3056:
3197:(RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development. Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering." Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. In
3488:
3064:
3502:
4425:
3473:(as well as related protocols); the link layer, IP layer, transport layer, and application layer, along with support protocols. These have stood the test of time, as the IETF has never modified this structure. As such a model of networking, the Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems.
3225:. Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to the ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string." Years later, as a
3548:, emphasizes architectural principles over layering. RFC 1122/23 are structured in sections referring to layers, but the documents refer to many other architectural principles, and do not emphasize layering. They loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:
5458:
The inspiration for datagrams had two sources. One was Donald Davies' studies. He had done some simulation of datagram networks, although he had not built any, and it looked technically viable. The second inspiration was I like things simple. I didn't see any real technical motivation to overlay two
5120:
In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and
Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who
5086:
The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and
4347:
The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated that
Internet Protocol and architecture development is
3630:
in TCP/IP parlance and is the lowest component layer of the suite. The link includes all hosts accessible without traversing a router. The size of the link is therefore determined by the networking hardware design. In principle, TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent and may be implemented on
3753:
The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes host-to-host connectivity in the form of end-to-end message transfer services that are independent of the underlying network and independent of the structure of user data
3699:
system. The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets
4485:
The
Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment. It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network. As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing
3528:
is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers. The data is
3521:
states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still
3491:
Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (A and B) connected by a link between their respective routers. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. After establishment of
4045:
The
Internet protocol suite evolved through research and development funded over a period of time. In this process, the specifics of protocol components and their layering changed. In addition, parallel research and commercial interests from industry associations competed with design features. In
3513:
has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the
Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content
3496:
identified by an address like a cookie. At the transport layer the communication appears as process-to-process communication, each process addressed by a port number, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting routers. Finally, at the internetworking layer using the
3598:
exchanges datagrams across network boundaries. It provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. It is therefore also the layer that establishes internetworking. Indeed, it defines and establishes the
Internet. This layer
3610:
defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer includes the protocols used to describe the local network topology and the interfaces needed to effect the transmission of internet layer datagrams to
3954:
The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). According to the TCP/IP model, such functions are the realm of
4316:
The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e. the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as
3385:
multi-connection TCP which runs atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983โ84. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded. Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP).
3492:
this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers. In a common application analogy, Host A's web browser appears directly connected to Host B's web server via an
3248:
to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms. During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983. It became known as
4399:
and other routing protocols defined by the IETF are transported over IP, and, for the purpose of sending and receiving routing protocol packets, routers act as hosts. As a consequence, routing protocols are included in the application layer. Some authors, such as
Tanenbaum in
4050:
led to a similar goal, but with a wider scope of networking in general. Efforts to consolidate the two principal schools of layering, which were superficially similar, but diverged sharply in detail, led independent textbook authors to formulate abridging teaching tools.
3922:
The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower-level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as
3216:
The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This
3468:
The characteristic architecture of the
Internet protocol suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality. The defining specifications of the suite are RFC 1122 and 1123, which broadly outlines four
4336:) issues, or whether TCP/IP assumes a hardware layer exists below the link layer. Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by
4368:(SIP). Session-layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which are included in the transport layer of the TCP/IP suite. Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the
3397:
into the public domain. Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases. For
Windows 3.1, the dominant PC operating system among consumers in the first half of the 1990s, Peter Tattam's release of the
3843:
support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport
3102:(NCP). In the early 1970s, DARPA started work on several other data transmission technologies, including mobile packet radio, packet satellite service, local area networks, and other data networks in the public and private domains. In 1972,
3586:
performs host-to-host communications on either the local network or remote networks separated by routers. It provides a channel for the communication needs of applications. UDP is the basic transport layer protocol, providing an unreliable
4008:
Although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the endpoint IP addresses and port numbers, application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as
3333:
conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early
Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.
3380:
Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively. In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a
3560:, create user data and communicate this data to other applications on another or the same host. The applications make use of the services provided by the underlying lower layers, especially the transport layer which provides
3839:(SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented, not byte-stream-oriented like TCP, and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides
4351:
For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included in the application layer of the TCP/IP suite. The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like
3642:
The link layer is used to move packets between the internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on the link can be controlled in the
3722:
The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the
5107:
3700:
across potentially multiple networks. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet.
3172:
series. As experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols, allowing users direct access to datagram service. Advocates included
3267:
In 1975, a two-network IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London. In November 1977, a three-network IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and
4005:. Support protocols provide services to a system of network infrastructure. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol.
4321:, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the
4013:
which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate. The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and
3329:) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first
2004:
3522:
clear)." "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features."
5439:
3110:, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973,
3963:. The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared to a combination of the fifth (session), sixth (presentation), and seventh (application) layers of the OSI model.
5624:
We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning.
3603:. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next host, functioning as an IP router, that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.
5857:
5387:
3904:
is rapidly emerging as an alternative transport protocol. Whilst it is technically carried via UDP packets it seeks to offer enhanced transport connectivity relative to TCP.
5481:
6738:
388:
3129:
By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common
3575:
networking. This is the layer in which all application protocols, such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, operate. Processes are addressed via ports which essentially represent
6486:
1259:
6099:
5805:
Mar '82 โ Norway leaves the ARPANET and become an Internet connection via TCP/IP over SATNET. Nov '82 โ UCL leaves the ARPANET and becomes an Internet connection.
4047:
5099:
3133:, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits
468:, which classify all related protocols according to each protocol's scope of networking. An implementation of the layers for a particular application forms a
4332:
Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or any aspect of the TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (
3789:. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these
3599:
defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines
148:
6055:
3422:
3.11 and a native stack in Windows 95. These events helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's
5929:
5607:
5070:
4551:
3667:. The TCP/IP model includes specifications for translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link-layer addresses, such as
1584:
646:
6032:
5593:
5536:
4446:
3497:
Internet Protocol (IP), packets of bytes traverse individual network boundaries as each router forwards a packet towards its destination IP address.
3303:
3107:
1676:
4404:, describe routing protocols in the same layer as IP, reasoning that routing protocols inform decisions made by the forwarding process of routers.
3671:(MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist and are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model.
1931:
1874:
4348:
not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, referring to the internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".
3626:
The protocols of the link layer operate within the scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the
4344:). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.
3898:
The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds roughly to the fourth layer in the OSI model, also called the transport layer.
