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to the period of the greatest apogee of the site, circa 300 B.C. to 50 B.C. " Group F, is located at northern end of the site. This group contains a ballcourt among other structures, and corresponds to the late occupational phase of the site. Group F includes later occupation and construction associated with the
Terminal Formative (100 BCE – 250 CE), Early Classic (250–500 CE), Middle Classic (500–700 CE), Late Classic (700–900 CE), and Early Postclassic (900–1200 CE) periods. Groups A, B, and F are open for tourism today through Mexico's National Institute for Anthropology and History (
469:, and his team used lidar (light detection and ranging) to map sites and collect surface ceramics to document changing population trends at Izapa and nearby areas. Reports generated from this remapping suggest that the Formative period center of Izapa was actually twice as large as was understood from the previous map and that the Classic period occupation was nearly three times as large as was indicated by the original NWAF map. The lidar map further illustrated an E-Group architectural alignment and terracing in the site center that had not been visible from the earlier NWAF map.
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289:, Julia Guernsey, author of a definitive work on Izapa sculpture, proposes instead that the monuments were intentionally language-free and that "Izapa's position at the juncture of two linguistic regions may have fostered the penchant for non-verbal communicative strategies." Timothy Laughton, a British researcher, has provided a reading of the imagery and narrative depictions as one unified mythological whole, linking the mythology with the distribution of the monuments at the site.
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481:, sought to document daily life of Izapa's residents. This project contributed the first systematic economic data for the site. Mendelsohn's research focuses on the period between 100 BCE – 400 CE when monument production declined, and major changes in construction activity, burial practices, and ritual activities were recorded for the site.
166:. There are two long open areas that resemble ball courts found at other Mesoamerican sites, but it is unclear if these two courts were used for the ballgame. Mound 30A was where a stepped pyramid was built. This pyramid was around ten meters high and probably used for religious and ceremonial purposes.
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Early investigators were drawn to research at Izapa by the site's large mounds and many carved monuments. Drawings of the monuments at Izapa were first published in a pamphlet by
Mexican professor Carlos A. Culebro. Karl Ruppert visited the site in 1938 while working with the Carnegie Institution. In
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presents perhaps the most complex relief at Izapa. Central to the image is a large tree, which is surrounded by perhaps a dozen human figures and scores of other images. The complexity of the imagery has led some fringe researchers, particularly Mormon and "out of Africa" theorists, to view Stela 5
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After a hiatus of 25 years, excavations resumed at Izapa under the direction of
Hernando GĂłmez Rueda, working for Mexico's Instituto Nacional de AntropologĂa e Historia (INAH). GĂłmez Rueda spent four seasons at Izapa from 1992 to 1996 with the primary goal of documenting Izapa's hydraulic system and
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depicts a bird dance, which has a king being transformed into a bird. The scene is most likely connected with the
Principle Bird Deity. This transformation could symbolize shamanism and ecstasy, meaning the shaman-ruler used hallucinogens to journey to another world. The type of political system
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project at Izapa mapped 161 total mounds. Izapa's
Formative period core (850–100 BCE) has six major plazas. Groups A, B, C, D, G, and H are located around the central area of the site, on the western shore of River Izapa. "The core area of Izapa is formed by Groups A to E, G and H, which correspond
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Other archaeologists argue that there is not yet enough known to support Coe and that the term "Izapan Style" should only be used when describing art from Izapa. Virginia Smith argues that Izapan art is too unique and different in style to be the result of Olmec influence or the precursor to Maya
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Lowe and colleagues dated the majority of Izapa's monuments to the
Guillen phase, from approximately 300 to 50 BCE, on the basis of ceramic and radiocarbon dates, associating them with Izapa's period of greatest sculptural and construction activity. Izapa's earliest mound, Mound 30 was among the
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Izapa gains its fame through its art style. The art found at the site includes sculptures of stelae and also altars that look like frogs. The stelae and frog altars generally went together, the toads symbolized rain. There are common characteristics of Izapan art, such as winged objects,
235:. The calendar was originally thought to be a Maya invention, but recently it has been hypothesized that calendar originated in Izapa. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that Izapa fits the geological and historical conditions better than the previous place thought to be the origin.
