783:, a god of family. This ritual includes the performance of a song describing a horse who falls in love with a young human girl and is flayed alive; the girl falls ill, but is cured when the horse descends from heaven and flies her to India. The story is told through a dance including sticks with the heads of a horse and human girl on each side. This dance is known as the Ebisu Mai, or the "God of wealth dance," and it is said that the dolls become possessed by kami spirits during the performance.
197:, women were expected to contribute to family wages. However, blind women of the era had limited opportunities to support themselves or their families. The reputation of blindness and spiritual abilities led many families to seek training for young girls, typically aged 11 to 13, in a folk religious tradition in which the young girl was wed to a deity, and there on able to communicate with spirits. Despite this power, blind women who became
667:, said to be relayed by the contacted spirit. The spirit of the dead arrives and shares memories of its life and the afterlife, answering questions for patrons. Then, the spirits are sent away, and songs are sung about "hell, insects, and birds." A final spell is repeated three times: “The old fox in the Shinoda woods, when he cries during the day, then he does not cry in the night”. The interaction lasts about 15 minutes.
968:
33:
531:
659:. Gods are called forward and asked to compel the desired spirit or ghost to come forward. Calling the dead usually involves calling upon a hierarchy of spirits in reverse order, beginning with kami and rising to the level of ghosts. Then, the local kami is called forward to protect those attending the ceremony. During the summoning of the deceased (
422:. According to this legend, the practice began in an undetermined era when blind children were killed every 5 years. A local official, impressed with a blind woman's ability to describe her environment despite her lack of vision, determined that the blind must have special powers. Rather than being killed, he pressed for the blind to study
262:
and the arrest of prostitutes. One editorial wrote, "These miko disgorge reckless and empty gossip, squeezing the pockets of the common people, and prostitutes tempt loose men and rob them of their money. While the professions are different, they are the same in disrupting public morals and deceiving
994:
holiday, which is the traditional day on which spirits of the dead return. They also attend the summer festival at
Kawakura Sainokawara. Despite the disavowal of many religious organizations and temples in Japan, both events have become tourist attractions that attract crowds of hundreds. The local
720:
is a ceremony performed for mothers who have lost their children in childbirth or through abortions. The ritual, Buddhist in nature, gives the unborn or stillborn child a name, and then calls upon the protection of the spirit Jizo. The ceremony is considered by many to be a scam preying on grieving
192:
are always blind, or have very poor vision. In pre-modern
Japanese society, blindness was widely associated with spiritual capabilities; after the introduction of Buddhism, it was considered evidence of a karmic debt. These beliefs lent an aura of "ambiguous sacred status" to the blind. During the
863:
was often paid for with contributions from villagers, rather than the family. Common aspects of initiation practices for these women were seen among those training in
Yamagata, Aomori, and Miyagi prefectures in the 1920s and 1930s. They are trained in various practices, including memorization of
838:
ceremony makes several references to the plucked bow. The chant announces that the first pluck of the string calls down the gods of the village, the second calls down the gods of the prefecture, and the third calls the gods of all prefectures in Japan. Additional notes summon more powerful gods,
213:, male monks who were encountered during popular pilgrimages to the Kumano mountains in the 9th–10th centuries. These monks had wives who traveled with them, selling amulets and channeling the dead through trances. Meanwhile, women in the north performed the dances and rituals of shrine
921:
for several days, similar to a burial gown. She is not permitted to consume grain, salt, or meat, and must avoid artificial heat for three weeks before the ceremony. The lead-up to the ceremony had been described as incorporating "sleeplessness, semi-starvation and intense cold."
851:
training at a young age, prior to menstruation, at the encouragement of her parents. Before the introduction of special education programs in Japan, this was a choice made by the family to assure that a blind daughter could contribute to the household. Adopting the role of a
748:, a celebration of the New Year delivered in travels at the start of Spring. The chant mixes Buddhist references (such as peacocks) and aspects of the Japanese national anthem. Scholars suggest the language reveals the chant is derived from songs associated with the
149:
Scholars suggest that blindness has long been associated with spiritual powers in Japan. Furthermore, options for those with severe vision impairment to become self-sufficient were limited in ancient times. This led many families to send young blind women to
894:, which in its most extreme form can involve complete, sustained drenching by ice-cold water for a period of several days. These rituals are observed by the community, which prays for a fast resolution through the early arrival of a marrying deity.