6947:
6909:
6771:
6732:
6093:
5022:
4961:
4889:
3345:'s group did TCP/IP development. They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including
381:
108:
5445:
3836:
3735:
and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of
3659:. These perform functions, such as framing, to prepare the internet layer packets for transmission, and finally transmit the frames to the
1913:
238:
233:
203:
4967:
4925:
3994:, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application.
7155:
7098:
3975:
3940:
3119:
2044:
1635:
1448:
1147:
1090:
734:
446:
63:
3591:
datagram service. The Transmission Control Protocol provides flow-control, connection establishment, and reliable transmission of data.
7231:
7114:
6210:
5729:
4919:
4507:
4298:
Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other
3716:
3390:
3315:
310:
253:
178:
7073:
7051:
7029:
7007:
6985:
6966:
6928:
6890:
6871:
6698:
6661:
6621:
6587:
6553:
6514:
6350:
5705:
4495:
4472:
3960:
3712:
3561:
3298:
In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. In the same year,
3099:
3086:, the Internet protocol suite has its roots in research and development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (
320:
290:
5844:
5472:
5378:
3703:
The internet layer does not distinguish between the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different
3233:
formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested two years later. 10 years later still, it was adapted for IPv6.
7259:
4566:
3890:
3631:
top of virtually any link-layer technology. This includes not only hardware implementations but also virtual link layers such as
3402:
TCP/IP stack was key to bringing the Internet to home users. Trumpet Winsock allowed TCP/IP operations over a serial connection (
3178:
374:
305:
98:
6722:
5559:
5239:
Machines and romances: the technical and narrative construction of networked computing as a general-purpose platform, 1960โ1995
3785:
For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the
3462:
1109:
500:
3793:
have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of
4450:
3576:
3190:
1486:
123:
113:
5247:
5817:
5280:
4990:
7264:
4499:
4408:
4030:
3936:
3427:
3403:
3206:
1410:
1298:
996:
422:
243:
223:
173:
5956:
6083:
4546:
4541:
4519:
4392:
4322:
3879:
3852:
3435:
3423:
3287:
3146:
2779:
1391:
1354:
791:
163:
158:
153:
6520:
7254:
4556:
4511:
4491:
4365:
4034:
3979:
3928:
3736:
3728:
3708:
3326:
3256:
3251:
3210:
870:
340:
300:
168:
5193:
5907:
5321:
6296:
5549:
4561:
3944:
3525:
3055:
6796:
ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Information technology โ Open Systems Interconnection โ Basic Reference Model: The Basic Model
30:
This article is about the protocols that make up the Internet architecture. For the IP network protocol only, see
7269:
6062:
4586:
3889:
The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention, certain
3874:, etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like
3311:
3245:
2840:
1949:
1613:
1241:
5933:
5611:
7147:
5039:
4435:
4054:
The following table shows various such networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.
3567:
to other processes. The communications partners are characterized by the application architecture, such as the
3410:). The typical home PC of the time had an external Hayes-compatible modem connected via an RS-232 port with an
3169:
1986:
1847:
193:
133:
3754:
and the logistics of exchanging information. Connectivity at the transport layer can be categorized as either
3568:
7087:
5639:
4454:
4439:
4017:
do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some
3632:
3449:, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite, would result in the best and most robust computer networks.
3407:
2901:
1203:
516:
360:
350:
143:
58:
4387:
for delivering packets from one router to another, but defines its own layer-3 encapsulation. In contrast,
5987:
4503:
4026:
3932:
3870:
using a checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video,
3859:
3482:
3419:
3230:
1336:
426:
410:
228:
78:
3418:
UART which required this type of stack. Later, Microsoft would release their own TCP/IP add-on stack for
6480:
4326:
3439:
3350:
3130:
2431:
2022:
772:
355:
128:
5270:
3445:
Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were
3337:
IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing
4329:(RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport.
7206:
6830:
6316:
6259:
5659:
5581:
5524:
5157:
4817:
4725:
4643:
4022:
4018:
3948:
3812:
3805:
3767:
3704:
3668:
3518:
3510:
3338:
3218:
3194:
3161:
2817:
2261:
1617:
476:, containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the
457:
138:
6410:"Enabling "Protocol Routing": Revisiting Transport Layer Protocol Design in Internet Communications"
3739:(IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006.
7061:
5380:"Industrial Legislatures": Consensus Standardization in the Second and Third Industrial Revolutions
5243:
3956:
3771:
3755:
3664:
3557:
3319:
3241:
3226:
1894:
833:
3201:, written in 1978, Postel split the Transmission Control Program into two distinct protocols, the
7120:
7039:
7017:
6995:
6500:
6162:
5881:
3987:
3845:
3775:
3691:
requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called
3636:
3458:
3275:
3271:. Several other IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983.
2738:
1015:
496:
345:
73:
5014:
The innovators : how a group of hackers, geniuses, and geeks created the digital revolution
4407:
IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunnelling protocols such as
3967:
3811:
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a
3461:
underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the
6653:
5414:"Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate"
7110:
7069:
7047:
7025:
7003:
6981:
6962:
6943:
6924:
6905:
6886:
6867:
6767:
6728:
6694:
6657:
6617:
6583:
6549:
6510:
6468:
6429:
6387:
6346:
6180:
6089:
5701:
5573:
5062:
5018:
4957:
4951:
4915:
4909:
4885:
4793:
4487:
3947:
into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP streams or UDP datagrams), which in turn use
3917:
3882:(RTP) is a datagram protocol that is used over UDP and is designed for real-time data such as
3866:
protocol. Like IP, it is a best-effort, unreliable protocol. Reliability is addressed through
3851:
Reliability can also be achieved by running IP over a reliable data-link protocol such as the
3798:
3794:
3553:
3487:
3470:
3370:
3307:
3255:(IPv4) as the protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor,
3202:
3157:
3138:
3114:
joined Kahn with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET to enable
3068:
3038:
2971:
2949:
1373:
489:
465:
430:
273:
49:
31:
7044:
TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols
3878:
lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large.
7196:
7164:
7102:
6859:
6820:
6460:
6421:
6379:
6306:
6249:
6172:
5853:
5649:
5563:
5514:
5147:
5054:
4807:
4775:
4715:
4633:
4376:
3924:
3674:
The link layer in the TCP/IP model has corresponding functions in Layer 2 of the OSI model.
3533:
3362:
3237:
3071:
2923:
2129:
1967:
1829:
1467:
418:
7237:
6203:
5725:
5012:
3145:
network, with important influences on this design. The new protocol was implemented as the
499:
underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the
5413:
5276:
Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968โ1988
4766:
Cerf, Vinton G. & Cain, Edward (October 1983). "The DoD Internet Architecture Model".
