1136:
877:
1288:
820:
1304:
804:
1276:
1063:
792:
833:
1467:
652:
22:
238:
230:
857:
1640:, editor Michael Whittington says: "It would seem reasonable that women also played the gameâperhaps in all-female teamsâor participated in some yet to be understood ceremony enacted on the ballcourt." (p. 186). In the same volume, Gillett Griffin states that although these figurines have been "interpreted by some as females, in the context of ancient Mesoamerican society the question of the presence of female ballplayers, and their role in the game, is still debated." (p. 158).
569:
1408:
361:
1200:
876:
407:
310:
ritual offerings buried at the site, indicating that even at this early date the game had religious and ritual connotations. A stone "yoke" of the type frequently associated with
Mesoamerican ballcourts was also reported to have been found by local villagers at the site, leaving open the distinct possibility that these rubber balls were related to the ritual ballgame, and not simply an independent form of sacrificial
1047:, and it is assumed that these captives were sacrificed after losing a rigged ritual ballgame. Rather than nearly nude and sometimes battered captives, the ballcourts at El TajĂn and Chichen Itza show the sacrifice of practiced ballplayers, perhaps the captain of a team. Decapitation is particularly associated with the ballgameâsevered heads are featured in much Late Classic ballgame art and appear repeatedly in the
1320:
667:
637:
1127:, with precious stones and quetzal feathers at stake. Huemac won the game. When instead of precious stones and feathers, the rain deities offered Huemac their young maize ears and maize leaves, Huemac refused. As a consequence of this vanity, the Toltecs suffered a four-year drought. The same ball game match, with its unfortunate aftermath, signified the beginning of the end of the Toltec reign.
631:
495:
1016:
4120:
475:, points were gained if the ball hit the opposite end wall, while the decisive victory was reserved for the team that put the ball through a ring. However, placing the ball through the ring was a rare eventâthe rings at Chichen Itza, for example, were set 6 metres (20 ft) off the playing fieldâand most games were likely won on points.
1182:. Hun Hunahpu's head spits into the hands of a passing goddess who conceives and bears the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The Hero Twins eventually find the ballgame equipment in their father's house and start playing, again to the annoyance of the Lords of Xibalba, who summon the twins to play the ballgame amidst trials and dangers.
609:) they could turn the slippery polymers in raw latex into a resilient rubber. The size varied between 10 and 12 in (25 and 30 cm) (measured in hand spans) and weighed 3 to 6 lb (1.4 to 2.7 kg). The ball used in the ancient handball or stick-ball game was probably slightly larger and heavier than a modern-day baseball.
526:, the stone yoke is thought to be too heavy for actual play and was likely used only before or after the game in ritual contexts. In addition to providing some protection from the ball, the girdle or yoke would also have helped propel the ball with more force than the hip alone. Additionally, some players wore chest protectors called
819:
936:
These examples and others are cited by many researchers who have made compelling arguments that the game served as a way to defuse or resolve conflicts without genuine warfare, to settle disputes through a ballgame instead of a battle. Over time, then, the ballgame's role would expand to include not
470:
In the 16th-century Aztec ballgame that the
Spaniards witnessed, points were lost by a player who let the ball bounce more than twice before returning it to the other team, who let the ball go outside the boundaries of the court, or who tried and failed to pass the ball through one of the stone rings
545:
of DainzĂș, roughly 500 BC, as well as the Aztec players are drawn by
Weiditz 2,000 years later (see drawing below). Helmets, likely utilitarian, and elaborate headdresses, likely used only in ritual contexts, are common in ballplayer depictions. Headdresses are particularly prevalent on Maya painted
584:
The sizes or weights of the balls actually used in the ballgame are not known with any certainty. While several dozen ancient balls have been recovered, they were originally laid down as offerings in a sacrificial bog or spring, and there is no evidence that any of these were used in the ballgame.
663:
structure. Built in a form that changed remarkably little during 2,700 years, over 1,300 Mesoamerican ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone. All ballcourts have the same general shape, a long narrow playing alley flanked by walls with both horizontal and sloping (or, more
596:
However, based on a review of modern-day game balls, ancient rubber balls, and other archaeological evidence, it is presumed by most researchers that the ancient hip-ball was made of a mix from one or another of the latex-producing plants found all the way from the southeastern rain forests to the
309:
Villagers, and archaeologists, have recovered a dozen balls ranging in diameter from 10 to 22 cm from the freshwater spring there. Five of these balls have been dated to the earliest-known occupational phase for the site, approximately 1700â1600 BC. These rubber balls were found with other
886:, Arizona. There is disagreement among archaeologists whether these structures in the American Southwest were used for ballgames, although the consensus appears that they were. There is further discussion concerning the extent that any Southwest ballgame is related to the Mesoamerican ballgame.
483:
The game's paraphernaliaâclothing, headdresses, gloves, all but the stoneâare long gone, so knowledge on clothing relies on artâpaintings and drawings, stone reliefs, and figurinesâto provide evidence for pre-Columbian ballplayer clothing and gear, which varied considerably in type and quantity.
1185:
In one notable episode, Hunahpu is decapitated by bats. His brother uses a squash as
Hunahpu's substitute head until his real one, now used as a ball by the Lords, can be retrieved and placed back on Hunahpu's shoulders. The twins eventually go on to play the ballgame with the Lords of Xibalba,
1109:
Cosmologic duality. The game is seen as a struggle between day and night, and/or a battle between life and the underworld. Courts were considered portals to the underworld and were built in key locations within the central ceremonial precincts. Playing ball engaged one in the maintenance of the
1387:
For the Aztecs, the playing of the ballgame also had religious significance, but where the 16th-century KÂŽicheÂŽ Maya saw the game as a battle between the lords of the underworld and their earthly adversaries, their Aztec contemporaries may have seen it as a battle of the sun, personified by
940:
This "boundary maintenance" or "conflict resolution" theory would also account for some of the irregular distribution of ballcourts. Overall, there appears to be a negative correlation between the degree of political centralization and the number of ballcourts at a site. For example, the
673:
While the length-to-width ratio remained relatively constant at about four-to-one, there was tremendous variation in ballcourt size: The playing field of the Great
Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, by far the largest, measures 96.5 by 30 metres (317 by 98 ft), while the Ceremonial Court at
1214:
myth links ballcourts with death and its overcoming. The ballcourt becomes a place of transition, a liminal stage between life and death. The ballcourt markers along the centerline of the
Classic playing field depicted ritual and mythical scenes of the ballgame, often bordered by a
803:
402:
Games were played between two teams of players. The number of players per team could vary, from two to four. Some games were played on makeshift courts for simple recreation while others were formal spectacles on huge stone ballcourts leading to human sacrifice.
3542:
Santley, Robert M.; Berman, Michael J.; Alexander, Rami T. (1991). "The
Politicization of the Mesoamerican Ballgame and Its Implications for the Interpretation of the Distribution of Ballcourts in Central Mexico". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
509:, sometimes augmented with leather hip guards. Loincloths are found on the earliest ballplayer figurines from Tlatilco, Tlapacoya, and the Olmec culture, are seen in the Weiditz drawing from 1528 (below), and, with hip guards, are the sole outfit of modern-day
1904:, p. 41, who finds that the juxtaposition at El ManatĂ of the deposited balls and serpentine staffs (which may have been used to strike the balls) shows that there was already a "well-developed ideological relationship between the game, power, and serpents."
1303:
1090:
War. This is the most obvious symbolic aspect of the game (see also above, "Proxy for warfare"). Among the Mayas, the ball can represent the vanquished enemy, both in the late-Postclassic K'iche' kingdom (Popol Vuh), and in
Classic kingdoms such as that of
1171:. The lords of the underworld became annoyed with the noise from the ball playing and so the primary lords of Xibalba, One Death and Seven Death, sent owls to lure the brothers to the ballcourt of Xibalba, situated on the western edge of the underworld.
1653:
is not accepted by all researchers and even the proponents admit that the proposed
Hohokam Ballcourts are significantly different from Mesoamerican ones: they are oblong, with a concave (not flat) surface. See Wilcox's article and photo at end of this
1287:
522:, most likely of wicker or wood covered in fabric or leather. Made of perishable materials, none of these girdles have survived, although many stone "yokes" have been uncovered. Misnamed by earlier archaeologists due to its resemblance to an
768:
Ballcourts were public spaces used for a variety of elite cultural events and ritual activities like musical performances and festivals, and, of course, the ballgame. Pictorial depictions often show musicians playing at ballgames, and
1268:
It has been hypothesized that, for reasons as yet unknown, the stick-game eclipsed the hip-ball game at
Teotihuacan and at Teotihuacan-influenced cities, and only after the fall of Teotihuacan did the hip-ball game reassert itself.
347:
By 300 BC, evidence for the game appears throughout much of the Mesoamerican archaeological record, including ballcourts in the Central Chiapas Valley (the next oldest ballcourts discovered, after Paso de la Amada), and in the
616:, show balls 1 m (3 ft 3 in) or more in diameter. Academic consensus is that these depictions are exaggerations or symbolic, as are, for example, the impossibly unwieldy headdresses worn in the same portrayals.
681:
Across Mesoamerica, ballcourts were built and used for many generations. Although ballcourts are found within most sizable Mesoamerican ruins, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the
344:. Although no ballcourts of similar age have been found in Tlatilco or Tlapacoya, it is possible that the ballgame was indeed played in these areas, but on courts with perishable boundaries or temporary court markers.