549:
are called upon to communicate with kami spirits to garner favor or advisement on harvests, or to communicate with the spirits of the dead, particularly the recently deceased. The rituals typically take place on
825:'s sound in conjunction with the possession of a medium and the channeling of the dead. Another poem describes the sound of the instrument as a reflection of his wife's spirit possessing the instrument. The
133:
traditionally began at a very young age, and included ritualized exposure to cold water. Hundreds of buckets of ice water could be poured on their bodies over the course of a few days. This education for
347:
place the animal's skull into a box and offer its spirit a daily offering of food. In return, the spirit enters homes of her patrons and provides detailed information about the dead.
286:
and shaman in other prefectures, and that "persecution would be counterproductive". News stories reported locals occasionally interfering with the police attempts to arrest prominent
377:, which are used in ceremonies and made up of beads and animal bones. The bones are typically jaw bones of deer or foxes, but have also included bear teeth, eagle claws, or shells.
721:
mothers, owing to its relatively recent origins in the 1960s. Others, however, see the practice as addressing a spiritual need created by Japan's legalization of abortion in 1948.
645:
claim the dead cannot be contacted until 100 days have passed. Once the spirit communicates its own status in the afterlife, patrons receive advice and predictions for the future.
682:
are understood, even by their patrons, to be theatrical performers. Nonetheless, a survey of 670 people with chronic illnesses in the area around
Osorezan Mountain, home of many
952:
trainee is dressed in a red wedding dress, and red rice and fish are consumed to celebrate her marriage to the spirit. It is suggested that the ceremony signals the death of the
385:
The term "itako" has associations with beggars, and some mediums reject the use of the term. One theory suggests the term derived from "eta no ko", or "child of the
201:
were still considered to occupy one of the lowest social strata within the community, especially those who relied on community support for financing their training.
983:
are increasingly viewed with skepticism and disdain, and contemporary education standards have all but eradicated the need for specialized training for the blind.
678:
sang in their own voices, without any visual performance of entering a trance-state. The ritual songs are typically repeated to many patrons, suggesting that the
815:, a plucked instrument with ties to summoning the dead. The necromantic ritual of plucked instruments is found in the earliest document of Japan's history, the
584:
words" that are not understood by all native
Japanese speakers. Locals, who understand the Tsugaru dialect, are therefore often employed as translators for the
856:
was seen as an acceptable means for blind women to contribute to their local village and household, and avoid becoming a financial burden to their families.
361:
training. The cylinders are said to be used to trap the spirits of animals that attempt to possess a human being. Finally, the women carry beaded necklaces
565:
Ceremonies draw on a series of Shinto practices, but most often call upon
Buddhist gods. Some chants of the itako are similar to secret practices of
1218:
1867:
250:
were based on charges such as spreading superstition, to obstruction of medical practices. Newspaper accounts of these arrests indicate that
839:
responsible for ever-increasing spans of land and spiritual realms. These gods are sent away in reverse order at the end of the ceremony.
1054:
1529:
1831:
1715:
1419:
1379:
1349:
1306:
1174:
254:
were commonly attributing illnesses to possession of the ill by cats or foxes. Newspaper reports at the time tended to refer to
1857:
1485:
986:
An annual festival is held on Mt. Osore beside the
Entsuji Buddhist temple, which hangs signs disavowing any connection to the
1852:
1734:
1136:
181:
perform ceremonies to communicate with spirits of the recently deceased, including those of aborted and stillborn children.
652:
typically bring fruit, candy or other gifts, and offer the age, relationship, and gender of the deceased, but not the name.