4535:
3883:
3867:
3748:
3688:
3583:
3399:
3186:
3115:
2317:
1773:
485:
481:
214:
6204:"Rethinking the design of the Internet: The end-to-end arguments vs. the brave new world"
5441:
Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications 1968-1988
6022:
7083:
6646:
6199:
5474:
A Digital Communication Network for Computers Giving Rapid Response at remote Terminals
4879:
4333:
4014:
3991:
3759:
3683:
3660:
3595:
3588:
3342:
3279:
3075:
2859:
2563:
2412:
1810:
1429:
477:
469:
264:
7095:
Proceedings of the Sigcomm '88 Symposium on Communications Architectures and Protocols
5471:
Davies, Donald; Bartlett, Keith; Scantlebury, Roger; Wilkinson, Peter (October 1967).
4411:(GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunnelling at the network layer.
7248:
6027:
4779:
3871:
3763:
3644:
3505:
Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122
3446:
3222:
3095:
3034:
2993:
2945:
2881:, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service
2756:
2243:
1566:
608:
5698:
Physical and Logical Security Convergence: Powered By Enterprise Security Management
3063:
7124:
4947:
3786:
3779:
3648:
3572:
3358:
3182:
3174:
3134:
3098:
established a "Networking Working Group" which developed a host-host protocol, the
2681:
2567:
2526:
2280:
1072:
183:
6448:
6151:"IETF Protocol Suite for the Internet of Things: Overview and Recent Advancements"
5497:"all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control"
421:
according to functional criteria. The foundational protocols in the suite are the
6761:
6688:
6611:
6577:
6543:
6464:
6150:
5237:
17:
7227:โ A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedure and processes involved
7209:
7190:
6842:
6833:
6814:
6328:
6319:
6300:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6176:
5821:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5662:
5643:
5584:
5553:
5527:
5508:
5274:
5169:
5137:
5133:
4820:
4801:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4728:
4709:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4646:
4627:
4590:
4510:(IGMP). In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires
4424:
3840:
3541:
3537:
3501:
3150:
3111:
2897:
2878:
2205:
1851:
1750:
1547:
1166:
589:
6271:
6262:
6239:
5160:
5141:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
7168:
6409:
6235:
5960:
5784:
5311:
5058:
4829:
4797:
4705:
4623:
3732:
3696:
3695:
and is supported by host addressing and identification using the hierarchical
3621:
3607:
3600:
3123:
2167:
1595:
Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:
473:
331:
6472:
6433:
6425:
6391:
6184:
6085:
A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen
5577:
5066:
4585:
For records of discussions leading up to the TCP/IP split, see the series of
3221:
was pioneered by Louis Pouzin in the CYCLADES network, based on the ideas of
7185:โ Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
7139:
6504:
5767:
5751:
5355:
5222:
5182:
5121:
included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
4311:
4010:
3927:
and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the
2941:
2719:
2450:
2186:
1769:
1053:
504:
6579:
The TCP/IP Guide: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Internet Protocols Reference
6124:
507:, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems.
7182:
6794:
5315:
5186:
2967:
1987:
ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names
7143:
6367:
5915:
5187:"Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol TCP (Version 2)"
5087:
S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
4325:(XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called
3863:
3656:
3652:
3394:
3165:
3142:
3103:
3011:
2989:
2760:
2586:
2469:
2336:
1505:
911:
753:
680:
414:
7106:
6383:
6368:"Service location protocol: automatic discovery of IP network services"
4884:. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster. p. 263.
3724:
3692:
3330:
3118:. They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community, the
3091:
2919:
2836:
2798:
2700:
2643:
2605:
2488:
2374:
851:
810:
627:
6056:"Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War"
2820:, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species
7201:
6825:
6311:
6254:
5785:"The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative Vision"
5654:
5568:
5519:
5152:
4812:
4720:
4638:
4515:
4486:
platform. A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following:
4361:
3983:
3905:
3431:
3374:
3299:
3268:
3030:
2662:
2624:
2355:
2298:
1528:
1222:
1034:
930:
889:
699:
461:
294:
188:
87:
67:
6864:
Internetworking with TCP/IP โ Principles, Protocols and Architecture
6613:
Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, protocols, and architecture
3322:
January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.
6449:"Cross layer link adaptation scheme in wireless local area network"
6167:
4911:
Open standards and the digital age: history, ideology, and networks
2075:
dial-up service provider, email, instant messaging, and web browser
7224:
7219:
5438:
Pelkey, James. "8.3 CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin 1971-1972".
5419:. Information Technology and Innovation Foundation. pp. 7, 11
4523:
4380:
4318:
3415:
3286:, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of
3087:
3062:
3054:
2544:
2507:
2393:
2224:
2110:
2040:
1855:
1732:
1654:
1317:
1128:
958:
570:
460:
specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted,
450:
315:
93:
6241:
INTERNET PROTOCOL - DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION
5510:
A Standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams on Avian Carriers
3997:
At the application layer, the TCP/IP model distinguishes between
3966:
Application layer protocols are often associated with particular
3943:(DHCP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are
6245:
5358:(October 1980). "Protocols for Interconnected Packet Networks".
4388:
4384:
4369:
4357:
4353:
4337:
4299:
3901:
3493:
3411:
3354:
3198:
2148:
2091:
2047:
oversight passes to the global Internet community on October 1st
1791:
1694:
893:
829:
551:
433:(IP). Early versions of this networking model were known as the
283:
278:
248:
198:
118:
83:
5983:
3389:
The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when the
492:, providing process-to-process data exchange for applications.
4418:
4396:
4341:
3875:
3762:, implemented in UDP. The protocols in this layer may provide
3366:
3346:
2072:
1713:
1524:
103:
4881:
Where wizards stay up late : the origins of the Internet
6687:
Forouzan, Behrouz A.; Fegan, Sophia Chung (August 1, 2003).
6542:
Dye, Mark; McDonald, Rick; Rufi, Antoon (October 29, 2007).
3282:
back and forth between them. Originally a router was called
6883:
Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services
6119:
6117:
3514:
caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.
3278:
is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards
3160:
did not then exist as a separate protocol) provided only a
1733:
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
27:
Framework for communication protocols used in IP networking
5908:"Using Wollongong TCP/IP with Windows for Workgroups 3.11"
5017:. Internet Archive. New York : Simon & Schuster.
