825:; where it had been stated at Article 6 that the killing of hostages was itself a war crime. "War crimes: namely, violations of the laws or customs of war. Such violations shall include, but not be limited to, murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave labour or for any other purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory, murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war or persons on the seas, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity." The prosecution case had advanced these principles as establishing the inherent criminality of hostage killing; and in rejecting these arguments the tribunal must be considered to have been asserting that the Nuremberg principles could and should be overruled in the circumstances of this case. Nevertheless, even though the tribunal maintained the potential legality of hostage killing, this did not lead them to dismiss the charges of mass murder against the defendants - with the possible exception of von Leyser.
829:.. an examination of the judgment shows that the Tribunal’s conclusion that the killing of hostages and reprisal prisoners may in certain circumstances be legal has not been the reason for a finding of not guilty regarding any of the accused in the trial with the possible exception of the defendant von Leyser, of whom the Tribunal said : “ The evidence concerning the killing of hostages and reprisal prisoners within the corps area is so fragmentary that we cannot say that the evidence is sufficient to support a finding that the measures taken were unlawful. The killing of hostages and reprisal prisoners is entirely lawful under certain circumstances. The evidence does not satisfactorily show in what respect, if any, the law was violated. This is a burden cast upon the prosecution which it has failed to sustain.”
31:
222:
considerable suspicion. The judges ruled that captured partisan or guerrilla resistance fighters could never expect to be given the protected status of prisoners of war, and could lawfully be executed without trial. Furthermore, the judges departed explicitly from the
Nuremberg Principles established in the International Military Tribunal, in ruling that the killing of hostages and reprisal killings of innocent individual civilians might be lawful if undertaken by an occupying power as a response to resistance forces engaging in partisan warfare, albeit subject to stringent constraints. Following the judgement, Justice Charles Wennerstrum gave an interview to the
808:
indictment because it considered the acts committed by the German troops to be in excess of the rules under which the tribunal considered hostage taking and reprisal killings lawful; in particular that a clear connection between the populations from whom hostages had been taken and the populations within which guerrilla forces were continuing to shelter, had not been established through some form of judicial hearing; and also that, as deliberate policy the numbers of civilians killed in reprisals by troops under the command of the defendants had disproportionately exceeded the numbers of deaths due to guerrilla action in the occupying forces.
471:
354:
619:
397:
584:
273:
434:
656:
691:
548:
847:, demanding multiple deaths of civilians in reprisal for every German casualty. The tribunal recognized this defense only for some of the lower-ranked defendants, but concluded that in particular the highest-ranking officers, List and Kuntze, should have been well aware of the fact that these orders violated international law and thus should have opposed the execution of these orders, even more so as they were in a position that would have allowed them to do so.
309:
813:
against the occupation forces committed at some other place. To permit such a practice would conflict with the basic theory that sustains the practice in that there would be no deterrent effect upon the community where the offence was committed. Neither may the shooting of innocent members of the population as a reprisal measure exceed in severity the unlawful acts it is designed to correct.
167:
511:
768:
subsequently concealed their weapons, resumed everyday clothing, and mingled with non-combatant civilians. For the tribunal, all forms of civilian armed resistance to occupation forces were unlawful, and consequently captured partisans who had hidden within or behind civilian populations could lawfully be executed as war criminals without formal trial.
