616:, industrialization was generating a ravenous appetite for the state's coal and iron ore. Production was booming, and unions were attempting to organize unincarcerated miners. Convicts provided an ideal captive work force: cheap, usually docile, unable to organize and available when unincarcerated laborers went on strike." The Southern agrarian economy did not accommodate convict leasing as well as the industrial economy did, whose jobs were often unappealing or dangerous, offering hard-labor and low pay. The competition, expansion, and growth of mining and steel companies also created a high demand for labor, but union labor posed a threat to expanding companies. As unions bargained for higher wages and better conditions, often organizing strikes in order to achieve their goals, the growing companies would be forced to agree to union demands or face abrupt halts in production. The rate companies paid for convict leases, which paid the laborer nothing, was regulated by government and state officials who entered the labor contracts with companies. "The companies built their own prisons, fed and clothed the convicts, and supplied guards as they saw fit." (
474:). Despite periods of innovation (1907–14), growth (1915–18), and consolidation (1918–22), early expectations were only partly realized. Steel output in the 1920s and 1930s averaged about 2.1 million metric tons. Per capita consumption was much lower than the average of Western Europe. Electrical processes were an important substitute, yet did not improve competitiveness or reduce prices. Instead, they reinforced the dualism of the sector and initiated a vicious circle that prevented market expansion. Italy modernized its industry in the 1950s and 1960s and it grew rapidly, becoming second only to West Germany in the 1970s. Strong labour unions kept employment levels high. Troubles multiplied after 1980, however, as foreign competition became stiffer. In 1980 the largest producer Nuova Italsider [now dubbed
448:
638:
1138:, who led China from 1978 to 1992, China began to develop a modern steel industry by building new steel plants and recycling scrap metal from the United States and Europe. As of 2013 China produced 779 million metric tons of steel each year, making it by far the largest steel producing country in the world. This is compared to 165 for the European Union, 110 for Japan, 87 for the United States and 81 for India. China's 2013 steel production was equivalent to an average of 3.14 cubic meters of steel per second.
1127:. Mao saw steel production as the key to overnight economic modernization, promising that within 15 years China's steel production would surpass that of Britain. In 1958 he decided that steel production would double within the year, using backyard steel furnaces run by inexperienced peasants. The plan was a fiasco, as the small amounts of steel produced were of very poor quality, and the diversion of resources out of agriculture produced a massive famine in 1959–61 that killed millions.
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of the widespread optimism in the industry. However the company ignored the new technologies then being developed in Europe and Japan. Seeking labor peace in order to avoid strikes, Bethlehem like the other majors agreed to large wage and benefits increases that kept its costs high. After Grace retired the executives concentrated on short term profits and postponed innovations that led to long-term inefficiency. It went bankrupt in 2001.
813:
793:), American Steel and Wire, and National Tube) with two major integrated companies, Carnegie Steel and Federal Steel. It was capitalized at $ 1.466 billion, and included 213 manufacturing mills, one thousand miles of railroad, and 41 mines. In 1901, it accounted for 66% of America's steel output, and almost 30% of the world's. During World War I, its annual production exceeded the combined output of all German and Austrian firms.
900:. The SWOC focused almost exclusively on the achievement of a signed contract, with "Little Steel" (the major producers except for US Steel). At the grassroots however, women of the steel auxiliaries, workers on the picket line, and middle-class liberals from across Chicago sought to transform the strike into something larger than a showdown over union recognition. In Chicago, the
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inherent geographic, population, or resource factors. Despite a high national income level, the French steel industry remained laggard. The industry was based on large supplies of coal and iron ore, and was dispersed across the country. The greatest output came in 1929, at 10.4 million metric tons. The industry suffered sharply during the
510:
This explosive
American growth rested on solid technological foundations and the continuous rapid expansion of urban infrastructures, office buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and other sectors that increasingly demanded steel. The use of steel in automobiles and household appliances came in the 20th century.
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By 1913 American and German exports dominated the world steel market, and
Britain slipped to third place. German steel production grew explosively from 1 million metric tons in 1885 to 10 million in 1905 and peaked at 19 million in 1918. In the 1920s Germany produced about 15 million tons, but output
121:
demonstrated the process in 1856 and had a successful operation going by 1864. By 1870 Bessemer steel was widely used for ship plate. By the 1850s, the speed, weight, and quantity of railway traffic was limited by the strength of the wrought iron rails in use. The solution was to turn to steel rails,
845:
operated 15 shipyards in World War II. It produced 1,121 ships, more than any other builder during the war and nearly one-fifth of the U.S. Navy's fleet. Its peak employment was 180,000 workers, out of a company-wide wartime peak of 300,000. After 1945 Bethlehem doubled its steel capacity, a measure
217:
with serious problems: a complacency with existing equipment, plants operating under capacity (low efficiency), poor quality assets, outdated technology, government price controls, higher coal and oil costs, lack of funds for capital improvement, and increasing world market competition. By the 1970s
155:
with its early commitment to coal mining, steam power, textile mills, machinery, railways, and shipbuilding. Britain's demand for iron and steel, combined with ample capital and energetic entrepreneurs, made it the world leader in the first half of the 19th century. Steel has a vital role during the
509:
From 1875 to 1920 American steel production grew from 380,000 tons to 60 million tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader. The annual growth rates in steel 1870–1913 were 7.0% for the US; 1.0% for
Britain; 6.0% for Germany; and 4.3% for France, Belgium, and Russia, the other major producers.