4711:
Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support
3090:) in the late 1960s. After DARPA initiated the pioneering
2005:
Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation
520:
464:, and received. This functionality is organized into four
6061:. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Archived from
5886:
Stanford Oral History Collections - Spotlight at Stanford
5696:
Crowell, William; Contos, Brian; DeRodeff, Colby (2011).
5459:
levels of end-to-end protocols. I thought one was enough.
1875:
UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I
4041:
Layering evolution and representations in the literature
3314:
adopted the protocol. The migration of the ARPANET from
445:
because the research and development were funded by the
7088:"The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols"
4629:
Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers
3357:. At the same time, several smaller companies, such as
6545:
Network Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide
5143:
SPECIFICATION OF INTERNET TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROGRAM
1968:
First internationalized country code top-level domains
6816:
Some Internet Architectural Guidelines and Philosophy
5223:"Final Report of the Stanford University TCP Project"
4383:
belongs to the network layer, and does not depend on
2023:
NetMundial international Internet governance proposal
664:
NPL followed by the ARPANET carry their first packets
6082:
Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice (April 26, 2010).
3808:, some transport-layer protocols offer reliability.
3377:
TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.
718:
Merit Network's packet-switched network operational
7148:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"
6645:
5040:"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication"
4095:TCP/IP protocol suite or Five-layer Internet model
3707:. These protocols are each identified by a unique
5606:by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba (1993).
5480:. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles.
4029:to interpret application data. An example is the
3156:Initially, the Transmission Control Program (the
503:(IETF). The Internet protocol suite predates the
7022:TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation
6265:. IEN 128, 123, 111, 80, 54, 44, 41, 28, 26.
4522:(MLD) and is often accompanied by an integrated
3918:Application layer ยง Internet protocol suite
6149:Morabito, Roberto; Jimenez, Jaime (June 2020).
5930:"A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN"
4914:. New York: Cambridge Univ Press. p. 196.
3483:Communication protocol ยง Software layering
1677:very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
941:Merging the networks and creating the Internet:
488:, handling host-to-host communication; and the
4048:International Organization for Standardization
3393:agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for
3168:. Several versions were developed through the
3059:Diagram of the first internetworked connection
1950:First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum
1914:UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)
5317:2.3.3.2 Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP
4312:OSI model ยง Comparison with TCP/IP model
472:. From lowest to highest, the layers are the
382:
8:
3719:(IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.
3325:In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later
1716:changes pricing model from hourly to monthly
7000:TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols
6485:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
4453:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4033:(RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for
3895:are associated with specific applications.
3556:is the scope within which applications, or
3189:of the University of Southern California's
2043:contract with U.S. Dept. of Commerce ends,
1242:Federal Internet Exchanges (FIX East|FIXes)
409:, is a framework for organizing the set of
6808:
6806:
6077:
6075:
5634:
5632:
5172:. NIC 2. INWG 72.
4552:List of information technology initialisms
4375:Another difference is in the treatment of
3822:data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)
3532:An early pair of architectural documents,
3447:polarized over the issue of which standard
1612:New Internet architecture with commercial
389:
375:
38:
7200:
6824:
6721:Kurose, James F.; Ross, Keith W. (2008).
6345:(3rd ed.). O'Reilly. pp. 9โ10.
6310:
6253:
6166:
5653:
5567:
5518:
5360:ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review
5151:
4811:
4719:
4700:
4698:
4696:
4637:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4612:
4610:
4473:Learn how and when to remove this message
3122:, which Cerf chaired, and researchers at
647:Symposium on Operating Systems Principles
6881:Joseph G. Davies; Thomas F. Lee (2003).
6724:Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
6644:Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (January 1, 2003).
6576:Kozierok, Charles M. (January 1, 2005).
6302:Architectural Principles of the Internet
5719:
5717:
5386:(PhD thesis). Johns Hopkins University.
4991:"Oral History of Robert (Bob) W. Taylor"
4803:THE REQUEST FOR COMMENTS REFERENCE GUIDE
4056:
3500:
3486:
3108:Information Processing Technology Office
7189:T. Socolofsky; C. Kale (January 1991).
5882:"Vinton G. Cerf : An Oral History"
4606:
4578:
3970:applications, and common services have
1585:North American Network Operators' Group
330:
263:
213:
48:
41:
6760:Stallings, William (January 1, 2007).
6478:
6155:IEEE Communications Standards Magazine
5843:Leiner, Barry M.; et al. (1997),
5393:from the original on December 28, 2022
5216:
5214:
5000:, CHM Reference number: X5059.2009: 28
4928:from the original on December 28, 2022
4360:and is more evident in protocols like
3426:(SNA), and on other platforms such as
3318:to TCP/IP was officially completed on
6866:. CET Computer Equipment and Trade.
6741:from the original on January 23, 2016
6403:
6401:
6102:from the original on January 17, 2023
5990:from the original on November 5, 2011
5863:from the original on January 18, 2018
5645:Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers
5594:April Fools' Day Request for Comments
5537:April Fools' Day Request for Comments
5487:from the original on October 10, 2022
5250:from the original on January 17, 2023
5076:from the original on October 10, 2022
4970:from the original on January 17, 2023
4878:Hafner, Katie; Lyon, Matthew (1996).
4306:Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering
4037:to consider the application payload.
456:The Internet protocol suite provides
7:
7233:A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest
6216:from the original on October 8, 2022
5283:from the original on October 8, 2022
4903:
4901:
4451:adding citations to reliable sources
3990:connecting to a service usually use
3837:Stream Control Transmission Protocol
3828:lost or discarded packets are resent
3727:and its successor, the Internet, is
3529:further encapsulated at each level.
2722:anonymous news and information leaks
2281:Yahoo Groups (formerly Yahoo! Clubs)
1830:New top-level domain names activated
7156:IEEE Transactions on Communications
6976:Ajit Mungale (September 29, 2004).
6813:R. Bush; D. Meyer (December 2002).
6523:from the original on April 22, 2012
6035:from the original on August 1, 2017
6021:Andrew L. Russell (July 30, 2013).
5412:Bennett, Richard (September 2009).
5110:from the original on April 19, 2020
5047:IEEE Transactions on Communications
4591:the Internet Experiment Notes Index
3976:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
3941:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
3831:includes traffic congestion control
3365:, began offering TCP/IP stacks for
3120:International Network Working Group
735:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
447:United States Department of Defense
6690:Data Communications and Networking
6610:Comer, Douglas (January 1, 2006).