369:"When considered as a conceptual unit, the imagery of Throne 1 and Stela 8 directly associates the ruler's political authority, symbolised by the throne, with his supernatural abilities, symbolised by the quatrefoil portal (Guernsey 2006). A striking parallel exists between the imagery of
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shooting a perched
Principle Bird Deity with a blowgun. This scene is also shown on the Maya pot called the "Blowgunner Pot". It is also suggested that Stela 25 could be seen as a map of the night sky, which was used to tell the story of the Hero Twins shooting the bird deity.
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The sheer number of sculptures outweighs that of any contemporaneous site. Garth Norman has counted 89 stelae, 61 altars, 3 thrones, and 68 "miscellaneous monuments at Izapa. In contrast to the ruler-oriented sculpture of the
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439:). The NWAF excavations emphasized the discovery of monuments and understanding the construction history of Izapa's central plazas. As part of this project, Eduardo MartĂnez also developed the first detailed map of the site.
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monuments. GĂłmez Rueda suggested several possible roles for Izapa's hydraulic system, including distribution of water throughout the site, pools for raising edible aquatic species, and a hybrid ceremonial-functional use.
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art. Smith says that Izapan art is very site specific and did not spread far from the site. Izapan art most likely did indirectly influence Maya art, though it would just be one of the many influences on the Maya.
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Beginning in 2011, the Izapa
Regional Settlement Project (IRSP) became the first project to investigate Izapa from a regional settlement perspective. Over four seasons of survey between 2011 and 2015 director
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Rosenswig, Robert M.; LĂłpez-Torrijos, Ricardo; Antonelli, Caroline E.; Mendelsohn, Rebecca R. (2013). "Lidar
Mapping and Surface Survey of the Izapa State on the Tropical Piedmont of Chiapas, Mexico".
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Izapa is laid out just east of true north; the exact alignment is 21 degrees east of north. It is aligned with the volcano Tacaná and also seems to be situated to the
December solstice horizon.
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Among the possible Izapa glyphs discussed by scholars are some that are known as “U Shape”, “Border Panel” (skyband), and “Crossed Band”. These glyphs have parallels with known Olmec symbols.
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Campbell, Lyle, et al. The linguistics of Southeast Chiapas, Mexico. United States, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, 1988.
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that was in place at Izapa is still unknown, though Stela 4 could suggest that a shaman was in charge. This shaman-ruler would serve the role of both the political and religious leader.
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Rosenswig, Robert M.; LĂłpez-Torrijos, Ricardo; Antonelli, Caroline E. (2015). "Lidar Data and the Izapa Polity: New Results and Methodological Issues from Tropical Mesoamerica".
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working on behalf of the National Geographic and the Smithsonian Institution conducted a week of excavations at Izapa to better reveal some of the carved monuments. In a 1947,
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of the Maya, Olmec-like swirling sky and clouds, feline mouth used as frame, representation of animals (crocodile, jaguar, frog, fish, birds), overlapping, and lack of dates.
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and monuments at Izapa, the term "Izapan style" is used to describe similarly executed works throughout the Pacific foothills and highlands beyond, including some found at
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shows a deity wielding a club. This deity's leg turns into a serpent while twisting around his body. This could be an early form of the Maya God K, who carried a staff.
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365:. The scene shown on Stela 8 is often compared to Throne 1, which was located by the central pillar of Izapa. Stela 8 may be showing a ruler seated atop Throne 1.
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expanded on Stirling's work with an additional series of small-scale test excavations. Notes and photographs from Drucker's expedition are housed in the
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Izapa's architecture makes up roughly 250,000 cubic meters when combined. The site included pyramids, sculptured plazas and squares, and possibly two
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212:. Also used to support Coe's hypothesis are elements in Maya culture thought to be derived from the Izapans, including similarities in art and
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Izapa was a large site that included extensive monuments and architecture. From north to south, the whole site is about 1.5 km long. The
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Clark, John E. (1991). "The Beginnings of Mesoamerica: Apologia for the Soconusco Early Formative". In Fowler, William R. Jr. (ed.).