763:), the partisan fighters in southeast Europe could not be considered lawful belligerents under Article 1 of the convention even though most had worn distinctive military insignia in combat (a Red Star sewn onto a uniform cap) and many had fought in military uniform of one form or another, as most fought as
798:
Regarding hostage taking and the retrospective killing of civilians in reprisal for guerrilla actions, the tribunal came to the conclusion that under certain circumstances, hostage taking and even reprisal killings might constitute a lawful course of action as an effective deterrent against guerrilla
228:
in which he accused the prosecution of failing "to maintain objectivity aloof from vindictiveness, aloof from personal ambitions for convictions" and dismissed the whole
Nuremberg exercise as "victors justice". He proposed that many of the German Jewish emigrants employed in the prosecution office
859:
was a sovereign entity capable of acting independently of the German military (Germany recognised the
Croatian government on 15 April 1941). It concluded that it was not and that military occupation depended not on the physical deployment of troops, as they could be redeployed into the territory at
767:
and as such could not consistently conform to all the conditions of belligerency laid down in the Hague
Regulations for regular forces. Irregular forces who engaged in guerrilla warfare - even if they did so in uniform and carried their arms openly in combat - could not be lawful combatants if they
221:
The judges were all from the
American Midwest and represented a more conservative perspective on the Nuremberg trial proceedings from that taken by the East Coast judges who had presided over earlier trials in the series. In particular the judges were inclined to treat the prosecution case with
812:
As in the case of the taking of hostages, reprisal prisoners may not be shot unless it can be shown that the population, as a whole is a party to the offence, either actively or passively. In other words, members of the population of one community cannot properly be shot in reprisal for an act
778:... guerrillas may render great service to their country and, in the event of success, become heroes even, still they remain war criminals in the eyes of the enemy and may be treated as such. In no other way can an army guard and protect itself from the gadfly tactics of such armed resistance."
807:
permitted the taking of reprisals to deter a civilian population threatening continued armed resistance. (The
British manual did not mention killing, but the US manual included killing as a possible reprisal.) Nevertheless, the tribunal still found most of the accused guilty on count 1 of the
99:; and they were charged with ordering the hostage-taking of civilians and wanton shootings of these hostages, the reprisal killings of civilians, and the killing without trial of captured "partisans", as perpetrated by German troops there in the years in 1941 and later. The defendant
772:
German soldiers were the victims of surprise attacks by an enemy which they could not engage in open combat. After a surprise attack, the bands would hastily retreat or conceal their arms and mingle with the population with the appearance of being harmless members
860:
will, but on the control exercised by the occupying power. It followed that as the area remained under the control of the occupying power therefore "Logic and reason dictate that the occupant could not lawfully do indirectly that which it could not do directly".
229:
were of suspect loyalty to the United States; "The whole atmosphere here is unwholesome.... Lawyers, clerks, interpreters and researchers are employed who became
Americans only in recent years; whose backgrounds were embedded in Europe's hatreds and prejudices."
799:
attacks. In the tribunal's opinion, taking hostages against armed civilian resistance (and killing them should guerrilla attacks continue) could be legitimate, subject to several conditions. The tribunal observed that both the
748:
be "lawful belligerents" and thus entitled the protected status of prisoners of war; and was that status dependent on whether they fought in uniform or wearing distinctive military insignia?
158:
was severed from the trial for medical reasons. Of the remaining ten defendants, two were acquitted; the others received prison sentences ranging from seven years to lifetime imprisonment.
1280:
1140:
1500:
794:
who, upon capture, could be subjected to the death penalty. Consequently, no criminal responsibility attaches to the defendant List because of the execution of captured partisans...
751:
Could taking (and potentially killing) civilian hostages, and retrospective reprisals against civilians, be lawful as a "defense" against guerrilla attacks and partisan warfare?
1712:
202:
Murder and ill-treatment of prisoners of war, and arbitrarily designating combatants as "partisans", denying them the status of prisoners of war, as well as their killing.
1631:
83:
This case is also known as the "Southeast Case" because all of the defendants had once been German generals leading the troops in
Southeastern Europe during the
1133:
30:
103:
was further charged in respect of the 'scorched earth' total destruction of all towns, settlements and civil infrastructure in the
Norwegian county of
1126:
918:
962:
940:
1674:
913:
901:
1481:
1245:
907:
1250:
1078:
1055:
760:
630:
1555:
559:
324:
84:
69:
470:
353:
372:
618:
1641:
1067:
73:
856:
482:
396:
146:
was filed on May 10, 1947; the trial lasted from July 8, 1947, until
February 19, 1948. Of the 12 defendants indicted,
1626:
1540:
1240:
1218:
869:
583:
77:
1105:
1070:
1047:
896:
1621:
433:
272:
1265:
1081:
original source: United Nations War Crimes Commission. Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals. Volume VIII, 1949
1058:
original source: United Nations War Crimes Commission. Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals. Volume VIII, 1949
1722:
1717:
192:
of hundreds of thousands of civilians in Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia by having ordered hostage taking and
696:
1666:
1178:
182:
139:
655:
1689:
1421:
1333:
1212:
874:
690:
111:
1681:
950:
314:
284:
155:
1585:
547:
412:, successor of List as Commander in Chief South-East and head of the 12th Army as of October 29, 1941
127:
1658:
1636:
1595:
1570:
1535:
1436:
1388:
1168:
1090:
818:
661:
408:
320:
80:" or, more formally, as the "Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals" (NMT).