937:
must collapse while naming the spirit. In other cases, the names of various deities are written and scattered, while the
618:
266:
Public support, however, continued. Shortly before, and after, the surrender of Japan in 1945, many families sought out
343:
ritual. In this ritual, a dog is buried up to its neck and starved, while staring at food too far for it to reach. The
1872:
674:
rituals noted a shaking of hands and use of special voices when channeling the dead. More recent observers note that
506:. However, kamisama are sighted, typically claiming prophetic powers in the aftermath of a traumatic disease. Unlike
270:
to communicate with the war dead, particularly those who were lost in combat abroad. Just before the end of the war,
1636:
305:
in Aomori, known locally as "Mount Dread". The gathering has received televised news coverage since the 1960s.
393:
social class who were once associated with death. Other possible derivations include the use of wood pieces,
1077:
941:
sweeps over them with a brush until one of them is caught, which denotes the name of the possessing spirit.
418:. Anthropologist Wilhem Schiffer describes a local legend about the practice of recruiting blind women into
655:
During the ceremony, purifying rice and salt are scattered, and a spirit is said to enter the body of the
510:, they are associated with small Shinto shrines, which they may operate themselves. Kamisama tend to view
1795:
905:-in-training is essentially adopted by a practicing shaman, and performs household work for the family.
545:
s role varies depending on the spirit she is connected to. Ceremonies vary by prefecture, but typically
897:
Apprenticeship typically lasts three years, and involves heavy rote memorization and feats of physical
1226:
1563:
469:
1877:
898:
461:
278:) with soldiers overseas. An editorial by intellectual Orikuchi Shinobu at the time noted that the
1062:
925:
This process usually leads to a loss of consciousness, which is described as the moment in which
477:
473:
227:
108:
practices, after which the woman is said to be able to communicate with
Japanese Shinto spirits,
20:
414:
246:
and their healing rituals were specifically targeted and could be arrested on sight. Arrests of
1827:
1711:
1415:
1375:
1345:
1302:
1170:
1132:
869:
822:
514:
with suspicion, though ethnographers have found that kamisama often associate themselves with
449:
433:
57:
1771:
1085:
570:
441:
437:
1081:
624:
577:
242:
were practicing at the time. The law led to the arrest of mediums across Japan; by 1875,
1737:. Yomiuri Shimbun. McClatchy-Tribune Information Services. 4 August 2006. Archived from
1013:
and do occasionally work with
Buddhist temples, usually providing support for funerals.
238:
rituals as a means of encouraging the adoption of modernized medicine. An estimated 200
1704:
706:
566:
554:, which is locally associated with this "traditional" ritual, though evidence suggests
24:
1500:
1862:
1846:
1022:
333:, which contains secret items that may be representative of a protective spirit, or
991:
559:
298:
1738:
1003:
position in the nearby temple to encourage sustained tourism throughout the year.
142:. At the end of this training, a ceremony is held, announcing the marriage of the
1757:
Asian Musics in an Asian
Perspective: Report of Asian Traditional Performing Arts
1261:
780:
562:. The ceremony had traditionally taken place in the ancestral home of the dead.
551:
409:
319:
302:
170:
41:
967:
32:
1298:
The Last Biwa Singer: A Blind Musician in History, Imagination and Performance
956:
s life as a burden and her rebirth as a contributing member of the community.
827:
795:
530:
503:
444:
prefectures, but the term can vary by location. They are also commonly called
423:
331:, literally "non-Buddhist box", in reference to practices outside of Buddhism)
194:
119:
97:
592:
to avoid any need to personalize the communication from the departed spirit.
177:
gather for an annual festival to channel the dead for thousands of tourists.
1412:
Immortal wishes : labor and transcendence on a Japanese sacred mountain
979:
are on the decline. In 2009, less than 20 remained, all over the age of 40.
926:
541:
are said to have the ability to communicate with both kami and the dead. An
419:
390:
339:. Blacker describes an old folk tale tying the box, and its contents, to an
209:
155:
641:
The ritual is held during a funeral or anniversary of a death, though some
282:
in Aomori prefecture had "not been subject to prohibition", in contrast to
1296:
1219:"The Life of a Shamaness: Scenes from the Shamanism of Northeastern Japan"
1600:
1439:
316:
typically carry several artifacts. These include a kind of box called a
1648:
853:
831:, itinerant blind priests, have a similar history with the instrument.