1174:
Despite the danger the brothers fall asleep and are captured and sacrificed by the lords of Xibalba and then buried in the ballcourt. Hun Hunahpu is decapitated and his head hung in a fruit tree, which bears the first
825:
Two palmas from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. These palmas were chest protectors worn in the Mesoamerican ballgame and come from Veracruz, Mexico, ca. 700â1000 CE/AD. They are approximately 1Âœ feet (50 cm)
1419:
schoolâand those who were most proficient might become so famous that they could play professionally. Games would frequently be staged in the different city wards and marketsâoften accompanied by large-scale betting.
368:
As might be expected with a game played over such a long period of time by many cultures, details varied over time and place, so the Mesoamerican ballgame might be more accurately seen as a family of related games.
1033:
3644:
Taladoire, Eric; Colsenet, Benoit (1991). "'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanior':The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1404:. But apart from holding important ritual and mythical meaning, the ballgame for the Aztecs was a sport and a pastime played for fun, although in general, the Aztec game was a prerogative of the nobles.
1031:
and the Maya cultures, where the most explicit depictions of human sacrifice can be seen on the ballcourt panelsâfor example at El TajĂn (850â1100 CE) and at Chichen Itza (900â1200 CE)âas well as on the
664:
rarely, vertical) surfaces. The walls were often plastered and brightly painted. In early ballcourts the alleys were open-ended; later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an
94:
In the most common theory of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms, rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid
252:
It is not known precisely when or where the Mesoamerican ballgame originated, although it is likely that it originated earlier than 2000 BC in the low-lying tropical zones home to the
832:
1135:
399:
and batons, handstones, and the forearm, perhaps at times in combination. Each of the various types of games had its own size of ball, specialized gear and playing field, and rules.
5143:
3695:
Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991). "Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
791:
2204:
Taladoire, Eric (March 4, 2004). "Could We Speak of the Super Bowl at Flushing Meadows?: La Pelota Mixteca, a Third Pre-Hispanic Ballgame, and its Possible Architectural Context".
5214:
4169:
5255:
105:
aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events. Late in the history of the game, some cultures occasionally seem to have combined competitions with religious
1439:
gives a figure of 16,000 lumps of raw rubber being imported to Tenochtitlan from the southern provinces every six months, although not all of it was used for making balls.
1636:
The primary evidence for female ballplayers is in the many apparently female figurines of the Formative period, wearing a ballplayer loincloth and perhaps other gear. In
459:
period, the Maya began placing vertical stone rings on each side of the court, the object being to pass the ball through one, an innovation that continued into the later
1474:
Ballcourts, monuments with ballgame imagery and ballgame paraphernalia have been excavated at sites along the Pacific coast of Guatemala and El Salvador including the
856:
2057:
stated that the games were played by a two-man team vs. a two-man team, three-man team vs. a three-man team, and even a two-man team vs. a three-man team (quoted by
1239:, making it by far the largest Classic era site without one. In fact, the ballgame seems to have been nearly forsaken not only in Teotihuacan, but in areas such as
1458:
where they were drawn by the German Christoph Weiditz. Besides the fascination with their exotic visitors, the Europeans were amazed by the bouncing rubber balls.
1275:
328:
From the tropical lowlands, the game apparently moved into central Mexico. Starting around 1000 BC or earlier, ballplayer figurines were interred with burials at
4191:
3486:
3108:
4712:
3025:âthe orthography with "u" is a misrendering of the NĂĄhuatl word caused by the fact that the quality of the nahuatl vowel /Ć/ sounds a little like Spanish /u/.
1433:
was not found in the highlands of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs generally received balls and rubber as tribute from the lowland areas where it was grown. The
5188:
1856:, the name bestowed by 20th-century archaeologists on the influential Gulf Coast civilization which had dominated that region three thousand years earlier.
4817:
1542:, season 9's first episode, Bender wins the game in his Mexican ancestors' hometown and also wins the honor of sacrifice upon the altar of the Ancients.
1219:
that marked a portal into another world. The Twins themselves, however, are usually absent from Classic ballgame scenes, with the Classic forerunner of
4887:
4677:
4162:
3770:
541:
is also often seen, worn just below the knee or around the ankleâit is not known what function this served. Gloves appear on the purported ballplayer
2452:
included in this total, since these are outside Mesoamerica and there is significant discussion whether these areas were used for ballplaying or not.
4782:
3872:
3761:
2718:
1735:
922:
613:
5265:
4577:
2083:
2724:
1424:, an early Spanish chronicler, said that "these wretches... sold their children in order to bet and even staked themselves and became slaves".
4652:
4587:
4567:
4078:
2892:. Bradley finds that a raised circular dot, or a U-shaped symbol with a dot in the middle, or raised U- or V-shaped areas each represent maize.
4792:
4059:
4020:
3959:
3909:
3853:
3827:
3743:
3708:
3685:
3658:
3626:
3595:
3556:
3532:
3498:
3446:
3400:
3357:
3323:
3259:
3143:
2778:
2659:
2531:
2406:
2360:
2260:
2138:
2107:
1994:
1718:
421:
Even without human sacrifice, the game could be brutal and there were often serious injuries inflicted by the solid, heavy ball. Today's hip-
128:. These ballcourts vary considerably in size, but all have long narrow alleys with slanted side-walls against which the balls could bounce.
4155:
901:
The Mesoamerican ballgame was a ritual deeply ingrained in Mesoamerican cultures and served purposes beyond that of a mere sporting event.
2480:, pp. 205â208. It is thought that neither the Great Ballcourt nor Tikal's Ceremonial Court were used for ballgames (Scarborough, p. 137).
325:
as far back as 1250â1150 BC. A rudimentary ballcourt, dated to a later occupation at San Lorenzo, 600â400 BC, has also been identified.
5173:
5148:
5128:
4562:
1327:
Folio 45. Note that the four players are all holding batons, perhaps indicating that they are playing a type of racquet- or stick-ball.
4922:
4702:
4527:
3919:
Hosler, Dorothy; Sandra Burkett; Michael Tarkanian (June 18, 1999). "Prehistoric Polymers: Rubber Processing in Ancient Mesoamerica".
1186:
defeating them. However, the twins are unsuccessful in reviving their father, so they leave him buried in the ball court of Xibalba.
3792:
1598:
3523:
Quirarte, Jacinto (1977). "The Ballcourt in Mesoamerica: Its Architectural Development". In Alan Cordy-Collins; Jean Stern (eds.).
1163:) as a symbol for warfare intimately connected to the themes of fertility and death. The story begins with the Hero Twins' father,
1062:
4667:
2476:
p. 100. Taladoire gives these measures for the "playing field", while other authors include the benches and other trappings. See
1373:
5168:
5133:
5098:
4937:
4807:
4657:
4612:
4124:
1023:
The association between human sacrifice and the ballgame appears rather late in the archaeological record, no earlier than the
498:
2017:
Finca Acapulco, San Mateo, and El Vergel, along the Grijalva, have ballcourts dated between 900 and 550 BC (Agrinier, p. 175).
1309:
Detail of a Tepantitla mural showing a hip-ball game on an open-ended ballcourt, represented by the parallel horizontal lines.
5078:
4872:
4847:
4767:
4459:
4203:
3083:
2054:
1036:
from the Classic Veracruz site of Aparicio (700â900 CE). The Postclassic Maya religious and quasi-historical narrative, the
472:
435:
open. He also reported that players were even killed when the ball "hit them in the mouth or the stomach or the intestines".
3586:
Shelton, Anthony A. (2003). "The Aztec Theatre State and the Dramatization of War". In Tim Cornell; Thomas B. Allen (eds.).
1771:, pp. 109â110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast.
1087:
is thought to have represented the sun. The stone scoring rings are speculated to signify sunrise and sunset, or equinoxes.
702:
and the northern Maya Lowlands have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including
376:
Mesoamerican ballgame, and researchers believe that this version was the primaryâor perhaps onlyâversion played within the
1455:
963:
The southeast panel of the South Ballcourt at El TajĂn shows the protagonist ballplayer being dressed in a warrior's garb.
695:
333:
5250:
5083:
4632:
98:
and weighed as much as 4 kg (9 lbs), and sizes differed greatly over time or according to the version played.
1612:
5178:
4947:
4532:
4517:
4391:
4047:
3998:
3465:
3434:
3315:
2750:
2647:
953:
785:. A pre-Columbian ceramic from western Mexico shows what appears to be a wrestling match taking place on a ballcourt.
1925:
OrtĂz, "Las ofrendas de El ManatĂ y su posible asociaciĂłn con el juego de pelota: un yugo a destiempo", pp. 55â67 in
452:, the ball is hit back and forth using only the hips until one team fails to return it or the ball leaves the court.
318:
3873:"El CorazĂłn del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine ContemporĂĄneo"
1736:"El CorazĂłn del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine ContemporĂĄneo"
70:. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modernized version of the game,
4787:
4542:
2948:
These excerpts from the Popol Vuh can be found in Christenson's recent translation or in any work on the Popol Vuh.
1479:
1443:
1254:
compound at Teotihuacan show a number of small scenes that seem to portray various types of ball games, including:
4957:
883:
563:
392:
1572:âOrigins of the Mesoamerican ballgame: Earliest ballcourt from the highlands found at Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexicoâ
1466:
21:
5260:
4892:
4747:
4717:
4276:
4141:
2975:
p. 109, who states that Matacapan and Tikal did indeed build ballcourts but only after the fall of Teotihuacan.