603:
to mass-produced
Bessemer steel greatly increased worker productivity. Highly skilled workers remained essential, but the average level of skill declined. Nevertheless, steelworkers earned much more than ironworkers despite their fewer skills. Workers in an integrated, synchronized mass production
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The French iron industry lagged behind
Britain and Belgium in the early 19th century. After 1850 it also lagged behind Germany and Luxembourg. Its industry comprised too many small, inefficient firms. 20th century growth was not robust, due more to traditional social and economic attitudes than to
402:
In iron and steel and other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing "corporatist mentality", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations
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corporation in the U.S. The goal was to move beyond the limitations of the old cartel system by incorporating advances simultaneously inside a single corporation. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional
196:
to evaluate the impact of government intervention in a market economy. Entrepreneurship was lacking in the 1940s; the government could not persuade the industry to upgrade its plants. For generations the industry had followed a patchwork growth pattern which proved inefficient in the face of world
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area and almost 40% of steel. 40% of
British output was exported to the U.S., which was rapidly building its rail and industrial infrastructure. Two decades later in 1896, however, the British share of world production had plunged to 29% for pig iron and 22.5% for steel, and little was sent to the
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spent $ 12 billion to build the two most modern mills in the world, in
Alabama and Brazil. The worldwide great recession starting in 2008, however, with its heavy cutbacks in construction, sharply lowered demand and prices fell 40%. ThyssenKrupp lost $ 11 billion on its two new plants, which sold
620:
2001) Alabama's use of convict leasing was commanding; 51 of its 67 counties regularly leased convicts serving for misdemeanors at a rate of about $ 5–20 per month, equal to about $ 160–500 in 2015. Although the influence of labor unions forced some states to move away from the profitable convict
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provided an excellent location for the German iron and steel industry because of the availability of raw materials, coal, transport, a skilled labor force, nearby markets, and an entrepreneurial spirit that led to the creation of many firms, often in close conjunction with coal mines. By 1850 the
171:
The growth of pig iron output was dramatic. Britain went from 1.3 million tons in 1840 to 6.7 million in 1870 and 10.4 in 1913. The US started from a lower base, but grew faster; from 0.3 million tons in 1840, to 1.7 million in 1870, and 31.5 million in 1913. Germany went from 0.2 million tons in
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Integration was the watchword as the various processes were brought together by large corporations, from mining the iron ore to shipping the finished product to wholesalers. The typical steelworks was a giant operation, including blast furnaces, Bessemer converters, open-hearth furnaces, rolling
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run by the Krupp family. Many diverse, large-scale family firms such as Krupp's reorganized in order to adapt to the changing conditions and meet the economic depression of the 1870s, which reduced the earnings in the German iron and steel industry. Krupp reformed his accounting system to better
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By 1900 the US was the largest producer and also the lowest cost producer, and demand for steel seemed inexhaustible. Output had tripled since 1890, but customers, not producers, mostly benefitted. Productivity-enhancing technology encouraged faster and faster rates of investment in new plants.
353:
started to catch up with
Britain. From 1880 to World War I, the industry of the Ruhr area consisted of numerous enterprises, each working on a separate level of production. Mixed enterprises could unite all levels of production through vertical integration, thus lowering production costs.
889:(AFL) tried and failed to organize the steelworkers in 1919. Although the strike gained widespread middle-class support because of its demand and the 12-hour day, the strike failed and unionization was postponed until the late 1930s. The mills ended the 12-hour day in the early 1920s.
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was spun off in 2001). Finally US Steel reemerged in 2002 with plants in three
American locations (plus one in Europe) that employed fewer than one-tenth the 168,000 workers of 1902. By 2001 steel accounted for only 0.8% of manufacturing employment and 0.8% of manufacturing output.
188:
by analyzing
Bolckow Vaughan & Company. It was wedded for too long to obsolescent technology and was a very late adopter of the open hearth furnace method. Abé concludes that the firm—and the British steel industry—suffered from a failure of entrepreneurship and planning.
395:
structure and used return on investment as its measure of success. It represented the "Americanization" of the German steel industry because its internal structure, management methods, use of technology, and emphasis on mass production. The chief difference was that
218:
the Labour government had its main goal to keep employment high in the declining industry. Since British Steel was a main employer in depressed regions, it had kept many mills and facilities that were operating at a loss. In the 1980s, Conservative Prime Minister
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environment wielded greater strategic power, for the greater cost of mistakes bolstered workers' status. The experience demonstrated that the new technology did not decrease worker bargaining leverage by creating an interchangeable, unskilled workforce.
134:. Its process allowed closer control over the composition of the steel; also, a substantial quantity of scrap could be included in the charge. The crucible process remained important for making high-quality alloy steel into the 20th century. By 1900 the
1030:(MITI) played a major role in coordination. The transfer of technology from the West and the establishment of competitive firms involved far more than buying foreign hardware. MITI located steel mills and organized a domestic market; it sponsored
117:, molten pig iron is converted to steel by blowing air through it after it was removed from the furnace. The air blast burned the carbon and silicon out of the pig iron, releasing heat and causing the temperature of the molten metal to rise.
40:
Before 1800 A.D., the iron and steel industry was located where raw material, power supply and running water were easily available. After 1950, the iron and steel industry began to be located on large areas of flat land near sea ports. The
1034:. Japanese engineers and entrepreneurs internally developed the necessary technological and organizational capabilities, planned the transfer and adoption of technology, and gauged demand and sources of raw materials and finances.
724:
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of Britain, and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it. By 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. & Company alone stood at $ 480,000,000 with $ 225,000,000 being Carnegie's share.
800:
disrupted the entire industry for months, but the union lost and its membership sharply declined. Rapid growth of cities made the 1920s boom years. President Harding and social reformers forced it to end the 12-hour day in 1923.
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was a violent labor dispute in 1892 that involved an attack by strikers against private security guards. The governor called in the National Guard. The strike failed and the union collapsed. The dispute took place at Carnegie's
168:
U.S. The U.S. was now the world leader and Germany was catching up to Britain. Britain had lost its American market, and was losing its role elsewhere; indeed American products were now underselling British steel in Britain.
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lease agreements and run traditional prisons, plenty of companies began substituting convict labor in their operations in the twentieth century. "The biggest user of forced labor in Alabama at the turn of the century was
504:
was the second largest American steel manufacturer before its late 20th century descent. The company announced in 1982 that it was discontinuing most of its operations, declared bankruptcy in 2001, and was dissolved in
129:
and by the middle of the 20th century was no longer in use. The open-hearth process originated in the 1860s in Germany and France. The usual open-hearth process used pig iron, ore, and scrap, and became known as the
49:
has become a staple of the world's industrial economy. This article is intended only to address the business, economic and social dimensions of the industry, since the bulk production of steel began as a result of
439:. Prosperity returned by mid-1950s, but profits came largely from strong domestic demand rather than competitive capacity. Late modernization delayed the development of powerful unions and collective bargaining.