6447:Huang, Jing-lian (April 7, 2009).
5982:Romkey, John (February 17, 2011).
5955:Baker, Steven; Gillies, Donald W.
5732:from the original on July 21, 2009
5726:"From the ARPANET to the Internet"
4508:Internet Group Management Protocol
3961:application programming interfaces
3717:Internet Group Management Protocol
3453:Formal specification and standards
3391:University of California, Berkeley
1225:founded, allows commercial traffic
832:protocol approved and deployed on
813:commercial packet-switched network
484:between independent networks; the
25:
6506:TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols
5324:from the original on May 16, 2019
5221:Cerf, Vinton G. (April 1, 1980).
5199:from the original on May 25, 2022
4496:Internet Control Message Protocol
3713:Internet Control Message Protocol
1073:First .COM domain name registered
6978:Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming
6763:Data and Computer Communications
6693:. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
6453:Journal of Computer Applications
4989:Taylor, Bob (October 11, 2008),
4567:List of TCP and UDP port numbers
4538:, an early layered network model
4423:
3951:to effect actual data transfer.
3205:as connectionless layer and the
6023:"OSI: The Internet That Wasn't"
5560:Internet Engineering Task Force
5555:Adaptation of RFC 1149 for IPv6
5140:; C. Sunshine (December 1974).
4998:Computer History Museum Archive
3546:Requirements for Internet Hosts
3463:Internet Engineering Task Force
3177:and Yogen Dalal at Xerox PARC;
3084:DOD Internet Architecture Model
3074:, used for the first three-way
1110:Internet Engineering Task Force
534:Early research and development:
501:Internet Engineering Task Force
6959:Windows 2000 TCP/IP Black Book
6673:– via Internet Archive.
5957:"Desktop TCP/IP at middle age"
4254:Data link (Network interface)
4088:TCP/IP 5-layer reference model
4081:TCP/IP 5-layer reference model
3778:, and application addressing (
3494:Application Layer HTTP session
3191:Information Sciences Institute
2055:Examples of Internet services:
1487:Classless Inter-Domain Routing
1:
6921:TCP/IP Network Administration
6904:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
6900:Forouzan, Behrouz A. (2003).
6652:. Prentice Hall PTR. p.
6343:TCP/IP Network Administration
5888:. 2020. p. 113, 129, 145
5846:Brief History of the Internet
5608:"How the Internet Came to Be"
5552:; R. Hinden (April 1, 2011).
5507:D. Waitzman (April 1, 1990).
4956:. MIT Press. pp. 123โ4.
4774:(5). North-Holland: 307โ318.
4500:Transmission Control Protocol
4409:Generic Routing Encapsulation
4031:Resource Reservation Protocol
3974:port numbers reserved by the
3937:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
3428:Digital Equipment Corporation
3207:Transmission Control Protocol
3082:Initially referred to as the
3014:, massive open online courses
1299:Advanced Network and Services
997:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
554:networking concepts developed
458:end-to-end data communication
423:Transmission Control Protocol
7220:The Ultimate Guide to TCP/IP
6465:10.3724/sp.j.1087.2009.00518
6031:. Vol. 50, no. 8.
4780:10.1016/0376-5075(83)90042-9
4547:List of automation protocols
4542:Fast Local Internet Protocol
4520:Multicast Listener Discovery
4323:External Data Representation
4035:Applications affected by NAT
3908:works exclusively via QUIC.
3880:Real-time Transport Protocol
3853:High-Level Data Link Control
3477:Key architectural principles
3436:Open Systems Interconnection
3424:Systems Network Architecture
3147:Transmission Control Program
2780:Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud
1567:Full text web search engines
1392:Commercial Internet eXchange
1355:Wide area information server
792:Transmission Control Program
6177:10.1109/mcomstd.001.1900014
5377:Russell, Andrew L. (2007).
5236:Panzaris, Georgios (2008).
5038:Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974).
4908:Russell, Andrew L. (2014).
4557:List of IP protocol numbers
4512:Neighbor Discovery Protocol
4492:Address Resolution Protocol
4379:. The OSI routing protocol
4372:standard in data exchange.
4366:Session Initiation Protocol
4046:particular, efforts in the
3980:HyperText Transfer Protocol
3929:Hypertext Transfer Protocol
3825:duplicate data is discarded
3804:Because IP provides only a
3737:Internet Protocol version 6
3729:Internet Protocol version 4
3327:Internet Architecture Board
3257:Internet Protocol version 6
3252:Internet Protocol version 4
3211:connection-oriented service
2151:online auction and shopping
1150:upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)
7286:
6938:Maufer, Thomas A. (1999).
6845:.
6727:. Pearson/Addison Wesley.
6331:.
6286:.
6125:"Introduction to the IETF"
5818:"TCP/IP Internet Protocol"
5686:.
5596:.
5539:.
5100:"The internet's fifth man"
4868:.
4756:.
4690:.
4562:Lists of network protocols
4309:
4214:Host-to-host or transport
3915:
3862:(UDP) is a connectionless
3746:
3681:
3619:
3480:
3164:service to its users, not
2206:Outlook (formerly Hotmail)
1451:upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)
681:Network Information Center
514:
29:
7195:. Network Working Group.
7169:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259
7020:; Gary R. Wright (1994).
6819:. Network Working Group.
6783:– via Google Books.
6710:– via Google Books.
6633:– via Google Books.
6599:– via Google Books.
6565:– via Google Books.
6467:(inactive May 13, 2024).
6305:. Network Working Group.
6088:. John Wiley & Sons.
6010:KA9Q TCP Download Website
5648:. Network Working Group.
5513:. Network Working Group.
5269:Pelkey, James L. (2007).
5146:. Network Working Group.
5059:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259
5011:Isaacson, Walter (2014).
4806:. Network Working Group.
4714:. Network Working Group.
4632:. Network Working Group.
4587:Internet Experiment Notes
4195:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4162:
4159:
3978:(IANA). For example, the
3758:, implemented in TCP, or
3731:(IPv4). It uses a 32-bit
3312:University College London
3246:University College London
2434:peer-to-peer file sharing
2377:peer-to-peer file sharing
2170:classified advertisements
1413:allows commercial traffic
1320:allows commercial traffic
980:protocol suite formalized
871:Internet Activities Board
525:Internet history timeline
6961:. Coriolis Group Books.
6426:10.1109/mic.2017.4180845
6408:Zheng, Kai (July 2017).
6238:, ed. (September 1981).
6198:Blumenthal, Marjory S.;
5700:. Syngress. p. 99.