2880:
Life, Death and Duality: A Handbook of the Rev. Edmund P. Joyce, C.S.C. Collection of Ritual Ballgame Sculpture
1028:
691:
383:. Ample archaeological evidence exists for games where the ball was struck by a wooden stick (e.g., a mural at
237:
2161:
651:
438:
The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame, regardless of the version, are not known in any detail. In modern-day
5240:
5183:
4917:
4907:
4867:
4742:
4474:
4409:
4002:
1024:
950:
902:
683:
551:
456:
287:
3767:
1551:
109:. The sport was also played casually for recreation by children and may have been played by women as well.
4852:
4572:
4419:
4362:
4296:
4281:
2515:
711:
625:
380:
275:
242:
113:
3892:
1940:, p. 32, although the identification of a ballcourt within San Lorenzo has not been universally accepted.
1755:
937:
only external mediation, but also the resolution of competition and conflict within the society as well.
91:, where the aim is to keep the ball in play. The stone ballcourt goals are a late addition to the game.
4980:
4927:
4822:
4489:
4454:
4444:
4385:
1518:
1368:("in the holy ballcourt")âhere several important rituals would take place on the festivals of the month
605:
432:
229:
149:
4722:
1849:
809:
The yoke and kneepads identify this molded ceramic Maya figurine as a ballplayer. Like many of these
4617:
4469:
4341:
2722:
1806:
1545:
1369:
1019:
One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at El TajĂn, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer
959:
Other scholars support these arguments by pointing to the warfare imagery often found at ballcourts:
554:
are seen with a right kneepadâno leftâand a wrapped right forearm, as shown in the Maya image above.
279:
4101:
603:
tree. Someone discovered that by mixing latex with sap from the vine of a species of morning glory (
5245:
5108:
4404:
4331:
4306:
4271:
4251:
4131:
2518:(1991). "Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
2388:
1955:
1523:
303:
3680:(in Spanish). MĂ©xico D.F.: SigloXXI Editores and Casa de Cultura, Gobierno del Estado de Sinaloa.
3171:(in Spanish). San Salvador, El Salvador: Ministerio de Cultura y Comunicaciones. pp. 225â228.
1447:
1006:, "until quite recently was connected with warfare and many reminders of that association remain".
568:
5193:
5005:
4737:
4732:
4592:
4439:
4375:
4356:
4291:
4286:
4218:
3614:
3426:
3418:
3384:
3303:
3247:
3217:
3201:
3184:
3136:
An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador
3102:
3074:, p. 8: "The game was played by nearly all adolescent and adult males, noble and commoner alike."
2923:
2762:
2639:
2631:
2445:
2344:
2248:
2221:
1822:
1411:
Aztec ullamaliztli players performing for Charles V in Spain, drawn by Christoph Weiditz in 1528.
926:
910:
538:
396:
322:
267:, archaeologists have found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered, dated to approximately 1400 BC.
4311:
4051:
4039:
4012:
3490:
3482:
Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 9 and 10 October 1993
3480:
3438:
3422:
3388:
2766:
2348:
1986:
1978:
1251:
3086:, another early Spanish chronicler, also mentioned the heavy betting that accompanied games in
2651:
2635:
1407:
1059:
Little is known about the game's symbolic contents. Several themes recur in scholarly writing.
5219:
5020:
4727:
4484:
4464:
4246:
4178:
4093:
4065:
4055:
4026:
4016:
3986:
3965:
3955:
3938:
3921:
3905:
3884:
3859:
3849:
3823:
3806:
3798:
3788:
3749:
3739:
3714:
3704:
3681:
3664:
3654:
3632:
3622:
3591:
3562:
3552:
3528:
3504:
3494:
3476:
3452:
3442:
3406:
3396:
3363:
3353:
3329:
3319:
3290:
3265:
3255:
3209:
3149:
3139:
2883:
2784:
2774:
2665:
2655:
2537:
2527:
2412:
2402:
2398:
2392:
2366:
2356:
2352:
2336:
2256:
2134:
2103:
2000:
1990:
1959:
1747:
1714:
1594:
1429:
1140:
956:, with 24 ballcourts, had many diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak state.
599:
360:
253:
136:
The Mesoamerican ballgame is known by a wide variety of names. In English, it is often called
34:
3618:
3606:
3392:
3376:
3302:
Cohodas, Marvin (1991). "Ballgame imagery of the Maya Lowlands: History and Iconography". In
3251:
3239:
2770:
2754:
2252:
2240:
1392:, against the forces of night, led by the moon and the stars, and represented by the goddess
5163:
5000:
4952:
4902:
4842:
4757:
4682:
4672:
4647:
4602:
4449:
4399:
4380:
4370:
4321:
4316:
3930:
3193:
3017:
2868:, or Blanchard. Some researchers contend that the ball represents not the sun, but the moon.
2213:
1814:
1575:
1508:, has been proposed as a descendant of the Mesoamerican ballgame, perhaps through the Maya.
1356:
1120:
1044:
264:
200:
185:
173:
46:
533:
Kneepads are seen on a variety of players from many areas and eras and are worn by forearm-
5056:
5010:
4762:
4707:
4697:
4557:
4479:
4336:
4266:
4261:
4241:
4208:
3820:
Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya: The Great Classic of Central American Spirituality
3774:
2935:
2728:
1530:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1211:
1152:
1103:
946:
298:
production. The earliest-known rubber balls in the world come from the sacrificial bog at
271:
106:
77:
51:
4137:
3738:. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
1810:
1199:
5138:
5123:
5113:
5015:
4752:
4582:
4537:
4434:
4346:
4301:
3697:
3647:
3545:
3472:
3346:
3308:
2608:, p. 174: "We suggest that the ballgame was used as a substitute and a symbol for war."
2520:
2384:
2157:
1421:
1250:
Despite the lack of a ballcourt, ball games were not unknown there. The murals of the
867:
770:
738:
586:
471:
placed on each wall along the center line. According to 16th-century Aztec chronicler
428:
311:
190:
83:
The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame are not known, but judging from its descendant,
3182:
AlegrĂa, Ricardo E. (1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles".
3092:
1690:
Blom, Frans (1932). "The Maya Ball-Game 'Pok-ta-pok', called Tlachtli by the Aztecs".
1319:
985:
A captive-within-the-ball motif is seen on the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in
448:, with each team confined to one half of the court. In the most widespread version of
5234:
4995:
4990:
4882:
4832:
4827:
4812:
4802:
4797:
4547:
4424:
4236:
4213:
4006:
3841:
3782:
3341:
3221:
2225:
2130:
2124:
2027:
Orr, Heather (2005). "Ballgames: The Mesoamerican Ballgame". In Lindsay Jones (ed.).
1794:
1571:
1475:
1435:
1294:
1084:
847:
572:
A solid rubber ball used or similar to those used in the Mesoamerican ballgame, from
349:
63:
5198:
5153:
5103:
5093:
5073:
5041:
4942:
4897:
4877:
4662:
4642:
4607:
4522:
4507:
4326:
4198:
3837:
3574:
1952:
The Lords of Life: The Iconography of Power and Fertility in Preclassic Mesoamerica
1826:
1499:
1393:
1361:
1324:
1220:
1204:
1071:
1067:
810:
774:
746:
547:
511:
440:
423:
414:
388:
246:
233:
A map showing sites where early ballcourts, balls, or figurines have been recovered
84:
72:
3934:
3787:. The Greenwood Press "Daily Life Through History". Westport CT: Greenwood Press.
2882:. Snite Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 1. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame.
1261:
Teams using sticks on an open field whose end zones are marked by stone monuments.
666:
636:
406:
332:
and similarly styled figurines from the same period have been found at the nearby
299:
3977:
Metropolitan Museum of Art (2002). "Recent Acquisitions, A selection 2001â2002".
1588:
1123:
source, the Leyenda de los Soles, the Toltec king Huemac played ball against the
427:
players are "perpetually bruised" while nearly 500 years ago Spanish chronicler
5051:
4932:
4912:
4777:
4637:
4627:
4512:
4256:
1505:
1258:
A two-player game in an open-ended masonry ballcourt. (See third picture below.)
1236:
1164:
1147:, dated to 591. The ball displays the finely incised portrait of a young deity.
1094:
Fertility. Formative period ballplayer figurinesâmost likely femalesâoften wear
905:, a 16th-century Spanish missionary and historian, tells that the Aztec emperor
758:
703:
698:, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24. In contrast, northern
687:
645:
641:
573:
384:
364:
Some ballcourts had upper goals, scoring on which would end the match instantly.
88:
67:
3613:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
3383:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
3246:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
2761:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
2620:, p. 340: the ballgame was "a boundary maintenance mechanism between polities".
2343:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
2247:(Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the
5088:
4985:
4857:
4772:
4687:
4597:
4147:
2217:
1486:
and sites right at the southeast periphery of the Mesoamerican region such as
1483:
1216:
1144:
914:
843:
782:
754:
630:
494:
445:
352:, as well as ceramic ballgame tableaus from Western Mexico (see photo below).