303:
in 2000. BHP's decision to move from mining ore to open a steelworks at Newcastle was precipitated by the technical limitations in recovering value from mining the 'lower-lying sulphide ores'. The discovery of
948:
The industry grew slowly but other industries grew even faster, so that by 1967, as the downward spiral began, steel accounted for 4.4% of manufacturing employment and 4.9% of manufacturing output. After 1970
478:
lost 746 billion lira in its inefficient operations. In the 1990s the Italian steel industry, then mostly state-owned, was largely privatised. Today the country is the world's seventh-largest steel exporter.
455:
1023:, and industrial machinery are closely linked to steel. From 1850 to 1970, the industry increased its crude steel production from virtually nothing to 93.3 million tons (the third largest in the world).
374:
in 1867. Germany became Europe's leading steel-producing nation in the late 19th century, thanks in large part to the protection from American and British competition afforded by tariffs and cartels.
113:, Britain, which supplied the European and American markets. The introduction of cheap steel was due to the Bessemer and the open hearth processes, two technological advances made in England. In the
122:
which the Bessemer process made competitive in price. Experience quickly proved steel had much greater strength and durability and could handle the increasingly heavy and faster engines and cars.
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in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day. A consolidation of Carnegie's assets and those of his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the
904:
raised the possibility that steelworkers might embrace the ‘civic unionism’ that animated the left-led unions of the era. The effort failed, and while the strike was won, the resulting powerful
732:
project across the Mississippi River in St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market.
833:(1876–1960) made Bethlehem Steel the second-largest American steel company by the 1920s. Schwab had been the operating head of Carnegie Steel and US Steel. In 1903 he purchased the small firm
488:
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235:
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Gerald D. Feldman and Ulrich Nocken, "Trade Associations and Economic Power: Interest Group Development in the German Iron and Steel and Machine Building Industries, 1900–1933"
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The Indian steel industry began expanding into Europe in the 21st century. In January 2007 India's Tata Steel made a successful $ 11.3 billion offer to buy European steel maker
172:
1859 to 1.6 in 1871 and 19.3 in 1913. France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, combined, went from 2.2 million tons in 1870 to 14.1 million tons in 1913, on the eve of the
841:
moved slowly. Bethlehem concentrated on government contracts, such as ships and naval armor, and on construction beams, especially for skyscrapers and bridges. Its subsidiary
513:
Some key elements in the growth of steel production included the easy availability of iron ore, and coal. Iron ore of fair quality was abundant in the eastern states, but the
97:
Before about 1860, steel was an expensive product, made in small quantities and used mostly for swords, tools and cutlery; all large metal structures were made of wrought or
1461:
Wolfram Bongartz, "Unternehmensleitung und Kostenkontrolle in der Rheinischen Montanindustrie vor 1914: Dargestellt am Beispiel Der Firmen Krupp Und Gutehoffnungshütte" .
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1075:, a believer in socialism, decided that the technological revolution in India needed maximization of steel production. He, therefore, formed a government owned company,
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34:
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Alfred Reckendrees, "Die Vereinigte Stahlwerke A.G. 1926–1933 Und 'Das Glänzende Beispiel Amerika,'" . "Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte" 1996 41(2): 159–86.
2131:
John W. Miller and Ike Henning, "Thiessen gets offers for mills: Final bids for steel complexes in Alabama, Brazil will likely fall short of the company's hopes,"
1315:, by David Cameron, as presented to the Australian Historical Association Regional Conference, Newcastle, 28–30 September 1997), 1997. Retrieved January 31, 2018.
261:. The first steel rails rolled in Australia were rolled there in 1911. Between 1928 and 1932, the operations at Lithgow were transferred, under the management of
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1027:
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Alfred Reckendrees, "From Cartel Regulation to Monopolistic Control? The Founding of the German 'Steel Trust' in 1926 and its Effect on Market Regulation,"
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In 1869 iron was already a major industry, accounting for 6.6% of manufacturing employment and 7.8% of manufacturing output. By then the central figure was
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from the accompanying earth and rock' led BHP 'to implement the startlingly simple and cheap process for liberating vast amounts of valuable metals out of
202:
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was adapted to steelmaking and by the 1920s, the falling cost of electricity allowed it to largely supplant the crucible process for specialty steels.
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including the process for washing and coking dross from coal mines, which resulted in a significant increase in scale, profits, and enterprise value.
622:
1606:
Ann Wendy Mill, "French Steel and the Metal-working Industries: a Contribution to the Debate on Economic Development in Nineteenth-century France,"
867:, for $ 18 million. In the late 1920s he purchased undervalued steel and rubber companies. In 1930, Eaton consolidated his steel holdings into the
1741:
1117:
1285:
Etsuo Abé, "The Technological Strategy of a Leading Iron and Steel Firm, Bolckow Vaughan & Co. Ltd: Late Victorian Industrialists Did Fail,"
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to rebuild and modernize its mills. It produced 3 million tons of steel in 1947, 12 million in 1950, 34 million in 1960 and 46 million in 1970.
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manage his growing empire, adding a specialized bureau of calculation as well as a bureau for the control of times and wages. The rival firm
956:
Per-capita steel consumption in the U.S. peaked in 1977, then fell by half before staging a modest recovery to levels well below the peak.
893:
651:
Andrew Carnegie, a Scottish immigrant, advanced the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines, by adopting the
66:
Steel is an alloy composed of between 0.2 and 2.0 percent carbon, with the balance being iron. From prehistory through the creation of the
58:, in 1857. Previously, steel was very expensive to produce, and was only used in small, expensive items, such as knives, swords and armor.
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1157:
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Technological progress brought new advantages as well. These developments set the stage for the creation of combined business concerns.
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to his empire. These three mills on the Monongahela River would make Pittsburgh the steel capital of the world. In the late 1880s, the
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and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for efforts to unionize steelworkers.