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The settlement at Izapa extended over 1.4 miles, making it the largest site in Chiapas. The site reached its apogee between 850
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307:. In Stela I, the god is walking on water while collecting fish into a basket and also wearing a basket of water on his back.
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Rosenswig, Robert R.; Mendelsohn, Rebecca R. (2016). "Izapa and the Soconusco Region, Mexico, in the First Millennium A.D.".
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In 2014, Rebecca Mendelsohn directed a new series of excavations at the southern edge of the site. Mendelsohn's project, the
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2015:
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Resilience and Interregional Interaction at the Early Mesoamerican City of Izapa: The Formative to Classic Period Transition
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areas most extensively studied by the NWAF was first constructed during the Middle Formative Duende phase, c. 900–850 BCE.
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is a rare depiction of violence involving deities. The Stela illustrates a warrior holding the head of a decapitated god.
278:, Izapan sculpture has features mythological and religious subjects, and is ceremonial and frequently narrative in nature.
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1990:
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Lowe, Gareth; Lee, Thomas A. Jr.; Martinez Espinoza, Eduardo (1982). "Izapa: An Introduction to the Ruins and Monuments".
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Stele 21 from Izapa on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. It is also named "the decapitated"
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Izapa Relief Carving: Form, Content, Rules for Design, and Role in Mesoamerican Art History and Archaeology
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features a long lipped deity, which Coe describes as the early version of Maya god of lightning and rain,
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1086:"Monument 3 from La Blanca, Guatemala: A Middle Preclassic earthen sculpture and its ritual associations"
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Monument 1 and Izapa Stela 8, both of which feature elite individuals enthroned within a quatrefoil."
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Ekholm, Susanna M. (1969). "Mound 30a and the Early Preclassic Sequence of Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico".
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Drucker, Philip (1948). "Preliminary Notes on an Archaeological Survey of the Chiapas Coast".
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have theorized that Izapa may have been settled as early as 1500 BCE, making it as old as the
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Sculpture on the Threshold: The Iconography of Izapa and its Relationship to that of the Maya
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From 1961 to 1965 Gareth Lowe directed four seasons of excavations at Izapa as behalf of the
90:. Izapa remained occupied through the Early Postclassic period, until approximately 1200 CE.
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Ritual and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art
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Izapa is located on wet and hilly land made of volcanic soil; it is still fertile for
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Stele 1 from Izapa on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
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Also, in contrast to Epi-Olmec and later Maya stela, Izapa monuments rarely contain
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hypothesized that the Izapa culture was at least partially inhabited by speakers of
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Cycles of the Sun, Mysteries of the Moon: The Calendar in Mesoamerican Civilization
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505:. The accompanying plaques translates to "Gravestone of Izapa – Mayan culture –
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Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time
1162:(Ph.D. dissertation). University at Albany, SUNY: Department of Anthropology.
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285:. Although this could imply that the Izapan culture lacked knowledge of any
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122:. The weather is very hot and very wet. The area around Izapa was a major
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509:– Description: Bas relief from Izapa depicting a person loading something."
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Malmstrom, Vincent H. (1976). "Izapa: Cultural Hearth of the Olmecs?".
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321:, a powerful ruling bird-demon of the Maya underworld, also known as
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Stirling, Matthew W. (1943). "Stone Monuments in Southern Mexico".
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1320:. No. 138. Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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VIII Simposio de Investigaciones ArqueolĂłgicas en Guatemala, 1994
196:. He supports his argument with the large amount of Olmec style
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Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
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Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
911:
The Formation of complex society in southeastern Mesoamerica
724:, p. 60 both refer to Izapan art's "narrative" quality.
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shows a ruler seated on a throne, which is located within a
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Norman, V. Garth (1973). "Izapa Sculpture, Part 1: Album".
