263: 4251: 4236: 4224: 4152: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3935: 2032: 55:Learn how and when to remove these messages 7175:Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction 5735:Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an 5694:, pg. 79. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2015. 5244:Sadeghi, Behnam; Goudarzi, Mohsen (2012). 4692:"What do we actually know about Mohammed?" 4629:. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–8. 4499: 4463: 4362: 4302: 4278: 4195: 4183: 4140: 4125: 4064: 3644: 3642: 3411:(1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". 2995:Saadi did not examine the sources of Arab 1937: 1923: 1673: 1568: 1554: 1452: 1204: 1190: 833: 680: 666: 242: 91:. Please do not remove this message until 5089: 5079: 4739: 3371:. Oxford England: Oneworld Publications. 3281:Muslim Information Service of Australia. 2942:Christian influences on the Islamic world 734:tradition, it is believed that the first 231:Learn how and when to remove this message 213:Learn how and when to remove this message 111:Learn how and when to remove this message 6062:(2006). "Chronology and the Qurʾān". In 5246:"Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān" 4863:Journal of the American Oriental Society 4711:"How and why Muhammad made a difference" 4350: 4338: 3544:. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. pp. 1–16. 3022: 3020: 2332:Textual Criticism and Qurʼān Manuscripts 1246:) appeared to Muhammad (a trader in the 753:it during Muhammad's lifetime, with the 87:Relevant discussion may be found on the 6210:Behnam Sadeghi & Mohsen Goudarzi, " 4575:. Oxford University Press. p. 223. 3191:, Vol. 23, No. 3 (August 1991), p. 297. 3016: 2988: 2756:A committee of leading professors from 1681: 1455: 1413:to teach the Quran. Consequently, upon 845: 771:Muslims believe that the fourth caliph 245: 7156:The Cambridge Companion to the Quar'an 5927:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 129. 5748:Early Malay Qur'anic exegical activity 5709: 5707: 5496:"11th Century Qur'an in Eastern Kufic" 4929:Lumbard, Joseph E. B. (24 July 2015). 4783:"Challenges posed by the Quranic text" 4422: 4164: 4101: 3975:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 3766:"The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq" 3626:"The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq" 2923:with quranic verses in both upper and 7120:. Vol. VIII/6. pp. 575–581. 7062:. Clarendon Press. pp. 177–198. 6455:"The Islamic World: Past and Present" 6351:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān 5623:The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an 5227:Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 4898:, Donner, Darwin Press, 1998, p. 60, 4781:El-Badawi, Emran (17 December 2013). 4510: 4508: 4487: 4475: 4434: 4386: 4326: 4314: 4207: 4113: 3473:The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an 3448:The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an 3087:"The Islamic World: Past and Present" 3062:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān 2157:revisionist school of Islamic studies 1449:Uthman ibn Affan and the canonization 1299:collector of traditions of Muhammad, 7: 7084:. Vol. 1. Oneworld. p. 2. 6784:The Qur'an in its Historical Context 6733:The Qur'an in its Historical Context 6407:The Koran: A Very Short Introduction 6383:The Koran: A Very Short Introduction 6305:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.6 6212:Sana'a and the Origins of the Qu'ran 5834:The Qur'an in its Historical Context 5620:Rippin, Andrew; et al. (2006). 5470:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 5362:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 4768: 4756: 3839:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 3185:The Quest of the Historical Muhammad 3099:10.1093/acref/9780195165203.001.0001 2199:(685–705) especially containing the 792:' (قرآن) comes from the Arabic verb 151:adding citations to reliable sources 7154:Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2006). 7103:. In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.). 5640:For the history of compilation see 5395:. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 4585: 4558: 4525:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3741:Abu Bakr: The Beloved Of My Beloved 3701:Islamic Calligraphy: Noon-wal-qalam 3651:An approach to the Quranic sciences 2360:'s. Al-Qurazi recounted seeing the 2000:Differences with the Uthmanic codex 1441:, who on his deathbed gave them to 1403:Muslims who had memorized the Quran 1284: 7112:Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (1998). 6882:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.104 5169:, pp.199-201. UK Islamic Academy. 4917:Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam 4573:Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam 2717:The influential standard Quran of 2588:provided with diacritical points. 1650:beliefs. According to influential 14: 4612: 4539: 2600:Abbasid Period (132/750–640/1258) 2568:Khalili Collection of Islamic Art 2248:Textual criticism and manuscripts 1792:Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim 1582:Canonization of Islamic scripture 1341:, the society during the time of 36:This article has multiple issues. 7114:"Eschatology iii. Imami Shiʿism" 6086:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00034 5998:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00024 5799:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00158 4600:The Qur'an in Recent Scholarship 3992:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0543 3809: 3163:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1116–1120. 2962:Prophets and messengers in Islam 2476:The single additional so-called 2473:, Cairo, 1955, pp. 57–58.) 1904: 1689: 1597:It is believed that the general 1535: 1467: 1171: 1159: 127: 66: 25: 16:Aspect of Islamic historiography 6522:"The Quran: The Base Narrative" 6281:"Islamo-Christian Civilization" 5565: 3540:. In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). 3161:Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia 3064:. Cambridge. pp. 145–155. 2957:Biblical and Quranic narratives 2636:Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi 2465:reported in the collections of 2063: 1958: 1242:(believed to have been sent by 1238:began in 610 CE when the angel 138:needs additional citations for 44:or discuss these issues on the 7158:. Cambridge University Press. 6975:An Introduction to Shi'i Islam 6839:University of California Press 6831:Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2022). 6614:. In Behn, Wolfgang H. (ed.). 6148:: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi. 6126:Tahqiq Musnad Ahmad bin Hanbal 3498:"Sahih Muslim, Book 31, #5920" 3323:Reza Aslan (2 December 2008). 2839:pre-1924 Qurans were destroyed 2821:. The Cairo Quran adopted the 2582:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi 2319:Stanford '07 binary manuscript 1: 6932:. Routledge. pp. 28–32. 6459:Oxford Islamic Studies Online 6163:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an 5145:, p.197. UK Islamic Academy. 4973:(Press release). 22 July 2015 4655:Lester, Toby (January 1999). 4079:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an 3567:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an 3513:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an 3201:Taher, Abul (8 August 2000). 3134:Oxford Islamic Studies Online 3091:Oxford Islamic Studies Online 2999:because none have been found. 2841:by dumping them in the river 2721:("1342 Cairo text" using the 2186:Early canonization hypothesis 7173:Adam J. Silverstein (2010). 6996:Revelation and Falsification 6951:Revelation and Falsification 6672:. In Reeves, John C. (ed.). 6261:. Random House. p. 29. 6186:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998). 6161:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998). 5464:"Calligraphy and the Qur'an" 5389:"Calligraphy and the Qur'an" 4077:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998). 3792:, p.83. UK Islamic Academy. 3725:The collection of the Qur'an 3565:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998). 3511:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998). 3329:. Random House. p. 29. 2915:was discovered. It has been 2749:(excluding Egypt) where the 2584:later enforced this system. 2293:Another case is that of the 2151:Late canonization hypothesis 2016: 2012:Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam 7177:. Oxford University Press. 