3982:uses server port 80 and
3633:virtual private networks
3181:, who needed it for his
3170:Internet Experiment Note
2801:cloud-based file hosting
959:Computer Science Network
702:switched-circuit network
7260:History of the Internet
6414:IEEE Internet Computing
6372:IEEE Internet Computing
4060:Arpanet Reference Model
3100:Network Control Program
2902:threshold pledge system
2843:music streaming service
2358:mobile internet service
2301:Internet payment system
2094:Internet movie database
1204:Border Gateway Protocol
1186:Internet protocol suite
794:specification published
517:History of the Internet
411:communication protocols
403:Internet protocol suite
43:Internet protocol suite
6274:. Updated by RFC
5783:Hauben, Ronda (2004).
5678:. Updated by RFC
5343:Inventing the Internet
5168:Obsoleted by RFC
4953:Inventing the Internet
4708:, ed. (October 1989).
4626:, ed. (October 1989).
4504:User Datagram Protocol
4027:deep packet inspection
3933:File Transfer Protocol
3860:User Datagram Protocol
3562:reliable or unreliable
3506:
3498:
3420:Windows for Workgroups
3236:DARPA contracted with
3231:IP over Avian Carriers
3079:
3060:
2589:social networking site
2491:social networking site
1282:ARPANET decommissioned
1037:split off from ARPANET
427:User Datagram Protocol
7068:. Prentice Hall PTR.
6902:TCP/IP Protocol Suite
6068:on November 17, 2019.
5728:. TCP Digest (UUCP).
5614:on September 26, 2017
5301:Internet Hall of Fame
5106:. December 13, 2013.
4327:Remote Procedure Call
4160:Application/ Process
4112:(ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994)
3986:uses server port 23.
3949:lower layer protocols
3819:data arrives in-order
3705:upper layer protocols
3504:
3490:
3440:Xerox Network Systems
3341:. In IBM, from 1984,
3339:proprietary protocols
3310:'s research group at
3131:internetwork protocol
3066:
3058:
2264:automatic translation
2208:free web-based e-mail
1794:allows broader access
773:PARC Universal Packet
515:Further information:
435:Department of Defense
7265:Network architecture
7101:. pp. 106โ114.
6366:Guttman, E. (1999).
6341:Hunt, Craig (2002).
6327:Updated by RFC
6268:Internet Standard 5.
5936:on November 10, 2016
5918:on January 12, 2012.
4736:Updated by RFC
4734:Internet Standard 3.
4654:Updated by RFC
4652:Internet Standard 3.
4447:improve this section
4023:bandwidth throttling
3813:reliable byte stream
3806:best-effort delivery
3669:media access control
3611:next-neighbor hosts.
3519:robustness principle
3511:end-to-end principle
3274:A computer called a
3263:Early implementation
3219:end-to-end principle
3195:Request for Comments
3162:reliable byte stream
2818:Encyclopedia of Life
2763:and virtual bookshop
2547:Anonymous imageboard
2510:Internet voice calls
2415:Anonymous imageboard
1337:Archie search engine
1093:with 56 kbit/s links
834:public data networks
756:network demonstrated
405:, commonly known as
7240:on December 4, 2021
7107:10.1145/52324.52336
7062:Andrew S. Tanenbaum
6957:Ian McLean (2000).
6919:Craig Hunt (1998).
6885:. Microsoft Press.
6582:. No Starch Press.
6501:Stevens, W. Richard
6384:10.1109/4236.780963
6299:, ed. (June 1996).
6270:Obsoletes RFC
6054:Russell, Andrew L.
5789:Amateur Computerist
5670:Obsoletes RFC
5642:, ed. (June 1995).
5314:(August 15, 1977),
5244:Stanford University
4828:Obsoletes RFC
3756:connection-oriented
3665:transmission medium
3569:clientโserver model
3459:technical standards
3242:Stanford University
3153:and Carl Sunshine.
3141:, designers of the
2472:business networking
2339:Anonymous textboard
1895:National LambdaRail
1753:wireless networking
1587:(NANOG) established
1054:OSI Reference Model
914:standard introduced
497:technical standards
7255:Internet protocols
7046:. Addison-Wesley.
7040:W. Richard Stevens
7024:. Addison-Wesley.
7018:W. Richard Stevens
7002:. Addison-Wesley.
6998:(April 24, 1994).
6996:W. Richard Stevens
6509:. Addison-Wesley.
5963:on August 21, 2015
5824:on January 1, 2018
5668:Proposed Standard.
4251:Network interface
4245:Network interface
4098:(Forouzan, Kurose)
3799:directory services
3776:congestion control
3655:or by specialized
3637:networking tunnels
3507:
3499:
3471:abstraction layers
3080:
3061:
2739:Google Street View
1548:Mosaic web browser
1470:(ISOC) established
1016:Domain Name System
775:development begins
737:(IANA) established
592:concepts conceived
466:abstraction layers
7192:A TCP/IP Tutorial
7066:Computer Networks
6949:978-0-13-975483-8
6942:. Prentice Hall.
6911:978-0-07-246060-5
6841:Updates RFC
6773:978-0-13-243310-5
6766:. Prentice Hall.
6734:978-0-321-49770-3
6648:Computer Networks
6616:. Prentice Hall.
6503:(February 1994).
6095:978-3-527-32710-2
5912:Microsoft Support
5024:978-1-4767-0869-0
4963:978-0-262-51115-5
4891:978-0-684-81201-4
4800:(November 1987).
4768:Computer Networks
4488:Internet Protocol
4483:
4482:
4475:
4402:Computer Networks
4377:routing protocols
4302:primary sources.