856:
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Izapa is also included in the debate of the origin of the
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432:
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16th-century BC establishments in the Maya civilization
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describes Izapa as being a connective link between the
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Maya sites that survived the end of the Classic Period
1132:
Proceedings of the Association of American Geographers
427:
Excavations by the New World Archaeological Foundation
313:, like Stela 25, has been linked to the battle of the
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Painting in the Americas before European colonization
806:
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537:. Represents a skeleton sitting with a (unreadable)."
392:. The image depicted on Stela 25 is most likely the
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Chiapas Pre-HistĂłrico: Su ArqueologĂa. Folleto no. 1
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for more articles see Category:Maya sites in Mexico
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1169:Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation
1119:Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation
979:Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation
42:; it is best known for its occupation during the
872:Rosenswig, LĂłpez-Torrijos & Antonelli (2015)
181:Izapa and other sites from the Formative Period.
2829:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2814:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
1337:University of Texas page with several drawings
1011:"Exploración de Sistemas Hidráulicos en Izapa"
146:Tacana volcano as seen from Izapa to the north
46:. The site is situated on the Izapa River, a
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1407:
1079:(Doctoral dissertation). University of Essex.
157:Instituto Nacional de AntropologĂa e Historia
8:
1058:. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.
757:
1332:Lecture notes from the University of Kansas
1270:Anthropological and Archaeological Sciences
832:
216:styles, continuity between Maya and Izapan
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1342:The DeLanges visit Izapa, with many photos
1045:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1020:. Guatemala. pp. 6–16. Archived from
959:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
893:
173:Izapa and other Mesoamerican civilizations
2819:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
1203:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
685:
623:
1423:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
811:Lowe, Lee & Martinez Espinoza (1982)
782:
733:
721:
1182:Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica
793:
768:
616:
565:depicting the decapitation of someone."
533:– Description: Original is from Izapa,
483:
1038:
952:
821:
577:Stele 50 from Izapa on display at the
561:– Description: Bas relief from Izapa,
635:
7:
992:Ancient Mexico & Central America
745:
717:
705:
662:
647:
493:Replica of a gravestone from Izapa,
1847:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
479:Izapa Household Archaeology Project
473:Izapa Household Archaeology Project
447:Excavations by Hernando GĂłmez Rueda
433:New World Archaeological Foundation
386:possibly contains a scene from the
152:New World Archaeological Foundation
2839:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
1818:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
1175:. Provo: Brigham Young University.
1125:. Provo: Brigham Young University.
985:. Provo: Brigham Young University.
932:. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
14:
3907:Former populated places in Mexico
1830:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
1801:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1241:Journal of Archaeological Science
883:Rosenswig & Mendelsohn (2016)
845:Izapa Regional Settlement Project
549:Replica of gravestone located in
521:Replica of gravestone located in
456:Izapa Regional Settlement Project
421:National Anthropological Archives
3097:
2871:
1823:Archaeological sites in Colombia
1796:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
970:Middle American Research Records
598:
586:
570:
542:
514:
486:
401:Archaeological research at Izapa
58:, the sixth tallest mountain in
3902:Archaeological sites in Chiapas
1806:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
1158:Mendelsohn, Rebecca R. (2017).
1084:Love, M.; Guernsey, J. (2007).
579:National Museum of Anthropology
355:as support for their theories.
262:long-lipped gods much like the
98:Due to the abundance of carved
54:, near the base of the volcano
3922:Tourist attractions in Chiapas
3912:16th-century BC establishments
1354:turism Tapachula seccion Izapa
1184:. Cambridge University Press.
1009:GĂłmez Rueda, Hernando (1995).
274:330 miles (550 km) across the
130:region, which was used by the
1:
2750:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
1811:Archaeological sites in Chile
1143:. University of Texas Press.
994:. London: Thames and Hudson.
2844:Mesoamerican writing systems
1840:Archaeological sites in Peru
435:(an organization run out of
138:Site layout and architecture
126:producing area known as the
2740:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
1297:Smith, Virginia G. (1984).