7105:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 6930:The Qur'an: An encyclopedia 6928:. In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). 6069:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 6027:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 5981:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 5782:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān 5468:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia 5422:Journal of Qur'anic Studies 5393:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia 5360:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia 5356:"Manuscript and the Qur'an" 5196:Journal of Qur'anic Studies 5037:"Research and conservation" 3837:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia 3130:"The Qurʾan - Introduction" 2784:“readings”, namely that of 2264:Birmingham Quran manuscript 2070: 2023: 2006: 1628:and his followers refused. 1388: 1278: 1071:Hadith of the pen and paper 694:History of the Quran (book) 93:conditions to do so are met 7264: 6922:Lalani, Arzina R. (2006). 6574:Leirvik, Oddbjørn (2010). 6484:In the Shadow of the Sword 6359:Cambridge University Press 6188:The Prolegomena the Qur'an 5956:The Quran: an Encyclopedia 5715:The Quran: an Encyclopedia 5605:The Quran: an Encyclopedia 5430:Edinburgh University Press 5319:Introduction to the Qur'an 5163:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami 5139:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami 4542:In the Shadow of the Sword 4401:, pp. 88–89, 204n455. 3968:; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch.; 3786:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami 3369:The Qur'an: A User's Guide 3227:Ohlig, Karl-Heinz (2013). 3159:Cenap Çakmak, ed. (2017). 2702: 2696: 2678:Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla 2523: 2449:The second sura, entitled 2385:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami 2251: 2113:(i.e. commentaries on the 2107:sources" – 2091: 1667: 1579: 1232:Islamic scholarly accounts 1215: 691: 7107:. Brill Reference Online. 7016:Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali 7000:. Brill. pp. 30–37. 6977:. Yale University Press. 6955:. Brill. pp. 12–23. 6864:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.). 6636:10.1163/9789004228795_017 6616:The History of the Qurʾān 6534:Columbia University Press 5713:Stefan Wild, "basmallah" 5081:10.1017/S0041977X19000338 4041:10.5913/jiqsa.1.2017.a006 4033:10.5913/jiqsa.1.2017.a006 3283:"Beginning of Revelation" 2952:Early Quranic manuscripts 2911:In the 20th century, the 2788:(d. 180/796), student of 2526:Early Quranic manuscripts 2442:The first sura, entitled 2431:, with three verses, and 2266:have been discovered and 2195:) dating to the reign of 7215:15 November 2015 at the 7101:"Shīʿism and the Qurʾān" 6668:Reeves, John C. (2004). 6430:Harvard University Press 5921:Mattson, Ingrid (2013). 5626:( ed.). Blackwell. 5041:University of Birmingham 4970:University of Birmingham 4857:Whelan, Estelle (1998). 4571:Crone, Patricia (1987). 3744:. Mohammad Hafiz Ganie. 3664:Sutton, Antoine (2018). 1820:The Fourteen Infallibles 1407:Salim Mawla Abi Hudhayfa 1295:According to the famous 1276:The Quran uses the term 692:Not to be confused with 7219:British Library website 6858:"The Qurʾan As Process" 6856:Sinai, Nicolai (2009). 6393:Oxford University Press 6347:MacAuliffe, Jane Dammen 6345:Leemhuis, Fred (2006). 6297:Oxford University Press 6142:Takmilat Fath al-Mulhim 5732:Brockett, Adrian Alan, 5603:Stefan Wild, "Reading" 5592:recitation of the Quran 5462:Leaman, Oliver (2006). 5438:10.3366/jqs.2007.9.1.78 5387:Leaman, Oliver (2006). 5354:Leaman, Oliver (2006). 5272:10.1515/islam-2011-0025 5062:van Putten, M. (2019). 5017:. BBC. 23 December 2015 4995:. BBC. 23 December 2015 3831:Leaman, Oliver (2006). 3738:Ganie, Mohammad Hafiz. 3496:Ibn al-Hajjaj, Muslim. 3471:Rippin, Andrew (2009). 3446:Rippin, Andrew (2009). 3262:. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı 2866:Sunni versus Shia views 2764:under the patronage of 2197:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 1634:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 1461:The Generous (al-Ghani) 880:After Conquest of Mecca 7139:. UK Islamic Academy. 