145:
4097:
3990:
3888:
3840:; Alexander Voss (2006). "A Game of Life and Death â The Maya Ball Game". In
3802:
3294:
2864:
The ball-as-sun analogy is common in ballgame literature; see, among others,
1954:(exhibition catalogue, February 2 â April 5, 1992 ed.). Notre Dame, IN:
1751:
4862:
4692:
4069:
4030:
3969:
3863:
3810:
3753:
3718:
3668:
3636:
3566:
3508:
3456:
3410:
3367:
3333:
3269:
3213:
3153:
3088:
2887:
2788:
2669:
2541:
2416:
2370:
2004:
1963:
1397:
1240:
1156:
1048:
1037:
1015:
986:
918:
906:
506:
337:
260:
121:
3942:
3512:
2313:
states that the ball used by present-day players is 8 pounds (3.6 kg).
1227:
ball court, holding the severed arm of Hunahpu, as an important exception.
1051:. There has been speculation that the heads and skulls were used as balls.
979:
933:
king, played against three rivals, with the winner ruling over the losers.
717:
Ancient cities with particularly fine ballcourts in good condition include
530:
which were inserted into the yoke and stood upright in front of the chest.
485:
4119:
5061:
5025:
4975:
4837:
4622:
3039:
1538:
1416:
1224:
1176:
726:
707:
341:
329:
117:
5068:
4552:
4429:
4351:
2337:"The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli"
1650:
1487:
1168:
1159:
establishes the importance of the game (referred to in Classic Maya as
1075:
778:
762:
734:
699:
660:
411:
377:
162:
125:
3205:
1601:. Cf. Chapter 4: "Sudden Death in the New World" about the Ulama game.
1293:
Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla, Teotihuacan murals. Note the
797:
A relief of the Crown showing a scene from the Mesoamerican Ball Game.
4414:
2855:, p. 243: "occasionally decapitated heads (sic) were placed in play"
2444:
p. 98. There are slightly over 200 ballcourts also identified in the
1665:
1381:
1264:
Separate renditions of single players. (See first two details below.)
1124:
1099:
1098:
icons. At El TajĂn, the ballplayer sacrifice ensures the renewal of
930:
542:
519:
488:
460:
294:(i.e. "rubber people") since the region was strongly identified with
283:
102:
95:
3250:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp.
3070:, p. 45 and others, although there is by no means a universal view;
966:
Captives are a prominent part of ballgame iconography. For example:
597:
northern desert. Most balls were made from latex sap of the lowland
144:). This term originates from a 1932 article by Danish archaeologist
4079:"Glyphs for "Handspan" and "Strike" in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts"
3904:. Facts on File Library of World History. New York: Facts On File.
3617:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp.
3197:
2251:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. p.
714:, although Mesoamerican ballgame iconography has been found there.
5158:
3352:. Ancient peoples and places series. London: Thames & Hudson.
3035:
1853:
1818:
1465:
1406:
1244:
1179:
1134:
1095:
1061:
1014:
990:
942:
863:
839:
750:
742:
722:
718:
675:
650:
629:
567:
493:
491:, while Teotihuacan murals show men playing stick-ball in skirts.
464:
405:
302:, an early Olmec-associated site located in the hinterland of the
295:
59:
20:
2916:
CĂłdice Chimalpopoca: Anales de Cuauhtitlan y Leyenda de los Soles
1110:
cosmic order of the universe and the ritual regeneration of life.
1074:
brings a rubber ball offering to a temple. The balls each hold a
372:
In general, the hip-ball version is most popularly thought of as
5118:
730:
523:
4151:
975:
Several ceramic figurines show war captives holding game balls.
431:
reported that some bruises were so severe that they had to be
25:
The ball in front of the goal during a game of pok-ta-pok, 2006
3527:. Palo Alto, California: Peek Publications. pp. 191â212.
3277:
Garza Camino, Mercedes de la; Ana Luisa Izquierdo (1980). "El
2816:, p. 249: "It would not be surprising if the game were rigged"
1167:, and uncle, Vucub Hunahpu, playing ball near the underworld,
62:
with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC by the
3192:(4). Menasha, WI: Society for American Archaeology: 348â352.
2241:"Dressed to Kill: Stone Regalia of the Mesoamerican Ballgame"
1323:
An I-shaped ballcourt with players and balls depicted in the
949:
and few external rivals, had relatively few ballcourts while
518:
In many cultures, further protection was provided by a thick
336:
site. It was about this period, as well, that the so-called
124:, and possibly as far north as what is now the U.S. state of
1040:, also links human sacrifice with the ballgame (see below).
813:
style figurines, it also functions as a whistle. 600â900 CE.
417:
player. The outfit is similar to that worn by Aztec players.
3607:"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame"
3138:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 221, 226.
2755:"The Maya Ballgame: Rebirth in the Court of Life and Death"
2636:"Pre-Hispanic Ballcourts from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico"
1504:
Batey, a ball game played on many Caribbean islands in the
116:
have been found throughout Mesoamerica, as for example at
3678:
El juego de pelota en MesoamĂ©rica: raĂces y supervivencia
1709:
Graña Behrens, Daniel (2001). "El Juego de Pelota Maya".
2983:
2981:
2630:
Kowalewski, Stephen A.; Gary M. Feinman; Laura Finsten;
917:, wagering his annual income against several Xochimilco
259:
One candidate for the birthplace of the ballgame is the
3464:
OrtĂz C., Ponciano; MarĂa del Carmen RodrĂguez (1999).
1613:"Indigenous groups keep ancient sports alive in Mexico"
178:
166:
3611:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3381:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3244:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2759:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2341:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2245:
The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2102:(Revised ed.). Bergin & Garvey. p. 107.
1713:(in Spanish). Guatemala: Cholsamaj. pp. 203â228.
321:
have also uncovered a number of ballplayer figurines,
194:
4040:"The Mesoamerican Ballgame in the American Southwest"
3784:
Daily Life of the Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth
1027:. The association was particularly strong within the
655:
Cross sections of some of the more typical ballcourts
3485:(Dumbarton Oaks etexts ed.). Washington, D.C.:
3466:"Olmec Ritual Behavior at El ManatĂ: A Sacred Space"
2031:. Detroit: Macmillan Reference, Vol. 2. p. 749.
1797:(1998). "Ball court design dates back 3,400 years".
290:
contemporaries who then inhabited the region as the
263:
coastal lowlands along the Pacific Ocean. Here, at
5034:
4966:
4498:
4227:
2074:
reports that four-man vs four-man team also existed
1950:Bradley, Douglas E.; Peter David Joralemon (1993).
484:Capes and masks, for example, are shown on several
3696:
3646:
3579:The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art
3544:
3345:
3307:
2519:
1570:Jeffrey P. Blomster and VĂctor E. Salazar ChĂĄvez.
1534:, a 2016 animated TV series by The Disney Channel.
153:
4042:. In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
3736:The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society
2193:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 238â239.
2072:The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World
1981:. In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
1979:"Ceramic Figurines and the Mesoamerican Ballgame"
3848:. Cologne, Germany: Könemann. pp. 186â191.
2914:VelĂĄzquez, Primo Feliciano (translator) (1975).
1415:Young Aztecs would be taught ballplaying in the
982:was decorated with sculptures of bound captives.
4132:The First Basketball: The Mesoamerican ballgame
2962:. Museo Popol Vuh, Guatemala. pp. 114â118.
1985:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p.
1347:or "to play ball". The ball itself was called
1281:Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla murals.
3487:Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection
515:players (above)âa span of nearly 3,000 years.
4163:
1590:The ball: discovering the object of the game"
925:, a contemporary of Torquemada, relates that
216:
210:
204:
8:
2093:
2091:
1692:Middle American Research Series Publications
1331:The Aztec version of the ballgame is called
690:, the largest city of the ballgame-obsessed
678:was only 16 by 5 metres (52 by 16 ft).
501:in Mexico City â a figure of a pelota player
340:-style ballplayer figurines were crafted in
165:, the language of the Aztecs, it was called
5256:Indigenous sports and games of the Americas
1002:The modern-day descendant of the ballgame,
4170:
4156:
4148:
3902:Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World
3844:; Eva Eggebrecht; Matthias Seidel (eds.).
3107:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1578:â, 13 March 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
1190:The ballgame in Mesoamerican civilizations
1066:In this detail from the late 15th century
4678:Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
1554:, which depicts the ball and stone goals.
505:The basic hip-game outfit consisted of a
3781:Carrasco, David; Scott Sessions (1998).
3762:California State University, Los Angeles
3581:. Fort Worth, Texas: Kimball Art Museum.
3377:"Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica"
3348:The Olmecs: America's First Civilization
2719:California State University, Los Angeles
2514:Kurjack, Edward B.; Ruben Maldonado C.;
2184:
2182:
1318:
1247:that were under Teotihuacano influence.
1235:No ballcourt has yet been identified at
1198:
580:, or handstone, used to strike the ball.
359:
317:Excavations at the nearby Olmec site of
236:
228:
101:The Mesoamerican ballgame had important
3979:The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin
3703:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
3653:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
3551:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
2958:Chinchilla Mazariegos, Oswaldo (2011).
2824:
2822:
2526:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
1563:
1271:
787:
3387:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York:
3169:La ArqueologĂa de Quelepa, El Salvador
3100:
3016:
2931:
2921:
2901:
2765:, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York:
2605:
2589:
2587:
2501:
1649:The evidence for ballcourts among the
1611:Schwartz, Jeremy (December 19, 2008).
1454:(ballplayers) to Spain to perform for
1355:
850:Nuclear Zone, showing two ballplayers.