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control again, the industry was again nationalized. But by then twenty years of political manipulation had left companies such as the
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but with Indian management) merged with Arcelor after a takeover bid for $ 34.3 billion to become the world's biggest steel maker,
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is authorized to declare each May "Steelmark Month" to recognize the contribution made by the steel industry to the United States.
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mills, coke ovens and foundries, as well as supported transportation facilities. The largest ones were operated in the region from
682:, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile (685 km) long railway, and a line of
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to modern society in the late nineteenth century, its heavy industrialization and imperialist war ventures in 1900–1945, and the
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176:. During the war the demand for artillery shells and other supplies caused a spurt in output and a diversion to military uses.
78:, and the process of making steel involved adding carbon to iron, usually in a serendipitous manner, in the forge, or via the
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2744:
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Yonekura shows the steel industry was central to the economic development of Japan. The nation's sudden transformation from
447:
1675:
Dario Gaggio, "Prezzi Relativi E Path Dependence: La Siderurgia Elettrica Italiana Dall'inizio Del Secolo All'autarchia" .
1341:
655:. After an early career in railroads, Carnegie foresaw the potential for steel to amass vast profits. He asked his cousin,
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Carnegie sold all his steel holdings in 1901; they were merged into U.S. Steel and it was non-union until the late 1930s.
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competition. In 1946 the first steel development plan was put into practice with the aim of increasing capacity; the
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steel below the cost of production. Finally in 2013, ThyssenKrupp offered the plants for sale at under $ 4 billion.
86:— an alloy of approximately 90 percent iron and 10 percent carbon. When the process of steel-making is started with
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2556:(Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography) (1989) 385 pp; biographies and brief corporate histories
871:, based in Cleveland; it became the third-largest steel producer in the U.S., after US Steel and Bethlehem Steel.
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1012:
463:
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257:, in 1901. The plant became Australia's first integrated iron and steel works in 1907. It was later expanded by
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David Jardini, "From Iron to Steel: The Recasting of the Jones and Laughlins Workforce between 1885 and 1896,"
254:
2338:
The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present
94:, the challenge is to remove a sufficient amount of carbon to reduce it to the 0.2 to 2 percentage for steel.
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was discovered in 1844; operations began in 1846. Other ranges were opened by 1910, including the Menominee,
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1856:"Hard Time: From Alabama's Past, Capitalism and Racism In a Cruel Partnership | Slavery By Another Name"
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Steven B. Webb, "Tariffs, Cartels, Technology, and Growth in the German Steel Industry, 1879 to 1914,"
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Ruhr had 50 iron works with 2,813 full-time employees. The first modern furnace was built in 1849. The
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1801:
Brian Greenberg, "What David Brody Wrought: The Impact of Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era,"
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837:, and in 1916 made Grace president. Innovation was the keynote at a time when U.S. Steel under Judge
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to join him in America from Scotland. Lauder was a leading mechanical engineer who had studied under
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in 1907, as part of his father's conglomerate. By 1939 it operated the largest steel plant in the
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steel mill on Lake Michigan was for many years the largest steel producing facility in the world.
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regulated competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies.
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The Global Restructuring of the Steel Industry: Innovations, Institutions, and Industrial Change
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299:, which was closed in 1999. The 'long products' side of the steel business was spun off to form
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Wei Li and Dennis Tao Yang, "The Great Leap Forward: Anatomy of a Central Planning Disaster,"
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Lauder would go on to lead the development of the use of steel in armor and armaments for the
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The Politics of Steel: Western Europe and the Steel Industry in the Crisis Years (1974–1984)
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382:, steel output peaked at 22 million tons in 1940, then dipped to 18 million in 1944 under
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Coal and Steel in Western Europe; the Influence of Resources and Techniques on Production
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Coal and Steel in Western Europe; the Influence of Resources and Techniques on Production
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However, during recessions, demand fell sharply taking down output, prices, and profits.
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factory in Germany in 1886 before returning to build the massive armor plate mill at the
1960:
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The Arms of Krupp: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Dynasty That Armed Germany at War
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Most mills were closed. Bethlehem went bankrupt in 2001. In 1984, Republic merged with
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82:. The introduction of the blast furnace reversed the problem. A blast furnace produces
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Norman J. G. Pounds, “Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France.”
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Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark
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Chikayoshi Nomura, "selling steel in the 1920s: TISCO in a period of transition,"
332:, including huge heaps of tailings and slimes up to' 40 ft (12 m) high.
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Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations
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Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations
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as an industrial strategy did not seem plausible to German steel industrialists.
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Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences
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with low-wage producers elsewhere. Imports and local mini-mills undercut sales.
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284:, personally negotiated the establishment of a steelworks with G. D. Delprat of
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Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001.
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Steel City: Entrepreneurship, Strategy, and Technology in Sheffield, 1743–1993.
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1953:
1015:, all depended on iron and steel. The other great Japanese industries, such as
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In Italy a shortage of coal led the steel industry to specialize in the use of
2385:(1953) pp 1098–1143, with many tables and maps on the worldwide steel industry
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The Japanese iron and steel industry: Continuity and discontinuity, 1850–1970
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Japanese Iron & Steel Industry, 1850–1990: Continuity & Discontinuity
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Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River, opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel
1068:. The company launched a major modernization and expansion program in 1951.
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MITI and the japanese miracle: growth of industrial policy : 1925–1975
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The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America
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International Marketing Strategy: Analysis, Development and Implementation
2068:(1968) contains short excerpts from primary sources and scholarly studies.
1490:
Robert C. Allen, "International Competition in Iron and Steel, 1850–1913,
192:
Blair (1997) explores the history of the British Steel industry since the
892:
The second surge of unionization came under the auspices of the militant
760:
695:
596:
in 1901, which became the world's largest steel corporation for decades.
593:
160:
83:
2499:
The Iron Barons: A Social Analysis of an American Urban Elite, 1874-1965
557:
for shipment by rail to the steel mills. Abundant coal was available in
2432:
The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition.