6727:Reynolds, Gabriel Said 6604:Bergsträsser, Gotthelf 6064:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 6022:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 5976:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 5974:(2006). "Basmala". In 5828:Reynolds, Gabriel Said 5777:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 5519:University of Michigan 5221:Anthony, Sean (2019). 5187:Harvey, Ramon (2017). 4625:Cook, Michael (1983). 4515:Andrew Rippin (2009). 2977:Criticism of the Quran 2877:routes of transmission 2614: 2570: 2326: 2317:The right page of the 2305:has speculated that a 2226: 1881:Succession to Muhammad 1810:Military career of Ali 1744:Timeline of Ali's life 1599:Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman 1437:his successor, Caliph 1431: 1389:Abu Bakr's compilation 1324: 1305:Khadija bint Khuwaylid 1066:Companions of Muhammad 904:Milestones and records 162:"History of the Quran" 7118:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6806:10.4324/9780203939604 6790:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 6755:10.4324/9780203939604 6739:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 5954:Stefan Wild, "Canon" 5856:10.4324/9780203939604 5840:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 5750:, p. 164. Taken from 5541:"11th Century Qur'an" 5300:. Islamicbulletin.org 5208:10.3366/jqs.2017.0268 4523:Oxford Bibliographies 4281:, pp. 22, 25–26. 3698:Aḥmad, Āftāb (1984). 3409:Al Faruqi, Lois Ibsen 3367:Esack, Farid (2005). 3254:Birışık, Abdülhamid. 3027:Donner, Fred (2010). 2888:(The Two Lights) and 2612: 2565: 2524:Further information: 2316: 2295:Birmingham manuscript 2274:The discovery of the 2221: 2010:by the Sunni exegete 1754:Event of Ghadir Khumm 1655:Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei 1580:Further information: 1512:Samarkand Kufic Quran 1434:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani 1216:Further information: 966:Splitting of the Moon 311:Birmingham manuscript 296:Samarkand Kufic Quran 6925:"'Ali ibn Abi Talib" 6876:. pp. 405–440. 6860:. In Marx, Michael; 6630:. pp. 251–275. 6361:. pp. 145–155. 6299:. pp. 109–112. 6138:Muhammad Taqi Usmani 6124:Shu'aib al-Arna`ut, 4657:"What Is the Koran?" 3536:Jones, Alan (2003). 3233:. Prometheus Books. 3203:"Querying the Koran" 3140:on 17 September 2008 2743:modified vowel-signs 2666:(died 154/770), and 2546:). Vowelling marks ( 2368:ʿAbdullah ibn Masʿud 2076:) about this issue. 1886:Great Mosque of Kufa 1178:Biography portal 701:history of the Quran 147:improve this article 7099:Bar-Asher, Meir M. 7078:Modarressi, Hossein 6600:Schwally, Friedrich 6552:10.7312/hugh16146.8 6414:Donner, Fred McGraw 6277:Bulliet, Richard W. 6255:(2 December 2008). 5293:Ahmad von Denffer. 4838:on 5 September 2008 4329:, pp. 172–173. 2758:Al-Azhar University 2713:Hinckelmann edition 2643:Abu Bakr b. Mujāhid 2605:Early Abbasid Style 2374:Abdullah ibn Masʿud 2354:Abdullah ibn Masʿud 1677:Part of a series on 1360:Muhammad's cousin, 1301:Muhammad al-Bukhari 1122:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi 887:Farewell Pilgrimage 80:of this article is 7243:Literary criticism 6862:Neuwirth, Angelika 6688:. pp. 43–60. 6536:. pp. 67–92. 6465:on 31 January 2008 6144:, vol. 1, pg. 69. 5972:Graham, William A. 5756:C. Hurst & Co. 5746:Peter G. Riddell, 5690:Aisha Geissinger, 4437:, pp. 77, 81. 3285:. Missionislam.com 2737:, the 8th-century 2735:ʻAsim's recitation 2693:1924 Cairo edition 2634:During this time, 2615: 2571: 2327: 2227: 1345:was predominantly 1339:Pre-Islamic Arabia 1024:Medieval Christian 560:Biblical parallels 306:Topkapi manuscript 7201:Islamic Awareness 7184:978-0-19-954572-8 7165:978-0-521-53934-0 7042:Ayoub, Mahmoud M. 6891:978-90-04-17688-1 6848:978-0-520-38903-8 6815:978-0-415-42899-6 6764:978-0-415-42899-6 6695:978-90-04-12726-5 6645:978-90-04-21234-3 6587:978-1-4411-8160-2 6580:. A&C Black. 6543:978-0-231-53192-4 6502:978-0-385-53135-1 6452:Esposito, John L. 6443:978-0-674-05097-6 6314:978-0-19-969776-2 6268:978-1-4070-0928-5 6060:Böwering, Gerhard 6045:978-90-04-14764-5 5865:978-0-415-42899-6 4933:. Huffington Post 4696:OpenDemocracy.net 4690:Crone, Patricia. 4466:, pp. 36–39. 4353:, pp. 32–33. 4341:, pp. 31–32. 