1139:Malmstrom, Vincent (1997).
3943:
3864:
2766:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
2669:Uaxaclajuun UbĘĽaah KĘĽawiil
1199:Rice, Prudence M. (2007).
1180:Pool, Christopher (2007).
1073:Laughton, Timothy (1997).
990:Evans, Susan Toby (2004).
758:Love & Guernsey (2007)
20:View of the ruins of Izapa
3862:
3095:
2867:
2809:
2800:
2164:
1991:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
1282:10.1007/s12520-014-0210-7
1261:10.1016/j.jas.2012.10.034
1102:10.1017/S0003598X00096009
913:. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
2878:Civilizations portal
1835:Cultural periods of Peru
1220:Latin American Antiquity
1054:Guernsey, Julia (2006).
928:Coe, Michael D. (1962).
675:2007 Mesoweb Izapa (pdf)
437:Brigham Young University
84:San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán
2772:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
1618:Mesoamerican chronology
861:Rosenswig et al. (2013)
94:Concept of Izapan style
3897:Maya Preclassic Period
1475:Archaeological periods
945:Culebro, C.A. (1939).
375:
333:
276:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
258:
182:
147:
21:
3892:Maya sites in Chiapas
2939:Actun Tunichil Muknal
2778:List of Conquistadors
2665:KĘĽinich JanaabĘĽ Pakal
2076:Quebrada de Humahuaca
1495:Caddoan Mississippian
465:, a professor at the
367:
331:
256:
249:Izapan monumental art
180:
145:
74:and 100 BCE; several
44:Late Formative period
19:
3121:Altar de Sacrificios
2745:Francisco de Montejo
2673:Jasaw Chan KĘĽawiil I
1786:Andean civilizations
1713:Shaft tomb tradition
1027:on 14 September 2011
467:University at Albany
406:Early Investigations
243:Mixe-Zoque languages
2711:Manco Inca Yupanqui
2016:Manteño-Huancavilca
1485:Ancestral Puebloans
1374: /
1253:2013JArSc..40.1493R
949:. Huixtla, Chiapas.
210:baby-face figurines
32:archaeological site
2834:Columbian exchange
2824:Portal:Mesoamerica
1976:La Tolita (Tumaco)
1791:Indigenous peoples
1530:Hopewell tradition
1457:Indigenous peoples
1347:2004-10-24 at the
1301:. Dumbarton Oaks.
833:GĂłmez Rueda (1995)
796:, pp. 151–169
720:, p. 272 and
551:Metro Bellas Artes
523:Metro Bellas Artes
499:Metro Bellas Artes
334:
259:
257:Stela 2 from Izapa
183:
148:
22:
3874:
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3867:Pre-Columbian era
3812:
3321:Motul de San José
2954:Barton Creek Cave
2889:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2859:Pre-Columbian art
2795:
2794:
2789:Francisco Pizarro
2755:Pedro de Alvarado
2071:Pucará de Tilcara
1378:14.923°N 92.180°W
1191:978-0-521-78882-3
1065:978-0-292-71323-9
1041:cite encyclopedia
894:Mendelsohn (2017)
559:Preclassic Period
531:Preclassic Period
507:Preclassic Period
296:Notable monuments
272:Epi-Olmec culture
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3126:Arroyo de Piedra
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1326:External links
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1276:(4): 487–504.
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1226:(3): 357–377.