184:
172:
45:
3846:Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest
2347:, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York:
1376:of four war captives to the honor of
215:('Mesoamerican ballgame'), or simply
7:
3034:The name of the present-day city of
2176:, pp. 107â108, who quotes Motolinia.
5149:Norse colonization of North America
3676:Uriarte, MarĂa Teresa, ed. (1992).
3379:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
3242:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
2397:. New York: Facts on File. p.
2339:. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.).
659:The game was played within a large
550:figurines. Many ballplayers of the
4138:A figurine showing ballplayer gear
3952:The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives
2999:
2987:
2972:
2694:
2578:
2554:
2473:
2441:
2276:
2053:The 16th-century Aztec chronicler
1852:, are not to be confused with the
1848:These Gulf Coast inhabitants, the
1780:
945:Empire, with a strong centralized
694:, has at least 18 ballcourts, and
14:
1364:the largest ballcourt was called
270:The other major candidate is the
4118:
3822:. University of Oklahoma Press.
2322:
2299:
2287:
2156:, p. 66, who further references
1793:Hill, Warren D.; Michael Blake;
1339:) and are derived from the word
1302:
1297:issuing from the player's mouth.
1286:
1274:
875:
855:
831:
818:
802:
790:
773:buried at the Main Ballcourt at
665:
635:
87:, they were probably similar to
5169:Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
4008:Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya
3954:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
3089:Motolinia, Toribio de Benavente
3011:The Nahuatl word for the game,
2275:Dainzu gloves are discussed in
1351:and the ballcourt was called a
670:-shape when viewed from above.
499:National Museum of Anthropology
444:, the game resembles a netless
5266:15th-century BC establishments
3818:Christenson, Allen J. (2007).
3067:
3042:, comes from the Nahuatl word
2865:
2840:
2721:, Department of Anthropology,
2706:
2617:
1913:
1877:
1865:
1078:feather, part of the offering.
777:contained miniature whistles,
612:Some Maya depictions, such as
585:In fact, some of these extant
1:
3950:McKillop, Heather I. (2004).
3935:10.1126/science.284.5422.1988
3577:; Miller, Mary Ellen (1986).
2960:ImĂĄgenes de la mitologĂa maya
2477:
2461:
2310:
1880:(1999), pp. 228â232, 242â243.
1868:(1999), pp. 228â232, 242â243.
1839:Miller and Taube (1993, p.42)
1698:. Tulane University: 485â530.
1664:Dodson, Steve (May 8, 2006).
1593:, 1st ed., New York: Harper.
1139:A ballcourt marker, from the
1043:Captives were often shown in
1034:decapitated ballplayer stelae
387:shows a game which resembles
212:juego de pelota mesoamericano
5134:Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
5084:Eastern Agricultural Complex
3764:, Department of Anthropology
3375:Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001).
3238:Day, Jane Stevenson (2001).
3167:Andrews, E. Wyllys (1986) .
3071:
2918:. Mexico: UNAM. p. 126.
2878:Bradley, Douglas E. (1997).
2828:
2801:
2593:
2429:
2173:
2058:
2041:
1958:, University of Notre Dame.
1926:
1901:
1768:
1470:Pok-ta-pok players in action
4518:Bandelier National Monument
4392:List of Mississippian sites
4179:Pre-Columbian North America
4048:University of Arizona Press
3871:Espinoza, Mauricio (2002).
3734:Berdan, Frances F. (2005).
3590:. New York: Boydell Press.
3435:University of Arizona Press
3316:University of Arizona Press
3283:Estudios de Cultura NĂĄhuatl
3122:De La Garza & Izquierdo
3056:De La Garza & Izquierdo
3046:meaning "in the ballcourt".
2852:
2813:
2648:University of Arizona Press
2098:Blanchard, Kendall (2005).
1977:Ekholm, Susanna M. (1991).
1734:Espinoza, Mauricio (2002).
1638:The Sport of Life and Death
870:region of the Maya lowlands
576:, 300 BC to 250 AD, with a
356:Material and formal aspects
5284:
4938:West Oak Forest Earthlodge
4543:The Bluff Point Stoneworks
4252:Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)
3429:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
3423:"Ballgames and Boundaries"
3306:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
3121:
3055:
2642:; David R. Wilcox (eds.).
2189:Smith, Michael E. (2003).
1937:
1889:
1522:, a 2000 animated film by
1497:
1119:According to an important
623:
589:were created specifically
561:
148:, who adapted it from the
5207:
5179:Three Sisters agriculture
4185:
4044:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
4038:Wilcox, David R. (1991).
3699:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3649:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3547:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3525:Pre-Columbian Art History
3431:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3310:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
3240:"Performing on the Court"
2644:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2522:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
2218:10.1017/S0956536103132142
2129:. Lonely Planet. p.
2100:The Anthropology of Sport
1983:The Mesoamerican Ballgame
1617:Austin American-Statesman
884:Wupatki National Monument
564:Mesoamerican rubber balls
537:players today. A type of
120:, as far south as modern
76:, is still played by the
4718:Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site
4277:Buttermilk Creek complex
4142:Classic Veracruz culture
4140:, from the Gulf coast's
3900:Foster, Lynn V. (2002).
3777:, accessed October 2007.
3773:October 5, 2013, at the
3605:Taladoire, Eric (2001).
3018:[oËllamaËlistÉŹi]
2727:October 4, 2013, at the
2682:
2566:
2489:
2394:Atlas of Ancient America
2153:
2029:Encyclopedia of Religion
1442:In 1528, soon after the
692:Classic Veracruz culture
319:San Lorenzo TenochtitlĂĄn
174:[oËlËamaËlistÉŹi]
47:[oËlËamaËlistÉŹi]
4918:Town Creek Indian Mound
4888:Sierra de San Francisco
4743:Meadowcroft Rockshelter
2239:Scott, John F. (2001).
1550:features a card called
1360:. In the Aztec capital
1203:The Great Ballcourt at
903:Fray Juan de Torquemada
195:
179:
167:
154:
55:
38:
4573:Coso Rock Art District
4460:Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
4363:List of Hopewell sites
4107:on September 10, 2008.
2902:Taladoire and Colsenet
2606:Taladoire and Colsenet
2516:Merle Greene Robertson
2502:Taladoire and Colsenet
2335:Leyenaar, Ted (2001).
1478:nuclear zone sites of
1471:
1427:Since the rubber tree
1412:
1343:"rubber" and the verb
1328:
1207:
1148:
1079:
1020:
656:
648:
626:Mesoamerican ballcourt
581:
502:
418:
365:
276:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
249:
234:
217:
211:
205:
78:indigenous populations
43:Nahuatl pronunciation:
26:
4981:Arlington Springs Man
4823:Portsmouth Earthworks
4127:at Wikimedia Commons
4125:Mesoamerican ballgame
4077:Zender, Mark (2004).
3768:"Proyecto Ulama 2003"
3134:Kelly, Joyce (1996).
3097:. Paris. p. 320.
2162:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
1519:The Road to El Dorado
1469:
1410:
1322:
1210:In Maya Ballgame the
1202:
1138:
1065:
1018:
654:
640:-shape ball court in
633:
606:Calonyction aculeatum
571:
497:
409:
363:
240:
232:
31:Mesoamerican ballgame
24:
5189:Transoceanic contact
5079:Container Revolution
4653:Gila Cliff Dwellings
4618:Etowah Indian Mounds
3518:on February 5, 2009.
3021:) was often spelled
2123:Noble, John (2006).
1547:Magic: The Gathering
206:juego de pelota maya
5251:Mesoamerican sports
5109:Green Corn Ceremony
4923:Turkey River Mounds
4713:Lake Jackson Mounds
4533:Blue Spring Shelter
4013:Thames & Hudson
3929:(5422): 1988â1991.
3419:Gillespie, Susan D.
3389:Thames & Hudson
2767:Thames & Hudson
2389:Elizabeth P. Benson
2349:Thames & Hudson
2206:Ancient Mesoamerica
1956:Snite Museum of Art
1914:Ortiz and RodrĂguez
1878:Ortiz and RodrĂguez
1866:Ortiz and RodrĂguez
1811:1998Natur.392..878H
1552:Contested Game Ball
1524:Dreamworks Pictures
1357:[ËtÉŹatÊtÉŹi]
1335:(sometimes spelled
304:Coatzacoalcos River
209:('Maya ballgame'),
186:[ËtÉŹatÊtÉŹi]
68:Ancient Mesoamerica
5194:Underwater panther
4868:Rosenstock Village
4738:Marmes Rockshelter
4723:L'Anse aux Meadows
3999:Miller, Mary Ellen
3615:Mint Museum of Art
3427:Vernon Scarborough
3385:Mint Museum of Art
3304:Vernon Scarborough
3281:en el Siglo XVI".
3248:Mint Museum of Art
3185:American Antiquity
2934:has generic name (
2763:Mint Museum of Art
2751:Miller, Mary Ellen
2640:Vernon Scarborough
2632:Richard E. Blanton
2446:American Southwest
2345:Mint Museum of Art
2249:Mint Museum of Art
1587:Fox, John (2012).