4239:, pp. 29–30. 4143:, pp. 17–18. 4104:, pp. 30–31. 4001:978-90-04-16121-4 3962:van Donzel, E. J. 3482:978-1-4051-8820-3 3457:978-1-4051-8820-3 3336:978-1-4070-0928-5 3240:978-1-61614-825-6 3108:978-0-19-516520-3 3046:978-0-674-05097-6 2626:New Abbasid Style 2481:is known to be a 2393:Al-Mu'awwidhatayn 2347:Companion codices 2268:radiocarbon dated 2254:Textual criticism 2235:Stephen Shoemaker 2176:Stephen Shoemaker 2165:hadith literature 2007:Fada'il al-Qur'an 1994:Muhammad al-Mahdi 1947: 1946: 1706:Sunni view of Ali 1636:to destroy them. 1578: 1577: 1226:According to the 1218:Muhammad in Islam 1214: 1213: 773:Ali ibn Abi Talib 690: 689: 574:Mentioned by name 241: 240: 233: 223: 222: 215: 197: 121: 120: 113: 59: 7255: 7238:History of books 7233:History of Islam 7188: 7169: 7150: 7121: 7108: 7095: 7073: 7053: 7037: 7025: 7011: 6999: 6988: 6966: 6954: 6943: 6927: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6874:Brill Publishers 6852: 6827: 6787: 6776: 6736: 6722: 6720: 6718: 6686:Brill Publishers 6680:. Vol. 24. 6664: 6662: 6660: 6628:Brill Publishers 6596:Nöldeke, Theodor 6591: 6570: 6568: 6566: 6518:Hughes, Aaron W. 6513: 6511: 6509: 6474: 6472: 6470: 6461:. Archived from 6447: 6423: 6409: 6386: 6372: 6341: 6339: 6337: 6285:Stroumsa, Guy G. 6272: 6240: 6229: 6223: 6208: 6202: 6201: 6183: 6177: 6176: 6158: 6149: 6135: 6129: 6122: 6116: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6078:Brill Publishers 6056: 6050: 6049: 6036:Brill Publishers 6030:. Vol. VI. 6018: 6012: 6011: 5990:Brill Publishers 5968: 5962: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5918: 5912: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5891: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5837: 5824: 5813: 5812: 5791:Brill Publishers 5785:. Vol. IV. 5772: 5766: 5744: 5738: 5730: 5721: 5711: 5702: 5688: 5682: 5681: 5657: 5651: 5637: 5617: 5611: 5601: 5595: 5582:Commences with ۞ 5575: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5543:. 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Archived from 3126: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3034: 3024: 3000: 2993: 2967:Quranic timeline 2947:Corpus Coranicum 2929:François Déroche 2913:Sanaa manuscript 2851:Shaykh al-Maqâri 2774:Kingdom of Egypt 2723:Islamic calendar 2709:Marracci edition 2662:(died 120/737), 2658:(died 169/785), 2496:appeared in the 2341:Corpus Coranicum 2329:Keith Small, in 2299:François Déroche 2276:Sanaa manuscript 2260:Sanaa manuscript 2223:Dome of the Rock 2193:Dome of the Rock 2155:The rise of the 2075: 2067: 2065: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2026: 2024:Kitab al-Qira'at 2020: 2018: 2009: 1977:abrogated verses 1963:) and the first 1962: 1960: 1939: 1932: 1925: 1911:Islam portal 1909: 1908: 1907: 1870:Related articles 1858:Hazrat Ali Mazar 1835:Ali in the Quran 1829:The Twelve Imams 1711:Shia view of Ali 1693: 1674: 1642:Beliefs of some 1588:Uthman ibn Affan 1570: 1563: 1556: 1542:Islam portal 1540: 1539: 1538: 1478:Related articles 1471: 1462: 1453: 1401:in 633, when 70 1399:Battle of Yamama 1287: 1286: 1281: 1206: 1199: 1192: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1166:Islam portal 1164: 1163: 1162: 1146:History of Islam 951:First revelation 834: 778:Sanaa manuscript 761:Uthman ibn Affan 682: 675: 668: 626:Quran and Sunnah 301:Sanaa manuscript 270:First revelation 243: 236: 229: 218: 211: 207: 204: 198: 196: 155: 131: 123: 116: 109: 105: 102: 96: 70: 69: 62: 51: 29: 28: 21: 7263: 7262: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7223: 7222: 7217:Wayback Machine 7195: 7185: 7172: 7166: 7153: 7147: 7131: 7128: 7126:Further reading 7111: 7098: 7092: 7076: 7070: 7040: 7034: 7014: 7008: 6991: 6985: 6969: 6963: 6946: 6940: 6921: 6912: 6910: 6892: 6855: 6849: 6830: 6816: 6779: 6765: 6725: 6716: 6714: 6696: 6667: 6658: 6656: 6646: 6594: 6588: 6573: 6564: 6562: 6544: 6516: 6507: 6505: 6503: 6477: 6468: 6466: 6450: 6444: 6412: 6403: 6375: 6369: 6344: 6335: 6333: 6315: 6275: 6269: 6251: 6248: 6243: 6230: 6226: 6209: 6205: 6198: 6185: 6184: 6180: 6173: 6160: 6159: 6152: 6136: 6132: 6123: 6119: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6072:. 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Vol. 1. 