2417:
2352:
A history of technology: vol 4: The Industrial Revolution c 1750–c 1860
2013:
1926:
1611:
1582:
1553:
1495:
1479:
1407:
A Future More Prosperous: The History of Newcastle Steelworks 1912–1999
1394:
A Future More Prosperous: The History of Newcastle Steelworks 1912–1999
918:
613:
542:
538:
1123:
disdained the cities and put his faith in the Chinese peasantry for a
2641:
The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation
2492:
Economic History of the Iron and Steel Industry in the United States
2482:
And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry
2120:
And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry
1091:
1008:
963:; the new firm went bankrupt in 2001. US Steel diversified into oil (
789:
US Steel combined finishing firms (American Tin Plate (controlled by
300:
2578:
The Steel Crisis: The Economics and Politics of a Declining Industry
1409:, The Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited, Newcastle, pp. 42–43.
778:
arranged the buyout of Carnegie and most other major firms, and put
2691:
Union Women: Forging Feminism in the United Steelworkers of America
2281:
World Steel Association. 23 January 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2014
2008:
Robert Hessen, "The Transformation of Bethlehem Steel, 1904–1909,"
245:
The first commercial scale production of steel in Australia was by
2425:
The Steel Industry, 1939–1959: A Study in Competition and Planning
2412:
Burn, D. L. “Recent Trends in the History of the Steel Industry.”
2145:
https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg1097.pdf
1049:
863:(1883–1979) in 1925 purchased the small Trumbull Steel Company of
714:
636:
492:
446:
276:, had consistently advocated for the greater industrialization of
46:
2599:
Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America, An Economic Inquiry
406:
With the need to rebuild the bombed-out infrastructure after the
2594:(1994) (Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography)
1396:, The Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited, Newcastle, p. 34.
1253:
The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850-1914
566:
269:, still the site of most of Australia's steel production today.
75:
1622:
see map and statistics in W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky,
1639:
Steel, State, and Labor: Mobilization and Adjustment in France
285:
1955:
Our Own Time: A History of American Labor and the Working Day
1199:
British Industrial Capitalism Since The Industrial Revolution
1056:, in 1870 which began its production in 1874 followed by The
951:
American steel producers could no longer compete effectively
517:
region contained huge deposits of exceedingly rich ore; the
125:
After 1890 the Bessemer process was gradually supplanted by
678:, just outside of Pittsburgh. In 1888, he bought the rival
489:
History of the iron and steel industry in the United States
2536:
A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925
581:(and later from Eastern Europe) arrived in great numbers.
456:
Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci"
184:
Abé (1996) explores the record of iron and steel firms in
159:
In 1875, Britain accounted for 47% of world production of
1182:
David Brooke, "the Advent of the Steel Rail, 1857–1914,"
201:
meant nationalization of the industry in the form of the
295:
In 1915, BHP ventured into steel manufacturing with its
2407:
Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry
2077:
Michael Dennis, "Chicago and the Little Steel strike,"
320:
combined with the development by the BHP metallurgist,
2571:
Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century
2328:
The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain
1420:
The Ruhr: a study in historical and economic geography
816:
Bethlehem steel works in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1881
592:
the center of the industry. He sold his operations to
2373:
Steel: From Mine to Mill, the Metal that Made America
1595:
Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815–1914
349:
in 1871 gave further impetus to rapid growth, as the
2656:
EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic and Business History
1985:"U.S. Steel Eyes 2017 Earnings Surge After Solid Q4"
1309:
On an island in the River: The establishment of the
971:
The world steel industry peaked in 2007. That year,
804:
Earnings were recorded at $ 2.650 billion for 2016.
533:
in Minnesota. This iron ore was shipped through the
2383:
World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks
2092:
World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks
1951:David R. Roediger and Philip Sheldon Foner (1989).
1664:
World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks
1624:
World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks
1508:
World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks
390:(Vereinigte Stahlwerke) in 1926 was modeled on the
2561:An Economic History of the American Steel Industry
2170:
1952:
1079:(HSL) and set up three steel plants in the 1950s.
2760:Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers
1791:. Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p. 381.
1718:The European Union and national industrial policy
1579:Annals of the Association of American Geographers
746:Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers
2460:British Iron and Sheet Steel Industry since 1840
2631:Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America
2592:The Iron and Steel Industry in the 20th Century
2044:. Kent State University Press. pp. 38–49.
2026:Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America
1344:. Abc.net.au. 29 September 1999. Archived from
2314:Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century
774:proposed a solution: consolidation. Financier
205:. However, the reforms were dismantled by the
2343:Pounds, Norman J. G., and William N. Parker;
1437:Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm
1311:Walsh Island Dockyard & Engineering Works
663:. Lauder devised several new systems for the
8:
2521:Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business
2108:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
1028:Ministry of International Trade and Industry
236:iron-making ventures during the 19th Century
35:History of the steel industry (1970–present)
2356:The Late Nineteenth Century, c 1850–c 1900,
2307:Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution
2193:Indian Economic & Social History Review
1422:(1952); Pounds and William N. Parker, ed.,
203:Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain
2340:(2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
1939:Labor in crisis: The steel strike of 1919.
1881:"$ in 1900 → 2015 | Inflation Calculator"
1223:Bronwyn H. Hall; Nathan Rosenberg (2010).
386:. The merger of four major firms into the
29:For the history of earlier processes, see
2684:Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919
1921:Edward W. Bemis, "The Homestead Strike,"
1566:European Historical Statistics: 1750–1970
288:. Griffith was also the architect of the
209:governments in the 1950s. In 1967, under
2554:Iron and Steel in the Nineteenth Century
811:
721:that would revolutionize naval warfare.
2726:(1963), primary and secondary documents
2623:(University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001)
2381:Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky.
1342:"Steel City without the Big Australian"
1226:Handbook of The Economics of Innovation
1175:
623:Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co.
2245:. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 226.
2090:W. S., Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky,
1815:ExplorePaHistory, s.v. Andrew Carnegie
1747:. Global Steel Monitor. Archived from
1716:Kassim, Hussein; Menon, Anand (1996).
1695:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 476–77.
1463:Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte
1013:post-World War II high-economic growth
908:union suppressed grassroots opinions.