1512:In popular culture
1472:
1413:
1329:
1208:
1149:
1080:
1021:
989:and on Altar 8 at
657:
649:
582:
558:Rubber black balls
503:
419:
366:
286:referred to their
250:
235:
193:, it was known as
27:
5228:
5227:
5220:Pre-Columbian era
5021:Spirit Cave mummy
4818:Plum Bayou Mounds
4728:Lynch Quarry Site
4247:Ancient Beringian
4123:Media related to
4061:978-0-8165-1180-8
4022:978-0-500-05129-0
3961:978-1-57607-697-2
3911:978-0-8160-4148-0
3855:978-3-8331-1957-6
3829:978-0-8061-3839-8
3745:978-0-534-62728-7
3710:978-0-8165-1180-8
3687:978-968-23-1837-5
3660:978-0-8165-1180-8
3628:978-0-500-05108-5
3597:978-0-85115-870-9
3558:978-0-8165-1180-8
3534:978-0-917962-41-7
3500:978-0-88402-252-7
3477:Rosemary A. Joyce
3448:978-0-8165-1360-4
3402:978-0-500-05108-5
3359:978-0-500-02119-4
3325:978-0-8165-1360-4
3261:978-0-500-05108-5
3145:978-0-8061-2858-0
2853:Schele and Miller
2814:Schele and Miller
2780:978-0-500-05108-5
2661:978-0-8165-1360-4
2533:978-0-8165-1180-8
2408:978-0-8160-1199-5
2362:978-0-500-05108-5
2262:978-0-500-05108-5
2140:978-1-74059-744-9
2109:978-0-89789-329-9
1996:978-0-8165-1180-8
1805:(6679): 878â879.
1720:978-99922-56-41-1
1450:sent a troupe of
1430:Castilla elastica
1195:Maya civilization
978:The ballcourt at
897:Proxy for warfare
862:The ballcourt at
600:Castilla elastica
479:Clothing and gear
323:radiocarbon-dated
306:drainage system.
35:Nahuatl languages
5273:
5164:Projectile point
5001:Leanderthal Lady
4928:Upward Sun River
4903:Stallings Island
4893:Shell ring sites
4843:Recapture Canyon
4758:Moorehead Circle
4603:El Fin del Mundo
4588:Cueva de la Olla
4394:
4381:Maritime Archaic
4365:
4195:
4172:
4165:
4158:
4149:
4134:NBA Hoops Online
4122:
4108:
4106:
4100:. Archived from
4086:The PARI Journal
4083:
4073:
4034:
3994:
3973:
3946:
3915:
3896:
3895:on May 24, 2007.
3891:. Archived from
3867:
3833:
3814:
3765:
3757:
3722:
3702:
3691:
3672:
3652:
3640:
3601:
3582:
3570:
3550:
3538:
3519:
3517:
3511:. Archived from
3470:
3460:
3414:
3371:
3351:
3337:
3313:
3298:
3273:
3226:
3225:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3106:
3098:
3081:
3075:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3009:
3003:
3000:Taladoire (2001)
2997:
2991:
2988:Taladoire (2001)
2985:
2976:
2973:Taladoire (2001)
2970:
2964:
2963:
2955:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2933:
2929:
2927:
2919:
2911:
2905:
2899:
2893:
2891:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2732:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2695:Taladoire (2001)
2692:
2686:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2582:
2579:Taladoire (2001)
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2555:Taladoire (2001)
2552:
2546:
2545:
2525:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2493:
2487:
2481:
2474:Taladoire (2001)
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2442:Taladoire (2001)
2439:
2433:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2186:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2095:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2070:Fagan, Brian M.
2068:
2062:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1850:Olmeca-Xicalanca
1846:
1840:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1790:
1784:
1781:Taladoire (2001)
1778:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1758:on May 24, 2007.
1754:. Archived from
1731:
1725:
1724:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1661:
1655:
1647:
1641:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1608:
1602:
1585:
1579:
1576:Science Advances
1568:
1444:Spanish conquest
1372:, including the
1359:
1306:
1290:
1278:
1070:, the Aztec god
1029:Classic Veracruz
913:, the leader of
892:Cultural aspects
879:
859:
835:
822:
806:
794:
669:
639:
265:Paso de la Amada
241:A view into the
220:
214:
208:
198:
188:
182:
176:
170:
157:
80:in some places.
49:
44:
5283:
5282:
5276:
5275:
5274:
5272:
5271:
5270:
5261:Human sacrifice
5231:
5230:
5229:
5224:
5215:Genetic history
5203:
5057:Ceremonial pipe
5030:
5011:Minnesota Woman
4968:
4962:
4783:Ocmulgee Mounds
4763:Morrison Mounds
4708:Kolomoki Mounds
4698:Kimball Village
4558:Candelaria Cave
4500:
4494:
4475:Suwannee Valley
4410:Old Cordilleran
4390:
4361:
4229:
4223:
4189:
4181:
4176:
4116:
4111:
4104:
4081:
4076:
4062:
4037:
4023:
3997:
3976:
3962:
3949:
3918:
3912:
3899:
3870:
3856:
3836:
3830:
3817:
3795:
3780:
3775:Wayback Machine
3760:
3746:
3733:
3729:
3727:Further reading
3711:
3694:
3688:
3675:
3661:
3643:
3629:
3604:
3598:
3585:
3573:
3559:
3541:
3535:
3522:
3515:
3501:
3468:
3463:
3449:
3417:
3403:
3374:
3360:
3340:
3326:
3301:
3276:
3262:
3237:
3234:
3229:
3181:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3146:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3120:
3116:
3099:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3066:
3062:
3054:
3050:
3033:
3029:
3010:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2986:
2979:
2971:
2967:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2943:
2930:
2920:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2900:
2896:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2863:
2859:
2851:
2847:
2839:
2835:
2827:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2781:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2735:
2729:Wayback Machine
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2681:
2677:
2662:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2604:
2600:
2592:
2585:
2577:
2573:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2549:
2534:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2440:
2436:
2428:
2424:
2409:
2385:Coe, Michael D.
2383:
2382:
2378:
2363:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2309:
2305:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2277:Taladoire, 2004
2274:
2270:
2263:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2188:
2187:
2180:
2172:
2168:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2082:
2078:
2069:
2065:
2052:
2048:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2012:
1997:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1912:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1733:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1672:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1586:
1582:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1531:Elena of Avalor
1514:
1502:
1496:
1464:
1402:400 Huitznahuah
1390:Huitzilopochtli
1380:and his herald
1378:Huitzilopochtli
1370:Panquetzalitzli
1317:
1310:
1307:
1298:
1291:
1282:
1279:
1233:
1197:
1192:
1133:
1117:
1102:, an alcoholic
1083:Astronomy. The
1057:
1013:
1011:Human sacrifice
899:
894:
887:
880:
871:
860:
851:
836:
827:
823:
814:
807:
798:
795:
771:votive deposits
628:
622:
566:
560:
481:
358:
272:Olmec heartland
227:
221:('Maya ball').
203:, it is called
134:
107:human sacrifice
52:Mayan languages
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5281:
5280:
5277:
5269:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5241:Ancient sports
5233:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5139:Mound Builders
5136:
5131:
5126:
5124:Medicine wheel
5121:
5116:
5114:Horned Serpent
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5038:
5036:
5032:
5031:
5029:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4972:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4961:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4853:Roberts Island
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4788:Old Stone Fort
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4753:Moaning Cavern
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4703:Kincaid Mounds
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4583:Cuarenta Casas
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4538:Bluefish Caves
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4504:
4502:
4499:Archaeological
4496:
4495:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4396:
4395:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4367:
4366:
4354:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4297:Caloosahatchee
4294:
4289:
4284:
4282:Caborn-Welborn
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4233:
4231:
4228:Archaeological
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4186:
4183:
4182:
4177:
4175:
4174:
4167:
4160:
4152:
4146:
4145:
4135:
4115:
4114:External links
4112:
4110:
4109:
4074:
4060:
4035:
4021:
3995:
3974:
3960:
3947:
3916:
3910:
3897:
3879:(in Spanish).
3868:
3854:
3834:
3828:
3815:
3793:
3778:
3758:
3744:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3723:
3709:
3692:
3686:
3673:
3659:
3641:
3627:
3602:
3596:
3583:
3571:
3557:
3539:
3533:
3520:
3499:
3473:David C. Grove
3461:
3447:
3415:
3401:
3372:
3358:
3342:Diehl, Richard
3338:
3324:
3299:
3285:(in Spanish).
3274:
3260:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3227:
3198:10.2307/276984
3174:
3159:
3144:
3126:
3114:
3076:
3060:
3048:
3027:
3004:
2992:
2977:
2965:
2950:
2941:
2906:
2894:
2870:
2857:
2845:
2833:
2818:
2806:
2794:
2779:
2742:
2740:Kubler, p. 147
2733:
2711:
2699:
2687:
2675:
2660:
2622:
2610:
2598:
2583:
2571:
2559:
2547:
2532:
2506:
2494:
2482:
2466:
2464:, pp. 209â210.
2454:
2434:
2422:
2407:
2376:
2361:
2327:
2315:
2303:
2292:
2280:
2268:
2261:
2231:
2212:(2): 319â342.
2196:
2178:
2166:
2146:
2139:
2115:
2108:
2087:
2084:Cal State L.A.
2076:
2063:
2046:
2034:
2019:
2010:
1995:
1969:
1942:
1930:
1918:
1916:(1999), p. 249
1906:
1894:
1882:
1870:
1858:
1841:
1832:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1742:(in Spanish).