105:
1129:
Religion in the Japanese experience : sources and interpretations
502:
believe in a marriage to a spirit, and both follow the Buddhist deity
918:
865:
817:
354:
138:
takes about three years, and also includes memorization of songs and
219:. Over time, the two groups merged, creating the modern concept of
207:
are thought to have risen from an ascetic cult of the Edo era, the
1131:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub. Co. pp. 130–135.
966:
929:, or Nittensama, or some other deity, has taken possession of the
873:
750:
581:
529:
139:
101:
31:
1493:
Nachrichten der Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens
1564:"Local Newspaper Coverage of Folk Shamans in Aomori PrefectureI"
1027:
335:
215:
110:
1075:
357:, containing another protective charm and their certificate of
1706:
In near ruins : cultural theory at the end of the century
490:
There are similarities to another group of shaman women, the
999:
in its tourist brochures, and attempted to fund a permanent
621:. The ritual has been documented as early as 1024 AD in the
122:. The practice has been on the decline, with only 20 living
1809:
The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan
1530:"Japan's Blind Women Seers Becoming An Endangered Species"
397:, for the ceremonial writing of the name of the deceased.
1796:
The Itako—a Spiritual Occupation for Blind Japanese Girls
1086:
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/21/world/asia/21japan.html
1314:
1009:, though few in number, have formed an association, the
876:. Training typically involved cold-water purifying baths
118:
perform rituals tied to communication with the dead and
990:. The festival is held July 20–24, coinciding with the
1674:
Collected Writings of Modern Western Scholars on Japan
1167:
Discourses of the vanishing modernity, phantasm, Japan
258:
in negative terms, and often associated the arrest of
19:
This article is about the profession. For the city in
1301:. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University.
558:
withdrew to the mountain to escape pressure from the
408:) are first referenced in poem #1773 of the ancient
1486:"The itako of North-Eastern Japan and Their Chants"
274:
were also called upon to conduct "living seances" (
1703:
534:Osorezan and Lake Usori. Aomori prefecture, Japan.
1055:"As Japan's Mediums Die, Ancient Tradition Fades"
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
686:, showed that 35% of those patients had visited
1667:
1665:
885:
806:
765:
741:
704:
622:
603:
370:
317:
82:
67:
48:
1710:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
1127:Blacker, Carmen (1997). Earhart, Byron (ed.).
879:
800:
772:
735:
732:must learn a chant known as the New Year Ebisu
713:
631:
610:
364:
326:
89:
74:
779:ritual is a musical performance dedicated to
670:As recently as 1962, ethnographers observing
16:Spirit mediums of Japan, strictly blind women
8:
1729:
1727:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1374:. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
1290:
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1361:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
619:intangible cultural heritage asset of Japan
588:. Folklorists suggest that this allows the
1759:. Tokyo, Japan: Heibonsha. pp. 83–85.
1702:Ivy, Marilyn (1998). "5". In Dirks (ed.).
1557:
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1551:
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1547:
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154:apprenticeships up until the start of the
1414:. Durham (N. C.): Duke University press.
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
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1094:
1750:
1748:
1735:"Benefits of shaman on patients studied"
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1605:Journal: Contemporary Religions in Japan
1433:
1431:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1169:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1038:
40:at the autumn Inako Taisai festival at
432:is the common term for these women in
126:in Japan, all more than 40 years old.
96:, are blind women who train to become
1528:Goozner, Merrill (18 December 1992).
1444:Japanese Journal of Religious Studies
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
948:, is performed as an initiation. The
602:The ritual of contact with the dead,
7:
1266:UNESCO Asian-Pacific Cultural Center
995:government includes the image of an
1770:Steinfels, Peter (15 August 1992).
1342:Shinto in History: Ways of the Kami
1340:Breen, John; Teeuwen, Mark (2013).
944:At this point, a wedding ceremony,
353:also carry a black cylinder, often
1372:The invention of religion in Japan
1053:Fackler, Martin (21 August 2009).
913:Ahead of the initiation ceremony,
569:, and may be tied to practices at
293:Today, the small number of living
169:are most commonly associated with
14:
1811:. Richmond: Taylor & Francis.