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2730:Hernán Cortés
2726:
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2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
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1954:
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1802:
1799:
1797:
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1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1778:South America
1775:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
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1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1600:Weeden Island
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1575:Poverty Point
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1540:Mississippian
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
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1503:
1501:
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1493:
1491:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1467:North America
1464:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1437:Paleo-Indians
1435:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1405:
1403:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1355:
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1350:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
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1325:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1308:9780884021193
1304:
1300:
1295:
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1287:
1283:
1279:
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1197:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
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1161:
1156:
1152:
1150:9780292751972
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
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1082:
1078:
1077:
1071:
1067:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1003:
1001:9780500284407
997:
993:
988:
984:
980:
975:
971:
966:
962:
956:
948:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
922:
920:9780849388316
916:
912:
907:
906:
902:
895:
890:
887:
884:
879:
876:
873:
868:
865:
862:
857:
855:
853:
849:
846:
841:
838:
834:
829:
826:
823:
822:Ekholm (1969)
818:
815:
812:
807:
805:
803:
799:
795:
790:
787:
784:
779:
777:
773:
770:
765:
762:
759:
754:
751:
748:, p. 110
747:
742:
739:
735:
730:
727:
723:
719:
714:
711:
708:, p. 272
707:
702:
699:
693:
690:
687:
682:
679:
676:
671:
668:
665:, p. 109
664:
659:
657:
653:
650:, p. 264
649:
644:
641:
637:
632:
629:
625:
620:
617:
610:
601:
596:
589:
584:
580:
573:
568:
564:
560:
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440:
438:
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426:
424:
422:
418:
414:
405:
400:
398:
395:
391:
390:
385:
381:
379:
374:
372:
366:
364:
360:
359:Izapa Stela 8
356:
353:
352:
351:Izapa Stela 5
347:
344:
343:Izapa Stela 4
340:
338:
337:Izapa Stela 3
330:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
311:Izapa Stela 2
308:
306:
302:
301:Izapa Stela 1
295:
293:
290:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
267:
265:
255:
248:
246:
244:
240:
239:Lyle Campbell
236:
234:
229:
225:
223:
220:, and shared
219:
215:
211:
207:
206:jaguar motifs
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
179:
172:
170:
167:
165:
160:
158:
153:
144:
137:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
101:
93:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
65:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
36:Mexican state
33:
30:
29:pre-Columbian
26:
18:
3806:
3727:San Gervasio
3626:
3567:Chichen Itza
3512:Aguada FĂ©nix
3466:Zapote Bobal
3396:Takalik Abaj
3386:San Clemente
3039:Nim Li Punit
2869:
2802:
2652:Moctezuma II
2609:Inca history
2534:Andean Music
2478:Architecture