1726:
1719:
1701:
1682:
1656:
1642:
1629:
1603:
1580:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1543:
1535:
1527:
1513:
1510:
1498:Main article:
1495:
1492:
1463:
1460:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1301:
1299:
1292:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1273:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1232:
1229:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1153:Maya Twin myth
1132:
1129:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1092:
1088:
1056:
1053:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1007:
999:
998:
997:
996:
995:
994:
983:
976:
968:
967:
964:
951:Middle Classic
898:
895:
893:
890:
889:
888:
881:
874:
872:
861:
854:
852:
837:
830:
828:
824:
817:
815:
808:
801:
799:
796:
789:
624:Main article:
621:
618:
562:Main article:
559:
556:
480:
477:
357:
354:
226:
223:
191:Classical Maya
133:
130:
112:Pre-Columbian
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5279:
5278:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5236:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5206:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5099:Falcon dancer
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5063:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5039:
5037:
5035:Miscellaneous
5033:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5006:Melbourne Man
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4996:La Brea Woman
4994:
4992:
4991:Kennewick Man
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4965:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4883:Serpent Mound
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4833:Pueblo Bonito
4831:
4829:
4828:Poverty Point
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4813:Pinson Mounds
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4803:Painted Bluff
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4683:Horr's Island
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4613:Effigy Mounds
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4578:Crystal River
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
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4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4490:Weeden Island
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4455:Safety Harbor
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4445:Poverty Point
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4425:Paleo-Indians
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4386:Mississippian
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4359:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4173:
4168:
4166:
4161:
4159:
4154:
4153:
4150:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4121:
4113:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3957:
3953:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3923:
3917:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3842:Nikolai Grube
3839:
3838:Colas, Pierre
3835:
3831:
3825:
3821:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3794:0-313-29558-1
3790:
3786:
3785:
3779:
3776:
3772:
3769:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3731:
3726:
3720:
3716:
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3706:
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3700:
3693:
3689:
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3679:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3656:
3651:
3650:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3593:
3589:
3588:War and Games
3584:
3580:
3576:
3575:Schele, Linda
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3549:
3548:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3492:
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3483:
3478:
3474:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3355:
3350:
3349:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3311:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3236:
3235:
3232:Cited sources
3231:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3186:
3178:
3175:
3170:
3163:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3115:
3110:
3104:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3064:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2966:
2961:
2954:
2951:
2945:
2942:
2937:
2932:|author=
2925:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2898:
2895:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2524:
2523:
2517:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2491:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2387:; Dean Snow;
2386:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2296:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2200:
2197:
2192:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2044:, pp. 251â288
2043:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1845:
1842:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:10.1038/31837
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1795:John E. Clark
1789:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1683:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1604:
1600:
1599:9780061881794
1596:
1592:
1591:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1501:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1476:Cotzumalhuapa
1468:
1462:Pacific coast
1461:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1436:Codex Mendoza
1432:
1431:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1409:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1321:
1314:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1295:speech scroll
1289:
1284:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1206:
1201:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1085:bouncing ball
1082:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1017:
1010:
1005:
1001:
1000:
992:
988:
984:
981:
977:
974:
973:
972:
971:
970:
969:
965:
962:
961:
960:
957:
955:
952:
948:
944:
938:
934:
932:
928:
924:
923:Ixtlilxochitl
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
896:
891:
885:
878:
873:
869:
865:
858:
853:
849:
848:Cotzumalhuapa
845:
841:
834:
829:
821:
816:
812:
805:
800:
793:
788:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
679:
677:
671:
668:
662:
653:
647:
643:
638:
632:
627:
619:
617:
615:
610:
608:
607:
602:
601:
594:
592:
588:
579:
575:
570:
565:
557:
555:
553:
549:
544:
540:
536:
531:
529:
525:
521:
516:
514:
513:
508:
500:
496:
492:
490:
487:
478:
476:
474:
468:
466:
462:
458:
453:
451:
447:
443:
442:
436:
434:
430:
426:
425:
416:
413:
408:
404:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
379:
375:
370:
362:
355:
353:
351:
350:Oaxaca Valley
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
315:
313:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
274:, across the
273:
268:
266:
262:
257:
255:
248:
244:
239:
231:
224:
222:
219:
213:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
181:
175:
169:
164:
159:
156:
151:
147:
143:
139:
131:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
99:
97:
92:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
74:
69:
65:
64:pre-Columbian
61:
57:
53:
48:
40:
36:
32:
23:
19:
5199:Water glyphs
5154:Oasisamerica
5144:N.A.G.P.R.A.
5104:Folsom point
5094:Effigy mound
5074:Clovis point
5046:
5042:Aridoamerica
4943:Wickiup Hill
4898:Spiro Mounds
4878:Salmon Ruins
4873:Russell Cave
4668:Helen Blazes
4663:Grimes Point
4643:Fort Juelson
4633:Fort Ancient
4608:El Vallecito
4568:Chaco Canyon
4508:Angel Mounds
4470:Steed-Kisker
4420:Paleo-Arctic
4342:Glacial Kame
4327:Fort Ancient
4219:Post-Classic
4190:
4117:
4102:the original
4089:
4085:
4043:
4007:
4003:Simon Martin
3982:
3978:
3951:
3926:
3920:
3901:
3893:the original
3880:
3876:
3845:
3819:
3783:
3735:
3698:
3677:
3648:
3610:
3587:
3578:
3546:
3524:
3513:the original
3481:
3430:
3380:
3347:
3309:
3286:
3282:
3279:Ullamaliztli
3278:
3243:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3168:
3162:
3135:
3129:
3117:
3093:
3079:
3063:
3051:
3043:
3030:
3023:ullamaliztli
3022:
3013:Ćllamaliztli
3012:
3007:
2995:
2968:
2959:
2953:
2944:
2915:
2909:
2897:
2879:
2873:
2860:
2848:
2836:
2809:
2797:
2758:
2745:
2736:
2714:
2702:
2690:
2678:
2643:
2625:
2613:
2601:
2596:, pp. 14â15.
2574:
2562:
2550:
2521:
2509:
2497:
2485:
2469:
2457:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2393:
2379:
2340:
2330:
2323:Filloy Nadal
2318:
2306:
2300:Filloy Nadal
2295:
2288:Filloy Nadal
2283:
2271:
2244:
2234:
2209:
2205:
2199:
2190:
2169:
2149:
2125:
2118:
2099:
2079:
2071:
2066:
2049:
2037:
2028:
2022:
2013:
1982:
1972:
1951:
1945:
1933:
1921:
1909:
1897:
1885:
1873:
1861:
1844:
1835:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1783:pp. 107â108.
1776:
1764:
1756:the original
1743:
1739:
1729:
1710:
1704:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1669:
1666:"POK-TA-POK"
1659:
1645:
1637:
1632:
1622:December 20,
1620:. Retrieved
1616:
1606:
1589:
1583:
1566:
1546:
1537:
1529:
1517:
1503:
1500:Batey (game)
1473:
1451:
1441:
1434:
1428:
1426:
1414:
1400:'s sons the
1394:Coyolxauhqui
1386:
1365:
1362:Tenochtitlan
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1337:ullamaliztli
1336:
1333:Ćllamalitzli
1332:
1330:
1325:Codex Borgia
1267:
1249:
1234:
1221:Vucub Caquix
1209:
1205:Chichen Itza
1184:
1173:
1160:
1150:
1118:
1072:Xiuhtecuhtli
1068:Codex Borgia
1058:
1042:
1022:
1003:
958:
939:
935:
900:
811:Jaina Island
775:Tenochtitlan
767:
747:Chichen Itza
716:
684:Late Classic
680:
672:
658:
611:
604:
598:
595:
590:
587:votive balls
583:
577:
548:Jaina Island
546:vases or on
534:
532:
527:
517:
510:
504:
482:
469:
454:
449:
439:
437:
422:
420:
401:
389:field hockey
373:
371:
367:
346:
327:
316:
308:
291:
269:
258:
251:
247:Chichen Itza
199:. In modern
168:Ćllamaliztli
160:
150:Yucatec Maya
141:
137:
135:
111:
100:
93:
82:
71:
39:ĆllamalÄ«ztli
30:
28:
18:
16:Ancient game
5184:Thunderbird
5052:Black drink
5016:Peñon woman
4953:Winterville
4933:Velda Mound
4913:Taos Pueblo
4808:Parkin Park
4793:Orwell site
4778:Nodena site
4673:Holly Bluff
4648:Four Mounds
4638:Fort Center
4563:Casa Grande
4513:Anzick site
4405:Monongahela
4332:Fort Walton
4307:Coles Creek
4272:Belle Glade
4257:Anishinaabe
4050:. pp.
3489:. pp.
3437:. pp.
3391:. pp.
3289:: 315â333.
2769:. pp.
2351:. pp.
2158:Diego DurĂĄn
1670:Languagehat
1506:West Indies
1422:Diego DurĂĄn
1237:Teotihuacan
1231:Teotihuacan
1165:Hun Hunahpu
1025:Classic era
911:Xihuitlemoc
868:Petén Basin
759:Mixco Viejo
739:Monte AlbĂĄn
704:Teotihuacan
646:El Salvador
614:this relief
593:offerings.
574:Kaminaljuyu
552:Classic era
524:animal yoke
457:Postclassic
429:Diego DurĂĄn
385:Teotihuacan
288:Postclassic
254:rubber tree
218:pelota maya
89:racquetball
5246:Ball games
5235:Categories
5129:Metallurgy
5089:Eden point
4986:Buhl Woman
4858:Rock Eagle
4848:River Styx
4773:Mummy Cave
4768:Moundville
4748:Mesa Verde
4733:Marksville
4480:Tchefuncte
4440:Plaquemine
4376:Las Palmas
4292:Calf Creek
4287:Cades Pond
4046:. Tucson:
4011:. London:
3433:. Tucson:
3314:. Tucson:
3094:Memoriales
2650:. p.