896:in the late 1930s, when it set up the
529:, and, greatest of all, (in 1892) the
2693:(University of Minnesota Press, 2003)
2439:History of the British Steel Industry
2375:(2015) short, global popular history
1850:
1848:
1846:
1826:ExplorePaHistory.com, s.v. Steel City
1774:The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
1662:W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky,
1642:. U of Pittsburgh Press. p. 91.
1506:W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky,
1327:"Griffith, Arthur Hill (1861–1946)",
1048:The Bengal Iron Works was founded at
70:, iron was produced from iron ore as
45:began in the late 1850s. Since then,
7:
2654:Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie",
1196:Ro Lloyd-Jones; et al. (1998).
894:Congress of Industrial Organizations
378:plunged to 6 million in 1933. Under
43:history of the modern steel industry
18:History of the modern steel industry
2715:U.S. Commissioner of Corporations.
1158:Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation
1102:), with 10% of the world's output.
713:, spending significant time at the
2765:History of the United Steelworkers
2697:U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
2664:U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
2573:University of Nebraska Press, 1992
2218:. Allied Publishers. p. 550.
1329:Australian Dictionary of Biography
898:Steel Workers Organizing Committee
881:Labor history of the United States
843:Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation
599:In the 1880s, the transition from
25:
2316:, Indiana University Press, 1970.
2239:Isobel Doole; Robin Lowe (2008).
1923:The Journal of Political Economy,
1597:(4th ed. 1936), pp. 58–63, 235–43
1370:. Delisted.com.au. Archived from
1276:Carr and Taplin (1962) pp. 164–66
1250:Alan Milward; S. B. Saul (2012).
1148:American Iron and Steel Institute
937:. Smaller operations appeared in
573:wanted to work in the mills, but
324:, of a technique for 'separating
163:, a third of which came from the
2434:Cambridge University Press, 1961
2347:(Indiana University Press, 1957)
1426:(Indiana University Press, 1957)
1202:. Psychology Press. p. 93.
1044:Iron and steel industry in India
961:Jones and Laughlin Steel Company
694:was the largest manufacturer of
466:, exploiting ideas pioneered by
422:produced about a tenth as much.
242:but only on a very small scale.
272:The Minister for Public Works,
2494:(5 vol 1971) monumental detail
2441:Harvard University Press, 1962
986:President of the United States
906:United Steelworkers of America
670:Carnegie's first mill was the
312:near the western shore of the
1:
2215:Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography
1742:"Steel Exports Report: Italy"
322:Archibald Drummond Carmichael
31:History of ferrous metallurgy
2717:Report on the Steel Industry
2453:The history of British steel
2416:17#2 1947, pp. 95–102.
2350:Singer, Charles Joseph, ed.
2267:Journal of Political Economy
1860:www.slaverybyanothername.com
1492:Journal of Economic History,
1184:Journal of Transport History
887:American Federation of Labor
370:, which had been founded by
2437:Carr, J. C. and W. Taplin;
1925:(1894) 2#3 pp. 369–96
1476:Journal of Economic History
1060:(TISCO) was established by
1058:Tata Iron and Steel Company
791:William Henry "Judge" Moore
2786:
2549:(The Penguin Press, 2006).
2201:10.1177/001946461004800104
1788:The Encyclopedia Americana
1109:
1041:
1026:The government's activist
1000:
878:
853:
819:
758:
644:
569:. Manpower was short. Few
486:
33:. For recent history, see
28:
2169:Chalmers Johnson (1982).
1989:Investor's Business Daily
1405:Jay, Christopher. (1999)
1392:Jay, Christopher. (1999)
1256:. Routledge. p. 96.
1153:British Steel Corporation
366:quickly followed, as did
215:British Steel Corporation
2724:The Steel Strike of 1919
2455:(1974), well illustrated
2414:Economic History Review,
2354:(1960) ch 4, and vol 5:
2269:(2005) 113#4 pp. 840–77
2177:. Stanford U.P. p.
2066:The Steel Strike of 1919
2041:The World Of Cyrus Eaton
2038:Marcus Gleisser (2005).
1838:Technology & Culture
1552:(1975), 49#4 pp. 413–45
1550:Business History Review,
1331:, Volume 9, (MUP), 1983.
1229:. Elsevier. p. 29.
686:. He would also add the
255:Lithgow, New South Wales
247:William Sandford Limited
151:Britain led the world's
2635:excerpt and text search
2583:Skrabec Jr, Quentin R.
2565:excerpt and text search
2486:excerpt and text search
2394:excerpt and text search
2323:London: Routledge, 1999
2081:(2012) 53#2 pp. 167–204
2064:Colston E. Warne, ed.,
2012:(1972) 46#3 pp. 339–65
2010:Business History Review
1840:(1995) 36#2 pp. 271–301
1610:(1985) 9#3 pp. 307–38.
1581:47#1 (1957), pp. 3–14.
1494:(1979) 39#4 pp. 911–37
1478:(1980) 40#2 pp. 309–30
1112:Steel industry in China
1077:Hindustan Steel Limited
1003:Steel industry in Japan
782:in charge. The massive
575:immigrants from Britain
502:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
464:hydro-electrical energy
199:Iron and Steel Act 1949
156:industrial revolution.
127:open-hearth steelmaking
2722:Warne, Colston E. ed.
2604:Wall, Joseph Frazier.
2540:The Dominance of Rails
2523:, 2nd Edition (1999).
2360:online at ACLS e-books
2312:Bernal, John Desmond,
1805:(1993) 34#4 pp. 457–69
1636:Anthony Daley (1996).
1608:Social Science History
1465:(1984) 29#2 pp. 73–113
1313:, Newcastle, 1910-1919
817:
711:Carnegie Steel Company
704:Carnegie Steel Company
692:Carnegie Steel Company
665:Carnegie Steel Company
642:
506:
459:
347:unification of Germany
132:Siemens-Martin process
54:'s development of the
2755:History of industries
2750:History of metallurgy
2745:Industrial Revolution
2689:Mary Margaret Fonow;
2576:Scheuerman, William.
2388:Yonekura, Seiichiro.
2212:Sankar Ghose (1993).
2104:Smil, Vaclav (2006).
1885:www.in2013dollars.com
1720:. London: Routledge.
1679:1992 15(58): 789–823.