4296:
4295:
4113:
4106:
4099:
4092:
4085:
4084:(Kozierok, Comer)
4078:
4071:
4067:Internet Standard
4064:
4025:applications use
4003:support protocols
3925:routing protocols
3912:Application layer
3795:service discovery
3554:application layer
3371:Microsoft Windows
3203:Internet Protocol
3193:, who edited the
3158:Internet Protocol
3149:in 1974 by Cerf,
3139:Hubert Zimmermann
3106:joined the DARPA
3069:SRI International
3048:
3047:
3039:social networking
2972:social networking
2950:social networking
2608:media file series
2320:review aggregator
1657:updated to allow
490:application layer
431:Internet Protocol
419:computer networks
399:
398:
50:Application layer
32:Internet Protocol
18:IP protocol suite
16:(Redirected from
7277:
7270:Reference models
7241:
7236:, archived from
7225:The TCP/IP Guide
7213:
7204:
7202:10.17487/RFC1180
7183:Internet History
7172:
7152:
7135:
7133:
7131:
7092:
7079:
7057:
7035:
7013:
6991:
6972:
6953:
6934:
6915:
6896:
6877:
6860:Douglas E. Comer
6846:
6837:
6828:
6826:10.17487/RFC3439
6810:
6801:
6800:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6782:
6780:
6757:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6746:
6718:
6712:
6711:
6709:
6707:
6684:
6678:
6677:
6672:
6670:
6651:
6641:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6630:
6607:
6601:
6600:
6598:
6596:
6573:
6567:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6539:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6528:
6497:
6491:
6490:
6484:
6476:
6444:
6438:
6437:
6405:
6396:
6395:
6363:
6357:
6356:
6338:
6332:
6323:
6314:
6312:10.17487/RFC1958
6293:
6287:
6266:
6257:
6255:10.17487/RFC0791
6232:
6226:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6215:
6208:
6195:
6189:
6188:
6170:
6146:
6140:
6139:
6137:
6135:
6121:
6112:
6111:
6109:
6107:
6079:
6070:
6069:
6067:
6060:
6051:
6045:
6044:
6042:
6040:
6018:
6012:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5970:
5968:
5959:. Archived from
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5932:. Archived from
5926:
5920:
5919:
5914:. Archived from
5904:
5898:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5878:
5872:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5862:
5854:Internet Society
5851:
5840:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5829:
5820:. Archived from
5814:
5808:
5807:
5802:
5800:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5748:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5721:
5712:
5711:
5693:
5687:
5666:
5657:
5655:10.17487/RFC1812
5636:
5627:
5626:
5621:
5619:
5610:. Archived from
5603:
5597:
5588:
5571:
5569:10.17487/RFC6214
5546:
5540:
5531:
5522:
5520:10.17487/RFC1149
5504:
5498:
5496:
5494:
5492:
5486:
5479:
5468:
5462:
5461:
5455:
5453:
5448:on June 17, 2021
5444:. Archived from
5435:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5418:
5409:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5392:
5385:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5352:
5346:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5331:
5329:
5308:
5302:
5299:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5266:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5255:
5233:
5227:
5226:
5218:
5209:
5208:
5206:
5204:
5198:
5191:
5179:
5173:
5164:
5155:
5153:10.17487/RFC0675
5130:
5124:
5123:
5117:
5115:
5096:
5090:
5089:
5083:
5081:
5075:
5044:
5035:
5029:
5028:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4995:
4986:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4944:
4938:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4905:
4896:
4895:
4875:
4869:
4824:
4815:
4813:10.17487/RFC1000
4790:
4784:
4783:
4763:
4757:
4732:
4723:
4721:10.17487/RFC1123
4702:
4691:
4650:
4641:
4639:10.17487/RFC1122
4620:
4594:
4583:
4526:security layer.
4478:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4458:
4427:
4419:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4090:
4083:
4076:
4069:
4062:
4057:
3939:(SMTP), and the
3892:well-known ports
3651:, as well as in
3363:Wollongong Group
3238:BBN Technologies
3072:Packet Radio Van
3042:
3041:
3027:
3025:
3016:
3015:
3008:
3006:
2997:
2996:
2986:
2984:
2975:
2974:
2964:
2962:
2953:
2952:
2938:
2936:
2927:
2926:
2924:digital currency
2916:
2914:
2905:
2904:
2894:
2892:
2883:
2882:
2875:
2873:
2864:
2863:
2856:
2854:
2845:
2844:
2833:
2831:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2795:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2776:
2774:
2765:
2764:
2753:
2751:
2742:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2724:
2723:
2716:
2714:
2705:
2704:
2697:
2695:
2686:
2685:
2678:
2676:
2667:
2666:
2659:
2657:
2648:
2647:
2640:
2638:
2629:
2628:
2621:
2619:
2610:
2609:
2602:
2600:
2591:
2590:
2583:
2581:
2572:
2571:
2560:
2558:
2549:
2548:
2541:
2539:
2530:
2529:
2523:
2521:
2512:
2511:
2504:
2502:
2493:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2474:
2473:
2466:
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2455:
2454:
2447:
2445:
2436:
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2428:
2426:
2417:
2416:
2409:
2407:
2398:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2379:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2360:
2359:
2352:
2350:
2341:
2340:
2333:
2331:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2312:
2303:
2302:
2295:
2293:
2284:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2258:
2256:
2247:
2246:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2228:
2221:
2219:
2210:
2209:
2202:
2200:
2191:
2190:
2183:
2181:
2172:
2171:
2164:
2162:
2153:
2152:
2145:
2143:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2124:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2105:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2067:
2049:
2048:
2037:
2035:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2007:
2001:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1935:
1934:
1932:UN WSIS phase II
1928:
1926:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1908:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1889:
1878:
1877:
1871:
1869:
1860:
1859:
1844:
1842:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1777:
1776:
1766:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1729:
1727:
1718:
1717:
1710:
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1699:
1698:
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1651:
1649:
1640:
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1632:
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1621:
1620:
1609:
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1589:
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1579:
1570:
1569:
1563:
1561:
1552:
1551:
1544:
1542:
1533:
1532:
1521:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1472:
1471:
1468:Internet Society
1464:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1445:
1443:
1434:
1433:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1396:
1395:
1388:
1386:
1377:
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1370:
1368:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1340:
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1314:
1312:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1293:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1268:
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1256:
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1245:
1244:
1238:
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1227:
1226:
1219:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1179:
1170:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1144:
1142:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1104:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1085:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1039:
1038:
1031:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1001:
1000:
993:
991:
982:
981:
974:
972:
963:
962:
955:
953:
935:
934:
927:
925:
916:
915:
908:
906:
897:
896:
886:
884:
875:
874:
867:
865:
856:
855:
848:
846:
837:
836:
826:
824:
815:
814:
807:
805:
796:
795:
788:
786:
777:
776:
769:
767:
758:
757:
750:
748:
739:
738:
731:
729:
720:
719:
715:
713:
704:
703:
696:
694:
685:
684:
677:
675:
666:
665:
661:
659:
650:
649:
643:
641:
632:
631:
624:
622:
613:
612:
605:
603:
594:
593:
586:
584:
575:
574:
573:networking ideas
567:
565:
556:
555:
548:
546:
521:
391:
384:
377:
39:
21:
7285:
7284:
7280:
7279:
7278:
7276:
7275:
7274:
7245:
7244:
7230:
7188:
7179:
7150:
7144:Kahn, Robert E.