1550:
1530:
1411:
1341:
879:
745:
522:
1575:
1545:
206:
48:) was held from 8 July 1947 until 19 February 1948 and was the seventh of the twelve trials for
1102:
199:
Plundering and wanton destruction of villages and towns in Norway, Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia.
1590:
1458:
1200:
1194:
1163:
958:
936:
834:
173:
is handed the indictment in the Hostages Trial. Standing beside him is Maximilian von Weichs.
1525:
1441:
1426:
1235:
1149:
822:
624:
439:
1305:
1300:
1109:
1074:
1051:
368:
359:
224:
119:
100:
1600:
1560:
1520:
1515:
1446:
1416:
1325:
1295:
1260:
1255:
844:
791:
516:
476:
308:
147:
135:
1706:
1580:
1565:
1431:
1401:
1206:
402:
329:
53:
839:
they stated that they were only following orders from higher up, in particular from
1378:
1368:
1349:
1270:
840:
589:
445:
278:
170:
65:
1406:
1373:
756:
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501:
189:
151:
1044:
302:
Life imprisonment; released in December 1952 for medical reasons; died in 1971
1486:
1396:
1173:
933:
The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law
178:
166:
143:
96:
68:. These twelve trials were all held before US military courts, not before the
17:
787:
764:
755:
On the question of partisans, the tribunal concluded that under the current
510:
61:
49:
283:
Field Marshal, Commander in Chief South-East 1941–1942, head of the German
213:
All defendants were indicted on all counts and all pleaded "not guilty".
193:
131:
123:
104:
92:
57:
427:
Life imprisonment; released in 1953 for medical reasons; died in 1960
88:
1118:
165:
29:
704:, Chief of Staff of the military commanders in Serbia and Greece
817:
Notably, the tribunal refused to take any regard at all for the
115:
110:
The judges in this case, heard before Military Tribunal V, were
1122:
541:
15 years; commuted to 10 years; released in 1951; died in 1965
390:
20 years; commuted to 10 years; released in 1951; died in 1971
897:
Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. VIII, 1949
1045:
The hostages trial, trial of Wilhelm List and others: Notes
1023:(revised ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 135.
1008:(revised ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 134.
990:(revised ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 133.
34:
Defendants in the dock and their lawyers during the trial
955:
The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence
740:
The tribunal had to deal with two pressing questions:
375:
and all German troops stationed in Finland and Norway
76:. The twelve US trials are collectively known as the "
855:
The Tribunal considered the question of whether the
347:
Removed from the trial due to illness; died in 1954
45:
The United States of America v. Wilhelm List, et al.
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1387:
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1314:
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1021:
Law and War: International Law and American History
1006:
Law and War: International Law and American History
988:
Law and War: International Law and American History
371:in Yugoslavia 1943–44; from 1944, Commander of the
177:The accused faced four charges of having committed
999:
997:
953:(2016). "East by South-East: The Military Cases".
833:One common line of defense of the accused was the
1632:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
1103:Part IV: Legal status of the Croatian Government
134:. The Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was
1091:Basic Field Manuel & Rules of Land Warfare
500:Committed suicide on May 30, 1947 (before the
1134:
821:established previously in the Charter of the
205:Murder, torture, deportation, and sending to
56:authorities held in their occupation zone in
27:1947–8 war crimes trial in Nuremberg, Germany
8:
634:, corps commander under Rendulic and Böhme
209:of Greek, Albanian, and Yugoslav civilians.