663:), the itako sings songs, called
576:Itako perform the ceremony using
1370:Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012).
1438:Horii, Ichiro (December 1975).
1410:Schattschneider, Ellen (2003).
114:, and the spirits of the dead.
1824:A Popular Dictionary of Shinto
1635:Fairchild, William P. (1962).
263:people of their possessions."
1:
389:", referring to the Japanese
173:in Aomori prefecture. There,
1868:Shinto religious occupations
1637:"Shamanism in Japan (1–122)"
1601:"Necromancers in the Tohoku"
971:A statue of Jizo at Osorezan
933:s body. In some cases, the
886:
807:
766:
742:
705:
623:
604:
371:
318:
297:gather annually during the
104:. Training involves severe
83:
68:
49:
44:, Aomori Prefecture, Japan.
1894:
1599:Schiffer, Wilhelm (1967).
1295:de Ferranti, Hugh (2009).
834:The chant which opens the
18:
1826:. Routledge. p. 83.
1807:Blacker, Carmen (2005) .
880:
801:
773:
736:
714:
632:
611:
365:
327:
90:
75:
61:
1672:Blacker, Carmen (2013).
901:. During this time, the
794:are associated with the
1822:Bocking, Brian (2005).
1484:Naumann, Nelly (1992).
1318:(subscription required)
975:In contemporary Japan,
146:and her patron spirit.
1858:Japanese folk religion
1313: – via
972:
535:
448:in southern Iwate and
45:
1853:Japanese blind people
1755:Miura, Teeji (1977).
1568:Kokugakuin University
1217:Kawamura, Kunimitsu.
1165:Ivy, Marilyn (1995).
970:
533:
454:miko, mogodo, onakama
412:poem collection, the
234:and their associated
35:
1741:on 19 November 2018.
1562:Ikegami, Yoshimasa.
1440:"Shamanism in Japan"
1262:"Itako no Kuchiyose"
1229:on 19 September 2015
847:Women usually enter
821:, which describes a
617:, has been named an
228:Meiji era government
909:Initiation ceremony
787:Musical performance
580:, and a series of "
462:Yamagata prefecture
1873:Shamanism in Japan
1080:2023-05-30 at the
973:
690:to take part in a
536:
162:rituals outright.
46:
21:Ibaraki prefecture
1532:. Chicago Tribune
917:dress in a white
230:attempted to ban
158:, which outlawed
98:spiritual mediums
1885:
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1647:. Archived from
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1542:
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1537:
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1506:on 7 August 2015
1505:
1499:. Archived from
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1225:. Archived from
1214:
1181:
1180:
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1142:
1124:
1089:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1065:on 27 April 2013
1061:. Archived from
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66:, also known as
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309:Description
301:holiday at
42:Mount Osore
1878:Mediumship
1847:Categories
1655:2016-03-09
1233:1 February
1223:Kokugakuin
1138:0534524613
1069:1 February
1034:References
836:kamioroshi
828:biwa hoshi
808:azusa yumi
781:Oshirasama
767:kamioroshi
759:Kamioroshi
571:Ise shrine
424:necromancy
381:Definition
120:divination
1772:"Beliefs"
927:Fudo Myoo
692:kuchiyose
605:kuchiyose
597:Kuchiyose
504:Fudo Myoo
470:Fukushima
446:ogamisama
420:shamanism
415:Man'yōshū
391:burakumin
303:Mt. Osore
236:kuchiyose
210:yamabushi
171:Mt. Osore
156:Meiji era
84:ogamisama
1781:12 March
1573:12 March
1536:12 March
1088:Alt URL]
1078:Archived
1017:See also
1011:itako-ko
887:mizugori
870:Buddhist
843:Training
694:ritual.
496:kamisama
492:kamisama
485:Kamisama
320:gehōbako
276:ikiguchi
58:Japanese
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1271:9 March
1023:Onmyōdō
526:Rituals
494:. Both
478:Ibaraki
474:Tochigi
341:inugami
195:Edo era
185:History
165:Today,
106:ascetic
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464:; and
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404:(then
366:いらたか念珠
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