3958:Bosworth, C. E. 3949: 3948: 3933: 3926: 3913: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3851: 3830: 3829: 3820: 3808: 3804: 3784: 3780: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3663: 3662: 3658: 3648: 3647: 3640: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3604:10.2307/1595789 3592:Studia Islamica 3589: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3535: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3510: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3366: 3365: 3344: 3337: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3280: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3263: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3226: 3225: 3221: 3211: 3209: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3183:F. E. Peters, " 3182: 3178: 3171: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3143: 3141: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3026: 3025: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3004: 3003: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2972:Qisas Al-Anbiya 2938: 2909: 2868: 2823:Kufan tradition 2819:Quran chapter 9 2815:Quran chapter 1 2766:Fuad I of Egypt 2715: 2701: 2695: 2628: 2607: 2602: 2560: 2528: 2522: 2469:. (See Nawawi, 2410: 2407: 2370: 2349: 2256: 2250: 2209:Surat al-Ikhlas 2188: 2172:John Wansbrough 2153: 2133:source-critical 2101: 2096: 2094:Quranic studies 2090: 2088:Quranic studies 2066: 934–1062 2062: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2015: 2002: 1957: 1954:Rashidun caliph 1943: 1905: 1903: 1891: 1890: 1876:Rashidun Caliph 1871: 1863: 1862: 1853:Imam Ali Shrine 1848: 1840: 1839: 1805: 1797: 1796: 1787:Imam Ali Mosque 1772:Nahj al-Balagha 1767: 1759: 1758: 1724: 1716: 1715: 1701: 1672: 1666: 1584: 1574: 1536: 1534: 1522: 1521: 1479: 1460: 1459: 1451: 1443:Hafsa bint Umar 1423:Zayd ibn Thabit 1417:'s insistence, 1391: 1351:Zayd ibn Thabit 1309:ma ana bīqāre'u 1248:Western Arabian 1224: 1210: 1172: 1170: 1160: 1158: 1151: 1150: 1117: 1109: 1108: 1089: 1081: 1080: 1051: 1041: 1040: 1002: 994: 993: 979: 971: 970: 959:Isra and Mi'raj 942: 932: 931: 917: 909: 908: 891:Farewell Sermon 858: 832: 786: 745:to compile the 743:Zayd ibn Thabit 725:Quranic studies 697: 686: 641: 640: 616: 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Routledge. 4788: 4784: 4777: 4774: 4770: 4765: 4762: 4758: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4742:, p. 43. 4741: 4736: 4733: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4702: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4606: 4601: 4594: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4579: 4574: 4567: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4543: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4502:, p. 29. 4501: 4496: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4481: 4478:, p. 74. 4477: 4472: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4449:, p. 28. 4448: 4443: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4428: 4425:, p. 29. 4424: 4419: 4416: 4413:, p. 25. 4412: 4407: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4392: 4389:, p. 90. 4388: 4383: 4380: 4377:, p. 26. 4376: 4371: 4368: 4365:, p. 32. 4364: 4359: 4356: 4352: 4351:Kohlberg 2009 4347: 4344: 4340: 4339:Kohlberg 2009 4335: 4332: 4328: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4308: 4305:, p. 23. 4304: 4299: 4296: 4293:, p. 16. 4292: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4257: 4254:, p. 89. 4253: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4230: 4227:, p. 24. 4226: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4201: 4198:, p. 14. 4197: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4167:, p. 30. 4166: 4161: 4158: 4155:, p. 14. 4154: 4149: 4146: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4119: 4116:, p. 89. 