1666:(1953) pp. 1121, 1124
1523:(2003) 45#3 pp. 22–51
1439:(Princeton U.P. 2012)
1418:Norman J. G. Pounds,
1289:(1996) 38#1 pp. 45–76
815:
742:Homestead Steel Works
719:Homestead Steel Works
680:Homestead Steel Works
640:
601:wrought iron puddling
496:
450:
357:The leading firm was
222:re-privatized BSC as
153:Industrial Revolution
2590:Seely, Bruce E., ed
2444:Tweedale, Geoffrey.
2371:Stoddard, Brooke C.
2326:Hasegawa, Harukiyu.
2319:D’Costa, Anthony P.
2155:Seiichiro Yonekura,
2094:(1953) pp. 1098–143,
1448:William Manchester,
1032:Yawata Steel Company
798:Steel Strike of 1919
519:Marquette Iron Range
297:Newcastle Steelworks
274:Arthur Hill Griffith
265:, to a new plant at
234:There were various
136:electric arc furnace
74:, 99.82–100 percent
2701:Urofsky, Melvin I.
2668:Urofsky, Melvin I.
2569:Scamehorn, H. Lee.
2519:Livesay, Harold C.
2470:Economic geography.
2195:(2011) 48: 83–116,
2133:Wall Street Journal
1186:(1986) 7#1 pp 18-31
939:Birmingham, Alabama
902:Little Steel strike
698:, steel rails, and
672:Edgar Thomson Works
397:consumer capitalism
80:cementation process
2587:(McFarland, 2012).
2559:Rogers, Robert P.
2538:(1995) Chapter 1 "
2490:Hogan, William T.
2448:(Oxford U.P. 1995)
2409:(Routledge, 2013).
2365:2006-11-30 at the
1912:Quentin R. Skrabec
1689:Yves Mény (1987).
1626:(1953) pp. 1114–17
1304:2013-11-23 at the
1125:Great Leap Forward
912:Apogee and decline
818:
643:
507:
460:
414:(1948–51) enabled
388:German Steel Trust
359:Friedrich Krupp AG
207:Conservative Party
56:Bessemer converter
2639:Warren, Kenneth.
2629:Warren, Kenneth.
2619:Warren, Kenneth,
2552:Paskoff, Paul F.
2458:Warren, Kenneth.
2309:(2nd edn., 1951).
1959:. Verso. p.
1568:(1975) pp. 400–02
1521:Business History,
839:Elbert Henry Gary
827:Charles M. Schwab
768:Charles M. Schwab
537:to ports such as
454:exhibited at the
251:Eskbank Ironworks
224:British Steel plc
220:Margaret Thatcher
186:Victorian England
16:(Redirected from
2777:
2534:Misa, Thomas J.
2497:Ingham, John N.
2334:Landes, David S.
2293:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2273:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2236:
2230:
2229:
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2166:
2160:
2153:
2147:
2142:
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2129:
2123:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2101:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2075:
2069:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2035:
2029:
2024:Kenneth Warren,
2022:
2016:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1958:
1948:
1942:
1935:
1929:
1919:
1913:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1895:
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1783:
1777:
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1764:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1754:on 23 April 2019
1753:
1746:
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1731:
1713:
1707:
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1686:
1680:
1677:Società e Storia
1673:
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1654:
1653:
1633:
1627:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1598:
1591:
1585:
1575:
1569:
1564:B. R. Mitchell,
1562:
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1338:
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1322:
1316:
1296:
1290:
1287:Business History
1283:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1193:
1187:
1180:
1132:economic reforms
1116:Communist party
1073:Jawaharlal Nehru
829:(1862–1939) and
737:Homestead Strike
653:Bessemer process
571:Native Americans
472:Stassano furnace
468:Ernesto Stassano
452:Stassano furnace
433:Great Depression
408:Second World War
194:Second World War
115:Bessemer process
105:was centered in
21:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2730:
2729:
2712:
2710:Primary sources
2679:
2606:Andrew Carnegie
2547:Andrew Carnegie
2480:Hoerr, John P.
2477:
2402:
2367:Wayback Machine
2302:
2297:
2296:
2289:
2285:
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2190:
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2130:
2126:
2118:John P. Hoerr,
2117:
2113:
2103:
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2089:
2085:
2076:
2072:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2037:
2036:
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2023:
2019:
2007:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1937:David Brody, .
1936:
1932:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:Andrew Carnegie
1902:
1898:
1889:
1887:
1879:
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1874:
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1863:
1854:
1853:
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1661:
1657:
1650:
1635:
1634:
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1617:
1605:
1601:
1593:J. H. Clapham,
1592:
1588:
1576:
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1387:
1377:
1375:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1349:
1348:on 8 March 2000
1340:
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1306:Wayback Machine
1297:
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1071:Prime Minister
1046:
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999:
994:
982:
914:
883:
877:
858:
852:
835:Bethlehem Steel
824:
822:Bethlehem Steel
810:
808:Bethlehem Steel
763:
757:
684:lake steamships
649:
647:Andrew Carnegie
635:
610:
586:Andrew Carnegie
498:Bethlehem Steel
491:
485:
445:
428:
338:
318:South Australia
292:establishment.
259:Charles Hoskins
232:
182:
174:First World War
149:
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64:
38:
23:
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11:
5:
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2740:Steel industry
2732:
2731:
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2727:
2720:
2711:
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2706:
2699:
2694:
2687:
2682:Brody, David.
2678:
2675:
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2661:
2652:
2637:
2627:
2617:
2602:
2597:Temin, Peter.
2595:
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2545:Nasaw, David.
2543:
2532:
2517:
2504:Krass, Peter.
2502:
2495:
2488:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2456:
2449:
2442:
2435:
2430:Burn, Duncan.
2428:
2423:Burn, Duncan.