2473:Architecture
2468:Architecture
2463:Architecture
2459:Architecture
2453:Gender Roles
2198:Tenochtitlan
2121:Timoto–Cuica
2116:Tierradentro
1901:Casma–Sechin
1672:
1633:Chalcatzingo
1359:
1317:
1298:
1273:
1269:
1244:
1240:
1232:10.7183/1045
1223:
1219:
1200:
1181:
1172:
1168:
1159:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1118:
1093:
1089:
1075:
1055:
1029:. Retrieved
1022:the original
1017:
991:
982:
978:
969:
946:
929:
910:
889:
878:
867:
840:
828:
817:
789:
764:
753:
741:
736:, p. 15
729:
713:
701:
692:
681:
670:
643:
638:, p. 15
636:Clark (1991)
631:
619:
476:
459:
450:
441:
430:
409:
387:
383:
382:
377:
376:
371:Chalcatzingo
368:
358:
357:
349:
348:
342:
341:
336:
335:
319:Vucub Caquix
310:
309:
300:
299:
291:
280:
268:
260:
237:
230:
226:
214:architecture
204:, including
184:
168:
161:
149:
117:
104:Takalik Abaj
97:
69:
24:
23:
3834:Casa Blanca
3821:El Salvador
3572:Chunchucmil
3527:Balankanche
3436:Wajxaklajun
3401:Tamarindito
3381:San Bartolo
3311:Mixco Viejo
3266:Kaminaljuyu
3201:El Porvenir
3146:Cerro Quiac
3089:Xunantunich
3064:San Estevan
3019:Lower Dover
2715:TĂşpac Amaru
2699:Manco Cápac
2648:Moctezuma I
2559:Agriculture
2554:Agriculture
2549:Agriculture
2540:Agriculture
2483:Road System
2372:Mathematics
2237:Muysc Cubun
2091:San AgustĂn
2041:Monte Verde
1718:Teotihuacan
1610:Mesoamerica
1505:Coles Creek
1490:Anishinaabe
1447:Archaeology
1381: /
746:Rice (2007)
718:Pool (2007)
706:Pool (2007)
663:Rice (2007)
648:Pool (2007)
626:, p. 8
555:Mexico City
527:Mexico City
503:Mexico City
497:located in
323:Seven Macaw
186:Michael Coe
164:ball courts
120:agriculture
108:Kaminaljuyu
100:Maya stelae
3887:Maya sites
3881:Categories
3865:See also:
3849:San Andrés
3829:Cara Sucia
3742:Tortuguero
3617:Hormiguero
3592:Comalcalco
3562:Chinkultic
3547:Chacchoben
3421:Tres Islas
3306:Machaquila
3296:La Joyanca
3206:El Temblor
3191:El Mirador
3166:Chutixtiox
3156:Chitinamit
3069:Santa Rita
3014:Louisville
2974:Chaa Creek
2959:Cahal Pech
2949:Baking Pot
2923:Maya sites
2686:Tisquesusa
2660:Cuauhtémoc
2656:Cuitláhuac
1986:Lauricocha
1956:Gran Chaco
1946:Cupisnique
1931:Chinchorro
1906:Chachapoya
1896:Caral–Supe
1738:Tlaxcaltec
1728:Teuchitlán
1643:ChupĂcuaro
1570:Plum Bayou
1565:Plaquemine
1535:Marksville
1500:Chichimeca
1369:92°10′48″W
1366:14°55′23″N
972:: 151–169.
903:References
363:quatrefoil
3787:Yaxchilan
3717:Punta Sur
3652:Kohunlich
3612:EkĘĽ Balam
3597:Dzibanche
3582:ChunlimĂłn
3577:Chunhuhub
3489:El Puente
3366:QĘĽumarkaj
3301:La Muerta
3291:La Corona
3286:La Blanca
3281:La Amelia
3211:El Tintal
3176:Dos Pilas
3108:Guatemala
3024:Lubaantun
2994:KaĘĽKabish
2707:Atahualpa
2703:Pachacuti
2678:Nemequene
2544:Chinampas
2366:Astronomy
2355:Astronomy
2335:Mythology
2330:Mythology
2325:Mythology
2320:Mythology
2316:Mythology
2146:Wankarani
2136:Tuncahuán
2026:Marajoara
1981:Las Vegas
1867:Atacameño
1763:Xochipala
1703:Purépecha
1663:Epi-Olmec
1653:Cuicuilco
1595:Troyville
1585:St. Johns
1290:128544303
1110:162442562
1090:Antiquity
955:cite book
938:901034288
389:Popol Vuh
218:monuments
128:Soconusco
82:sites of
48:tributary
3839:Cihuatán
3802:YoĘĽokop
3702:Palenque
3697:Oxkintok
3557:Chicanná
3542:Calakmul
3537:Bonampak
3476:Honduras
3456:Zacpeten
3426:Uaxactun
3371:RĂo Azul
3361:Quiriguá
3326:Naachtun
3276:KĘĽatepan
3256:Ixtonton
3131:Balberta
3116:Aguateca
3054:Pacbitun
3004:La Milpa
2989:El Pilar
2944:Altun Ha
2803:See also
2721:Conquest
2694:Zoratama
2361:Calendar
2350:Calendar
2345:Calendar
2341:Calendar
2310:Religion
2305:Religion
2294:Religion
2283:Religion
2279:Religion
2268:Numerals
2262:Numerals
2223:Language
2203:Multiple
2141:Valdivia
2126:Tiwanaku
2086:Saladoid
2081:Quimbaya
1971:Kuhikugu
1951:Diaguita
1941:Chorrera
1758:Veraguas
1753:Veracruz
1733:Tlatilco
1545:Mogollon
1452:Cultures
1430:Americas
1345:Archived
1134:: 32–35.