4115: 4110: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4095: 4090: 4088:0-19-511675-5 4084: 4080: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4011: 4008: 4003: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3925:0-7914-0154-5 3921: 3917: 3910: 3907: 3902: 3900:0-7914-0154-5 3896: 3892: 3885: 3882: 3877: 3875:0-88706-876-6 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3850:0-415-32639-7 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3813: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3779: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3753: 3751:9798411225921 3747: 3743: 3742: 3734: 3731: 3726: 3719: 3716: 3703: 3702: 3694: 3691: 3679: 3677:9781527509474 3673: 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2955: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2872: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2852: 2846: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2752: 2751:Warsh version 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2700: 2699:Cairo edition 2692: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2648: 2644: 2639: 2637: 2632: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2611: 2604: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2552:scripta plena 2549: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2532: 2527: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2486: 2485: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2440: 2438: 2434: 2433:Sūrat al-Ḥafd 2430: 2429:Sūrat al-Khal 2425: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:Ubay ibn Ka'b 2405: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2337:critical text 2334: 2333: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2104: 2098: 2095: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2060: 2059:Buyid dynasty 2030: 2025: 2013: 2008: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1955: 1952:, the fourth 1951: 1940: 1935: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1921: 1920: 1918: 1917: 1912: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1847:Burial places 1844: 1843: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1815:Ali as Caliph 1813: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1801: 1800: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1769: 1763: 1762: 1755: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1740: 1739:Assassination 1737: 1735: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1720: 1719: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1675: 1671: 1670:Mushaf of Ali 1663: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1589: 1583: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1559: 1557: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1525: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1507:Assassination 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465: 1458: 1454: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1365: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1355:Ubay ibn Ka'b 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1293: 1291: 1280: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1223: 1219: 1207: 1202: 1200: 1195: 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609: 602: 599: 597: 594: 593: 585: 584: 575: 572: 571: 569: 565: 564: 561: 558: 557: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 535: 531: 525: 524: 515: 512: 510: 507: 506: 505: 502: 501: 497: 491: 490: 483: 480: 478: 475: 474: 471: 468: 466: 463: 462: 459: 456: 454: 451: 450: 446: 440: 439: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 418: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 384: 376: 375: 368: 367: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 352: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 333: 332: 329: 328: 320: 319: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 293: 289: 288: 285: 282: 281: 276: 273: 271: 268: 267: 266: 263: 262: 258: 252: 251: 248: 244: 235: 232: 217: 214: 206: 203:December 2015 195: 192: 188: 185: 181: 178: 174: 171: 167: 164: – 163: 159: 158:Find sources: 152: 148: 142: 141: 136:This article 134: 130: 125: 124: 115: 112: 104: 94: 90: 84: 83: 79: 73: 64: 63: 58: 56: 49: 48: 43: 42: 37: 32: 23: 22: 19: 7174: 7155: 7136: 7117: 7104: 7081: 7059: 7048: 7021: 6995: 6974: 6950: 6929: 6911:. Retrieved 6865: 6833: 6783: 6732: 6715:. Retrieved 6673: 6657:. Retrieved 6615: 6608:Pretzl, Otto 6576: 6563:. Retrieved 6525: 6506:. Retrieved 6483: 6479:Holland, Tom 6467:. Retrieved 6463:the original 6458: 6419: 6406: 6382: 6350: 6334:. Retrieved 6288: 6257: 6246:Bibliography 6236: 6232: 6227: 6219: 6215: 6206: 6187: 6181: 6162: 6133: 6125: 6120: 6104: 6067: 6054: 6025: 6016: 5979: 5966: 5955: 5950: 5938:. Retrieved 5923: 5916: 5903:. Retrieved 5898: 5889: 5877:. Retrieved 5833: 5780: 5770: 5751: 5742: 5733: 5714: 5686: 5664:(91): 5–22. 