1713:United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals
1505:
1318:
1285:
1141:
1127:
1119:
1068:The law relating to hostages and reprisals
805:Basic Field Manual (Rules of Land Warfare)
72:, but took place in the same rooms at the
684:20 years; released in 1951; died in 1970
649:10 years; released in 1951; died in 1962
577:12 years; released in 1951; died in 1982
485:(1940–43), successor of Rendulic in 1944
138:, the chief prosecutor for this case was
910:from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum.
612:7 years; released in 1951; died in 1970
236:
978:
669:, military commander in Greece 1942-44
319:Field Marshal, commander of the German
919:Nuremberg Trial Transcript Collection
251:
245:
242:
7:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
902:United Nations War Crimes Commission
851:Clarification of military occupation
1482:Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
732:— Indicted and found guilty
728:— Indicted
449:, Chief of Staff of the 12th Army
25:
1079:University of the West of England
1056:University of the West of England
786:We are obliged to hold that such
761:Hague Convention No. IV from 1907
597:, corps commander under Rendulic
689:
654:
617:
582:
546:
509:
469:
432:
395:
352:
307:
271:
1556:Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier
823:International Military Tribunal
526:; commander in southern Greece
315:Maximilian von Weichs
70:International Military Tribunal
801:British Manual of Military Law
782:On List, the tribunal stated:
1:
891:
150:committed suicide before the
1627:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
246:Function at time of offense
1541:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
1219:Auguste Champetier de Ribes
957:. Oxford University Press.
935:. Oxford University Press.
870:Subsequent Nuremberg Trials
78:Subsequent Nuremberg Trials
1739:
1622:international criminal law
931:Heller, Kevin Jon (2011).
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1677:" (1959 television play)
1093:paragraph 358.d, page 89
836:Plea of Superior Orders:
719:Acquitted; died in 1968
464:Acquitted; died in 1961
1179:Crimes against humanity
1019:Maguire, Peter (2010).
1004:Maguire, Peter (2010).
986:Maguire, Peter (2010).
697:Kurt Ritter von Geitner
183:crimes against humanity
114:(presiding judge) from
107:in the winter of 1944.
1422:Joachim von Ribbentrop
1334:Konstantin von Neurath
951:Priemel, Kim Christian
875:Command responsibility
831:
815:
796:
780:
775:
631:General der Infanterie
174:
140:Theodore Fenstermacher
112:Charles F. Wennerstrum
35:
1682:Judgment at Nuremberg
1675:Judgment at Nuremberg
827:
810:
784:
776:
770:
169:
156:Maximilian von Weichs
33:
1659:That Justice Be Done
1637:Nuremberg principles
1596:Seweryna Szmaglewska
1571:Friedrich von Paulus
1437:Arthur Seyss-Inquart
1169:Crimes against peace
1112:of the Hostage Trial
819:Nuremberg principles
483:XVIII Mountain Corps
409:General der Pioniere
1531:Walter Schellenberg
1412:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
1342:Baldur von Schirach
1213:François de Menthon
914:Another description
880:Kragujevac massacre
560:XXII Mountain Corps
523:General der Flieger
367:, Commander of the
327:with the rank of a
207:concentration camps
1670:(1947 documentary)
1576:Erich Buschenhagen
1241:Alexander Volchkov
1108:2005-02-08 at the
1073:2005-02-08 at the
1050:2005-02-08 at the
843:and Field Marshal
373:20th Mountain Army
175:
36:
1700:
1699:
1693:(2000 miniseries)
1609:
1608:
1591:Abraham Sutzkever
1495:
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1470:
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1463:
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1354:
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1338:
1330:
1246:Geoffrey Lawrence
1201:Hartley Shawcross
1195:Robert H. Jackson
1188:Chief prosecutors
1164:Nuremberg Charter
964:978-0-19-256374-3
942:978-0-19-955431-7
723:
722:
74:Palace of Justice
64:after the end of
42:(or, officially,
16:(Redirected from
1730:
1667:Nuremberg Trials
1586:Eugene Kivelisha
1526:Dieter Wisliceny
1506:
1461:
1449:
1442:Julius Streicher
1427:Alfred Rosenberg
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1236:Iona Nikitchenko
1203:(United Kingdom)
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625:Ernst von Leyser
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440:Hermann Foertsch
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325:Balkans Campaign
311:
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128:Edward F. Carter
85:Balkans Campaign
21:
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1723:1948 in Germany
1718:1947 in Germany
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1536:Alois Hollriege
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1306:Hjalmar Schacht
1301:Franz von Papen
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925:Further reading
888:
866:
853:
738:
662:Wilhelm Speidel
558:General of the
481:General of the
369:2nd Panzer Army
360:Lothar Rendulic
235:
225:Chicago Tribune
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164:
120:George J. Burke
101:Lothar Rendulic
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22:
15:
12:
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792:francs tireurs
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517:Hellmuth Felmy
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1207:Roman Rudenko
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803:and the U.S.