2646:. Tucson:
2448:which are
2191:The Aztecs
2061:, p. 107).
1711:Mundo Maya
1559:References
1452:Ćllamanime
1366:Teotlachco
1349:Ćllamaloni
1252:Tepantitla
1217:quatrefoil
1212:Hero Twins
1145:Chinkultic
1091:Yaxchilan.
915:Xochimilco
755:Xochicalco
712:Tortuguero
467:cultures.
446:volleyball
280:Gulf Coast
278:along the
146:Frans Blom
138:pok-ta-pok
114:ballcourts
66:people of
5174:Stickball
4863:Rock Hawk
4693:Key Marco
4485:Troyville
4465:St. Johns
4450:Red Ocher
4209:Formative
4098:0003-8113
3991:0026-1521
3889:1535-2315
3803:1080-4749
3295:0071-1675
3222:164059254
3124:, p. 325.
3103:cite book
3084:Motolinia
3068:Wilkerson
3058:, p. 315.
2924:cite book
2904:, p. 173.
2866:Gillespie
2843:, p. 321.
2841:Gillespie
2707:Wilkerson
2618:Gillespie
2432:, p. 259.
2226:162558994
2055:Motolinia
1752:1535-2315
1675:April 20,
1494:Caribbean
1456:Charles V
1398:Coatlicue
1374:sacrifice
1241:Matacapan
1157:Popol Vuh
1106:beverage.
1055:Symbolism
1049:Popol Vuh
1038:Popol Vuh
987:Yaxchilan
927:Topiltzin
919:chinampas
907:Axayacatl
882:Ruins at
866:, in the
620:Ballcourt
507:loincloth
473:Motolinia
410:A modern
381:ballcourt
338:Xochipala
334:Tlapacoya
300:El ManatĂ
261:Soconusco
243:ballcourt
142:pok-a-tok
122:Nicaragua
5062:Chanunpa
5047:Ballgame
5026:Vero man
4976:Anzick-1
4948:Windover
4908:SunWatch
4838:Rassawek
4658:Glenwood
4548:Brewster
4400:Mogollon
4371:La Jolla
4357:Hopewell
4317:Deptford
4230:cultures
4070:22765562
4031:54799516
4005:(2004).
3970:56558696
3943:10373117
3864:71165439
3811:37552549
3771:Archived
3754:55880584
3719:22765562
3669:22765562
3637:49029226
3567:22765562
3509:39229716
3479:(eds.).
3457:51873028
3421:(1991).
3411:49029226
3368:56746987
3344:(2004).
3334:51873028
3270:49029226
3214:27201871
3154:34658843
3091:(1903).
3044:tlachcho
3040:Guerrero
2888:39750624
2831:, p. 255
2804:, p. 46.
2789:49029226
2753:(2001).
2725:Archived
2709:, p. 59.
2670:51873028
2634:(1991).
2569:, p. 69.
2542:22765562
2492:, p. 75.
2478:Quirarte
2462:Quirarte
2417:11518017
2391:(1986).
2371:49029226
2311:Schwartz
2290:, p. 22.
2005:22765562
1964:29839104
1654:article.
1539:Futurama
1417:calmecac
1353:tlachtli
1177:calabash
1143:site of
1045:Maya art
779:ocarinas
708:Bonampak
688:El TajĂn
686:site of
642:CihuatĂĄn
634:Classic
393:racquets
342:Guerrero
330:Tlatilco
312:offering
180:tlachtli
155:pokolpok
58:) was a
5211:Related
5069:Chunkey
4969:remains
4958:Wupatki
4798:Paquime
4688:HuĂĄpoca
4553:Cahokia
4523:Bastian
4430:Patayan
4352:Hohokam
4337:Fremont
4312:ComondĂș
4267:Baytown
4262:Avonlea
4242:Alachua
4214:Classic
4204:Archaic
4192:Periods
4052:101â125
3922:Science
3491:225â254
3439:317â345
3072:Santley
3002:p. 113.
2990:p. 112.
2829:Cohodas
2802:Uriarte
2697:p. 114.
2685:, p. 76
2594:Santley
2430:Cohodas
2353:125â126
2325:, p. 30
2174:Shelton
2059:Shelton
2042:Cohodas
1927:Uriarte
1902:Uriarte
1892:, p. 27
1827:4394291
1807:Bibcode
1769:Shelton
1651:Hohokam
1488:Quelepa
1484:El BaĂșl
1223:of the
1169:Xibalba
1155:of the
1125:Tlalocs
1076:quetzal
954:Cantona
909:played
846:in the
844:El BaĂșl
763:Zaculeu
735:Iximche
700:Chiapas
696:Cantona
661:masonry
578:manopla
543:reliefs
489:reliefs
455:In the
412:Sinaloa
378:masonry
225:Origins
201:Spanish
163:Nahuatl
126:Arizona
4628:Folsom
4593:Cutler
4528:Benson
4415:Oneota
4347:Glades
4322:Folsom
4302:Clovis
4199:Lithic
4096:
4068:
4058:
4029:
4019:
3989:
3968:
3958:
3941:
3908:
3887:
3862:
3852:
3826:
3809:
3801:
3791:
3752:
3742:
3717:
3707:
3684:
3667:
3657:
3635:
3625:
3619:97â115
3594:
3565:
3555:
3531:
3507:
3497:
3455:
3445:
3409:
3399:
3366:
3356:
3332:
3322:
3293:
3268:
3258:
3220:
3212:
3206:276984
3204:
3152:
3142:
2886:
2787:
2777:
2668:
2658:
2581:p. 97.
2557:p. 99.
2540:
2530:
2415:
2405:
2369:
2359:
2259:
2224:
2137:
2126:Mexico
2106:
2003:
1993:
1962:
1825:
1799:Nature
1750:
1717:
1597:
1480:Bilbao
1448:Cortés
1382:Paynal
1345:Ćllama
1180:gourds
1104:maguey
1100:pulque
980:ToninĂĄ
931:Toltec
929:, the
781:, and
761:, and
710:, and
644:site,
539:garter
528:palmas
520:girdle
486:DainzĂș
461:Toltec
433:lanced
292:Olmeca
284:Aztecs
282:. The
189:). In
103:ritual
96:rubber
5159:Piasa
4967:Human
4598:Eaker
4501:sites
4435:Plano
4237:Adena
4105:(PDF)
4092:(4).
4082:(PDF)
3985:(2).
3877:Istmo
3516:(PDF)
3471:. In
3469:(PDF)
3425:. In
3393:20â31
3252:65â77
3218:S2CID
3202:JSTOR
3036:Taxco
2771:20â31
2638:. In
2222:S2CID
1938:Diehl
1890:Diehl
1854:Olmec
1823:S2CID
1740:Istmo
1315:Aztec
1245:Tikal
1225:CopĂĄn
1121:Nahua
1115:Nahua
1096:maize
1004:ulama
991:Tikal
947:state
943:Aztec
864:Tikal
842:from
840:stela
826:high.
783:drums
751:Yagul
743:Uxmal
727:CopĂĄn
723:Yaxha
719:Tikal
676:Tikal
535:ulama
512:ulama
465:Aztec
450:ulama
441:ulama
424:ulama
415:ulama
296:latex
177:) or
152:word
118:CopĂĄn
85:ulama
73:ulama
60:sport
5119:Kiva
4094:ISSN
4066:OCLC
4056:ISBN
4027:OCLC
4017:ISBN
3987:ISSN
3966:OCLC
3956:ISBN
3939:PMID
3906:ISBN
3885:ISSN
3860:OCLC
3850:ISBN
3824:ISBN
3807:OCLC
3799:ISSN
3789:ISBN
3750:OCLC
3740:ISBN
3715:OCLC
3705:ISBN
3682:ISBN
3665:OCLC
3655:ISBN
3633:OCLC
3623:ISBN
3592:ISBN
3563:OCLC
3553:ISBN
3529:ISBN
3505:OCLC
3495:ISBN
3453:OCLC
3443:ISBN
3407:OCLC
3397:ISBN
3364:OCLC
3354:ISBN
3330:OCLC
3320:ISBN
3291:ISSN
3266:OCLC
3256:ISBN
3210:OCLC
3150:OCLC
3140:ISBN
3109:link
2936:help
2884:OCLC
2785:OCLC
2775:ISBN
2666:OCLC
2656:ISBN
2538:OCLC
2528:ISBN
2413:OCLC
2403:ISBN
2367:OCLC
2357:ISBN
2257:ISBN
2160:and
2135:ISBN
2104:ISBN
2001:OCLC
1991:ISBN
1960:OCLC
1748:ISSN
1715:ISBN
1677:2017
1624:2008
1595:ISBN
1482:and
1396:and
1341:Ćlli
1161:pitz
1151:The
1141:Maya
1131:Maya
731:Coba
463:and
397:bats
196:pitz
140:(or
132:Name
56:pitz
29:The
4623:Eva
3931:doi
3927:284
3194:doi
2683:Day
2567:Day
2490:Day
2450:not
2399:109
2214:doi
2154:Day
1987:242
1815:doi
1803:392
1574:, â
1243:or
391:),
374:the
245:at
161:In
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