5661: 5655: 5642:Introduction 5641: 5622: 5615: 5604: 5599: 5587:rubʿ al-ḥizb 5585: 5573: 5568:: p. 74 5561: 5551:19 September 5549:. Retrieved 5545:the original 5535: 5514: 5510: 5504: 5490: 5467: 5425: 5421: 5415: 5392: 5382: 5359: 5318: 5314: 5304:19 September 5302:. Retrieved 5288: 5255: 5249: 5239: 5230: 5226: 5216: 5199: 5195: 5182: 5166: 5158: 5142: 5134: 5125: 5108: 5071: 5067: 5057: 5045:. Retrieved 5031: 5019:. Retrieved 5009: 4997:. Retrieved 4987: 4975:. Retrieved 4968: 4959: 4947: 4935:. Retrieved 4924: 4911: 4895: 4891: 4866: 4862: 4852: 4840:. Retrieved 4836:the original 4826: 4812: 4800:. Retrieved 4786: 4776: 4764: 4735: 4723:. Retrieved 4719:the original 4714: 4704: 4695: 4666:. Retrieved 4662:The Atlantic 4660: 4626: 4620: 4608: 4599: 4593: 4581: 4572: 4566: 4541: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4495: 4483: 4471: 4442: 4430: 4418: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4370: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4322: 4310: 4298: 4286: 4259: 4232: 4203: 4191: 4186:, p. 2. 4160: 4148: 4121: 4109: 4097: 4078: 4072: 4024: 4020: 4010: 3973: 3915: 3909: 3890: 3884: 3865: 3859: 3836: 3811: 3805: 3789: 3781: 3771:19 September 3769:. Retrieved 3760: 3740: 3733: 3724: 3718: 3706:. Retrieved 3704:. p. 26 3700: 3693: 3681:. Retrieved 3666: 3659: 3650: 3631:19 September 3629:. Retrieved 3620: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3566: 3560: 3541: 3531: 3512: 3506: 3491: 3472: 3466: 3447: 3441: 3416: 3412: 3403: 3387: 3368: 3325: 3318: 3309: 3305: 3299: 3287:. Retrieved 3276: 3264:. Retrieved 3259: 3249: 3229: 3222: 3210:. Retrieved 3207:the Guardian 3206: 3196: 3188: 3179: 3160: 3154: 3142:. Retrieved 3138:the original 3133: 3124: 3112:. Retrieved 3090: 3080: 3061: 3055: 3030: 2996: 2991: 2910: 2901: 2894: 2890:"al-Walayah" 2889: 2885: 2882: 2873: 2869: 2856:Bergsträsser 2849: 2847: 2831:1834 edition 2808: 2802: 2798: 2769: 2755: 2747:North Africa 2733:") based on 2729:" version (" 2716: 2687: 2682:calligraphic 2676: 2672: 2640: 2633: 2629: 2620: 2616: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2578:Abd al-Malik 2575: 2572: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2512: 2508: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2490: 2482: 2477: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2448: 2443: 2441: 2432: 2428: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2382: 2371: 2361: 2350: 2330: 2328: 2292: 2288:Gerd R. Puin 2273: 2257: 2239: 2228: 2189: 2180:Abd al-Malik 2169: 2161:canonization 2154: 2125: 2118: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2078: 2042:exaggerators 2003: 1990:Twelve Imams 1982:Twelver Shia 1973: 1948: 1804:Perspectives 1659: 1641: 1638: 1630: 1611: 1607: 1596: 1592: 1585: 1432: 1428: 1392: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1359: 1336: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1294: 1275: 1225: 1061:Ghadir Khumm 1001:Perspectives 823: 819: 813: 808: 804: 802: 797: 793: 787: 754: 729: 717:canonization 700: 698: 654:Islam portal 543:Hermeneutics 496:Translations 364: 256: 227: 209: 200: 190: 183: 176: 169: 157: 145:Please help 140:verification 137: 107: 98: 76: 52: 45: 39: 38:Please help 35: 18: 7133:M. M. Azami 6796:. pp. 6745:. pp. 6432:. pp. 6253:Aslan, Reza 6239:(2012), 23. 6222:(2012), 26. 5846:. pp. 5646:Tamara Sonn 5521:: 119–148. 5047:6 September 4869:(1): 1–14. 4759:: p.219-220 4613:Berg (2000) 4423:Lalani 2006 4165:Lalani 2006 4102:Lalani 2006 4027:: 108–112. 3970:Schacht, J. 3953:"al-Ḳurʾān" 3413:Asian Music 3266:25 February 2925:lower texts 2917:radiocarbon 2907:Manuscripts 2886:"al-Nurayn" 2762:Amiri Press 2652:seven aḥruf 2647:consonantal 2213:Fred Donner 2145:numismatics 2137:archaeology 2082:Ahl al-Bayt 1734:First Fitna 1492:Family tree 1230:belief and 1129:Possessions 1076:Ahl al-Bayt 1031:Historicity 548:Esotericism 426:Eschatology 290:Manuscripts 284:Historicity 7227:Categories 7069:0198265468 7033:0791421228 6913:15 January 6717:15 January 6659:15 January 6565:14 October 6402:0192853449 6336:14 October 6323:2014960132 5879:15 January 5754:. 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