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403:Walter Kuntze
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365:Generaloberst
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330:Generaloberst
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18:Hostages case
1688:
1680:
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1642:Bibliography
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1379:Erich Raeder
1369:Walther Funk
1350:Albert Speer
1271:Robert Falco
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702:Generalmajor
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667:Generalmajor
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595:Generalmajor
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590:Ernst Dehner
521:
446:Generalmajor
444:
407:
364:
328:
279:Wilhelm List
223:
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176:
171:Wilhelm List
109:
82:
66:World War II
44:
43:
39:
37:
1685:(1961 film)
1662:(1945 film)
1546:Franz Blaha
1509:Prosecution
1475:No decision
1452:in absentia
1407:Alfred Jodl
1374:Rudolf Hess
1326:Karl Dönitz
1157:Legal basis
908:Description
757:laws of war
554:Hubert Lanz
502:arraignment
477:Franz Böhme
323:during the
190:Mass murder
152:arraignment
148:Franz Böhme
1707:Categories
1487:Robert Ley
1397:Hans Frank
1353:(20 years)
1345:(20 years)
1337:(15 years)
1329:(10 years)
1281:Defendants
1174:War crimes
892:(WCC 1949)
886:References
788:guerrillas
765:guerrillas
562:(1943–45)
233:Defendants
179:war crimes
162:Indictment
144:indictment
97:Yugoslavia
87:, i.e. in
50:war crimes
1690:Nuremberg
1614:Aftermath
1501:Witnesses
1462:(suicide)
1315:Sentenced
1289:Acquitted
973:Footnotes
773:thereof."
746:partisans
285:12th Army
252:Sentence
240:Portrait
196:killings.
62:Nuremberg
1221:(France)
1215:(France)
1106:Archived
1077:held at
1071:Archived
1054:held at
1048:Archived
864:See also
321:2nd Army
287:in 1941
249:Charges
194:reprisal
132:Nebraska
124:Michigan
105:Finnmark
900:of the
736:Verdict
93:Albania
58:Germany
1229:Judges
961:
939:
845:Keitel
841:Hitler
744:Could
217:Judges
154:, and
142:. The
126:, and
89:Greece
1651:Films
1389:Death
790:were
759:(the
243:Name
130:from
122:from
52:that
1362:Life
959:ISBN
937:ISBN
181:and
116:Iowa
95:and
38:The
60:in
1709::
1029:^
996:^
894::
716:I
681:I
646:G
609:I
574:I
538:I
504:)
497:I
461:I
424:G
387:G
344:I
299:I
266:4
185::
118:,
91:,
1673:"
1454:)
1450:(
1142:e
1135:t
1128:v
967:.
945:.
904:.
730:G
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713:I
710:I
707:I
678:I
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672:G
643:G
640:I
637:I
606:I
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600:G
571:G
568:I
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535:I
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529:G
494:I
491:I
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458:I
455:I
452:I
421:G
418:I
415:G
384:G
381:I
378:G
341:I
338:I
335:I
296:G
293:I
290:G
263:3
260:2
257:1
20:)
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