1031:24 April
317:against
88:La Venta
3854:Tazumal
3782:Xtampak
3722:RĂo Bec
3692:OcomtĂşn
3672:Mayapan
3657:Komchen
3552:ChactĂşn
3522:Balamku
3507:Acanceh
3461:Zaculeu
3416:Topoxte
3406:Tayasal
3346:Pajaral
3341:Naranjo
3316:Montana
3241:Iximche
3221:Guaytán
3216:El Zotz
3196:El PerĂş
3186:El Chal
3181:El BaĂşl
3161:Chocolá
3141:Cancuén
3136:Bejucal
3079:Uxbenka
3059:Pusilha
3034:Minanha
3009:Lamanai
2964:Caracol
2690:Tundama
2619:Peoples
2604:History
2599:History
2594:History
2590:History
2584:Cuisine
2579:Cuisine
2574:Cuisine
2569:Cuisine
2565:Cuisine
2423:Warfare
2418:Warfare
2413:Warfare
2409:Warfare
2403:Society
2398:Economy
2387:Society
2382:Society
2378:Society
2248:Writing
2242:Quechua
2227:Nahuatl
2194:Capital
2131:Toyopán
2111:Tairona
2021:Mapuche
1936:Chiripa
1911:Chancay
1882:Cañaris
1857:Amotape
1852:El Abra
1768:Zapotec
1748:Totonac
1723:Tepanec
1708:Quelepa
1678:Mezcala
1668:Huastec
1638:Cholula
1628:Capacha
1623:Acolhua
1580:Sinagua
1555:Patayan
1525:Hohokam
1515:Fremont
1249:Bibcode
563:Chiapas
535:Chiapas
495:Chiapas
222:deities
114:Economy
66:History
50:of the
40:Chiapas
3792:Yaxuná
3777:Xpuhil
3772:Xlapak
3762:Xcaret
3737:Toniná
3712:Pomona
3667:La Mar
3637:JoljaĘĽ
3622:Izamal
3499:Mexico
3446:Xultun
3441:Witzna
3431:Ucanal
3391:Seibal
3261:Ixtutz
3231:Holtun
3226:Holmul
3084:Xnaheb
3044:Nohmul
2999:KĘĽaxob
2984:Cuello
2969:Cerros
2931:Belize
2633:Muisca
2628:Mayans
2623:Aztecs
2257:Script
2252:Script
2212:Bacatá
2183:Muisca
2066:Pucará
2061:Piaroa
2056:Paiján
2051:Omagua
2006:Lupaca
2001:Lokono
1966:Kalina
1961:Huetar
1921:ChavĂn
1916:Chango
1891:Nariño
1887:CapulĂ
1877:Calima
1872:Aymara
1862:Arawak
1743:Toltec
1693:Olmecs
1688:Nicoya
1683:Mixtec
1658:Diquis
1560:Picosa
1550:Oshara
1520:Glades
1510:Dorset
1305:
1288:
1207:
1188:
1147:
1108:
1062:
998:
936:
930:Mexico
917:
411:1941,
283:glyphs
198:motifs
132:Aztecs
60:Mexico
56:Tacaná
3767:Xelha
3752:Uxmal
3747:Tulum
3732:Sayil
3687:Muyil
3662:Labna
3647:Kiuic
3642:Kabah
3632:Jaina
3627:Izapa
3607:Edzna
3532:Becan
3484:Copán
3451:Yaxha
3411:Tikal
3376:Sacul
3336:Nakum
3331:Nakbe
3271:Kinal
3246:Ixkun
3236:Itzan
3151:Chama
2979:Colha
2638:Incas
2529:Music
2524:Music
2519:Music
2515:Music
2448:Women
2443:Women
2438:Women
2434:Women
2392:Trade
2273:Quipu
2217:Cusco
2208:Hunza
2173:Aztec
2106:TaĂno
2101:Sican
2096:Shuar
2046:Nazca
2036:Mollo
2031:Moche
2011:Luzia
1926:ChimĂş
1698:Pipil
1673:Izapa
1648:Coclé
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