2421:
2410:
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1862:. 16 July 2001
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1510:(1953) p. 1118
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1435:Harold James,
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1374:on 6 July 2011
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1299:Cameron, David
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1134:brought in by
1110:Main article:
1107:
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1066:British Empire
1042:Main article:
1039:
1036:
1001:Main article:
998:
995:
993:
990:
981:
978:
913:
910:
879:Main article:
876:
873:
869:Republic Steel
856:Republic Steel
854:Main article:
851:
850:Republic Steel
848:
820:Main article:
809:
806:
772:Carnegie Steel
759:Main article:
756:
753:
688:Duquesne Works
645:Main article:
634:
631:
609:
606:
484:
481:
476:Ilva (company)
444:
441:
427:
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384:Allied bombing
372:August Thyssen
337:
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326:zinc sulphides
282:William Holman
280:, then, under
240:steel was made
231:
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119:Henry Bessemer
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52:Henry Bessemer
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2300:Bibliography
2286:
2277:
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2025:
2020:
2009:
2004:
1993:. Retrieved
1991:. 2017-01-31
1988:
1979:
1954:
1946:
1938:
1933:
1922:
1917:
1908:
1899:
1888:. Retrieved
1884:
1875:
1864:. Retrieved
1859:
1837:
1832:
1821:
1810:
1802:
1797:
1787:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1756:. Retrieved
1749:the original
1736:
1717:
1711:
1691:
1684:
1676:
1671:
1663:
1658:
1638:
1631:
1623:
1618:
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1589:
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1444:
1436:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1406:
1401:
1393:
1388:
1376:. Retrieved
1372:the original
1362:
1350:. Retrieved
1346:the original
1336:
1328:
1320:
1308:
1294:
1286:
1281:
1272:
1252:
1245:
1225:
1218:
1198:
1191:
1183:
1178:
1129:
1115:
1088:Mittal Steel
1081:
1070:
1062:Dorabji Tata
1047:
1025:
1017:shipbuilding
1006:
983:
973:ThyssenKrupp
970:
965:Marathon Oil
958:
955:
947:
931:Philadelphia
915:
891:
884:
865:Warren, Ohio
859:
831:Eugene Grace
825:
803:
795:
788:
776:J. P. Morgan
764:
750:
744:between the
734:
727:
723:
708:
676:Braddock, PA
669:
650:
611:
598:
583:
559:Pennsylvania
531:Mesabi range
512:
508:
461:
437:World War II
429:
420:East Germany
416:West Germany
405:
401:
376:
356:
339:
314:Spencer Gulf
310:Iron Monarch
294:
290:Walsh Island
271:
244:
233:
211:Labour Party
191:
183:
180:20th century
170:
158:
150:
147:19th century
124:
96:
92:wrought iron
91:
87:
72:wrought iron
71:
65:
42:
39:
26:
1368:"One Steel"
1325:Nairn, Bede
1164:Steelmaking
1160:, in Canada
1084:Corus Group
1021:automobiles
861:Cyrus Eaton
780:Elbert Gary
730:Eads Bridge
661:Lord Kelvin
588:, who made
535:Great Lakes
470:from 1898 (
342:Ruhr Valley
267:Port Kembla
103:Steelmaking
2770:U.S. Steel
2734:Categories
2677:U.S. Labor
2649:0198232144
2468:0713515481
1995:2017-10-01
1890:2017-10-01
1866:2017-10-01
1170:References
1121:Mao Zedong
1098:(based in
1090:(based in
1086:. In 2006
943:California
784:Gary Works
627:U.S. Steel
590:Pittsburgh
487:See also:
392:U.S. Steel
368:Thyssen AG
62:Technology
1538:0342-2852
941:, and in
927:Baltimore
923:St. Louis
547:Cleveland
380:Nazi rule
306:Iron Knob
278:Newcastle
230:Australia
107:Sheffield
99:cast iron
2643:(1973) (
2608:(1989).
2508:(2002).
2506:Carnegie
2363:Archived
2271:in JSTOR
2014:in JSTOR
1927:in JSTOR
1758:16 March
1612:in JSTOR
1554:in JSTOR
1496:in JSTOR
1480:in JSTOR
1378:18 April
1352:18 April
1302:Archived
1142:See also
1118:Chairman
761:US Steel
755:US Steel
696:pig iron
633:Carnegie
618:Blackmon
594:US Steel
301:OneSteel
161:pig iron
88:pig iron
84:pig iron
2719:(1913).
2633:(2010)
2563:(2009)
2484:(1988)
2462:(1970)
2400:Britain
2392:(1994)
2377:excerpt
2028:(2008).
1941:(1965).
935:Buffalo
919:Chicago
614:Alabama
608:Alabama
579:Germany
555:Buffalo
543:Detroit
539:Chicago
523:Gogebic
458:, Milan
336:Germany
249:at the
142:Britain
2705:(1969)
2686:(1965)
2672:(1969)
2659:online
2647:
2612:
2601:(1964)
2580:(1986)
2527:
2512:
2501:(1978)
2466:
2427:(1961)
2418:online
2358:ch 3;
2249:
2222:
2159:(1994)
2122:(1988)
2048:
1967:
1724:
1699:
1646:
1583:online
1536:
1452:(1968)
1260:
1233:
1206:
1092:London
1054:Bengal
1009:feudal
980:Legacy
875:Unions
565:, and
527:Cuyuna
426:France
238:, and
1752:(PDF)
1745:(PDF)
1130:With
1106:China
1050:Kulti
1038:India
997:Japan
796:The
715:Krupp
443:Italy
47:steel
2645:ISBN
2610:ISBN
2525:ISBN
2510:ISBN
2464:ISBN
2330:1996
2247:ISBN
2220:ISBN
2046:ISBN
1965:ISBN
1760:2018
1722:ISBN
1697:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1534:ISSN
1380:2011
1354:2011
1258:ISBN
1231:ISBN
1204:ISBN
992:Asia
984:The
933:and
885:The
735:The
700:coke
577:and
567:Ohio
553:and
551:Erie
505:2003
435:and
340:The
308:and
109:and
2197:doi
1961:350
925:to
921:to
770:of
674:in
625:,
612:In
500:in
364:GHH
316:in
286:BHP
253:at
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2420:.
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2181:.
2054:.
1998:.
1973:.
1893:.
1869:.
1762:.
1730:.
1705:.
1652:.
1382:.
1356:.
1266:.
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37:.
20:)
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