7140:Cerf, Vinton G.
7138:
7129:
7127:
7117:
7090:
7082:
7076:
7060:
7054:
7038:
7032:
7016:
7010:
6994:
6988:
6975:
6969:
6956:
6950:
6940:IP Fundamentals
6937:
6931:
6918:
6912:
6899:
6893:
6880:
6874:
6858:
6855:
6850:
6849:
6812:
6811:
6804:
6793:
6792:
6788:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6759:
6758:
6754:
6744:
6742:
6735:
6720:
6719:
6715:
6705:
6703:
6701:
6686:
6685:
6681:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6609:
6608:
6604:
6594:
6592:
6590:
6575:
6574:
6570:
6560:
6558:
6556:
6548:. Cisco Press.
6541:
6540:
6536:
6526:
6524:
6517:
6499:
6498:
6494:
6477:
6446:
6445:
6441:
6407:
6406:
6399:
6365:
6364:
6360:
6353:
6340:
6339:
6335:
6295:
6294:
6290:
6234:
6233:
6229:
6219:
6217:
6213:
6206:
6202:(August 2001).
6200:Clark, David D.
6197:
6196:
6192:
6148:
6147:
6143:
6133:
6131:
6123:
6122:
6115:
6105:
6103:
6096:
6081:
6080:
6073:
6065:
6058:
6053:
6052:
6048:
6038:
6036:
6020:
6019:
6015:
6007:
6003:
5993:
5991:
5981:
5980:
5976:
5966:
5964:
5954:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5928:
5927:
5923:
5906:
5905:
5901:
5891:
5889:
5880:
5879:
5875:
5866:
5864:
5860:
5849:
5842:
5841:
5837:
5827:
5825:
5816:
5815:
5811:
5798:
5796:
5782:
5781:
5777:
5766:
5765:
5761:
5750:
5749:
5745:
5735:
5733:
5723:
5722:
5715:
5708:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5638:
5637:
5630:
5617:
5615:
5605:
5604:
5600:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5506:
5505:
5501:
5490:
5488:
5484:
5477:
5470:
5469:
5465:
5451:
5449:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5422:
5420:
5416:
5411:
5410:
5406:
5396:
5394:
5390:
5383:
5376:
5375:
5371:
5354:
5353:
5349:
5340:
5336:
5327:
5325:
5310:
5309:
5305:
5300:
5296:
5286:
5284:
5268:
5267:
5263:
5253:
5251:
5246:. p. 128.
5235:
5234:
5230:
5220:
5219:
5212:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5189:
5181:
5180:
5176:
5132:
5131:
5127:
5113:
5111:
5098:
5097:
5093:
5079:
5077:
5073:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5032:
5025:
5010:
5009:
5005:
4993:
4988:
4987:
4983:
4973:
4971:
4964:
4946:
4945:
4941:
4931:
4929:
4922:
4907:
4906:
4899:
4892:
4877:
4876:
4872:
4826:Status Unknown.
4792:
4791:
4787:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4704:
4703:
4694:
4622:
4621:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4597:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4536:BBN Report 1822
4532:
4479:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4444:
4428:
4417:
4415:Implementations
4314:
4308:
4263:Network access
4134:Four+one layers
4110:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4082:
4077:(Cisco Academy)
4075:
4068:
4061:
4043:
3992:ephemeral ports
3920:
3914:
3884:streaming media
3868:error detection
3751:
3749:Transport layer
3745:
3743:Transport layer
3711:: for example,
3709:protocol number
3689:Internetworking
3686:
3680:
3624:
3618:
3584:transport layer
3485:
3479:
3455:
3400:Trumpet Winsock
3296:
3280:network packets
3265:
3187:Jonathan Postel
3116:internetworking
3053:
3029:
3023:
3021:
3019:
3010:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2940:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2877:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2835:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2816:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2797:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2778:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2755:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2737:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2718:
2712:
2710:
2708:
2699:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2661:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2642:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2623:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2604:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2585:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2487:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2468:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2449:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2392:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2373:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2354:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2318:Rotten Tomatoes
2316:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2242:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2166:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2147:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2132:online retailer
2128:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2090:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2071:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2039:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2003:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1966:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1948:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1930:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1873:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1809:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1790:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1774:Abilene Network
1768:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1749:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1712:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1693:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1634:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1583:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1546:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1523:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1504:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1466:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1447:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1409:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1390:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1353:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1335:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1316:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1297:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1258:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1240:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1221:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1202:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1183:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1146:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1108:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1089:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1071:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1014:
1008:
1006:
1004:
995:
989:
987:
985:
976:
970:
968:
966:
957:
951:
949:
947:
929:
923:
921:
919:
910:
904:
902:
900:
888:
882:
880:
878:
869:
863:
861:
859:
850:
844:
842:
840:
828:
822:
820:
818:
809:
803:
801:
799:
790:
784:
782:
780:
771:
765:
763:
761:
752:
746:
744:
742:
733:
727:
725:
723:
717:
711:
709:
707:
698:
692:
690:
688:
679:
673:
671:
669:
663:
657:
655:
653:
645:
639:
637:
635:
630:planning begins
626:
620:
618:
616:
607:
601:
599:
597:
588:
582:
580:
578:
569:
563:
561:
559:
550:
544:
542:
540:
519:
513:
486:transport layer
482:internetworking
429:(UDP), and the
395:
215:Transport layer
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7283:
7281:
7273:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7247:
7246:
7243:
7242:
7228:
7222:
7217:
7215:Informational.
7186:
7178:
7177:External links
7175:
7174:
7173:
7163:(5): 637โ648.
7136:
7116:978-0897912792
7115:
7080:
7074:
7058:
7052:
7036:
7030:
7014:
7008:
6992:
6986:
6973:
6967:
6954:
6948:
6935:
6929:
6916:
6910:
6897:
6891:
6878:
6872:
6854:
6851:
6848:
6847:
6839:Informational.
6802:
6786:
6772:
6752:
6733:
6713:
6699:
6679:
6662:
6636:
6622:
6602:
6588:
6568:
6554:
6534:
6515:
6492:
6459:(2): 518โ520.
6439:
6397:
6358:
6351:
6333:
6325:Informational.
6288:
6227:
6190:
6141:
6113:
6094:
6071:
6046:
6013:
6001:
5974:
5947:
5921:
5899:
5873:
5856:, p. 15,
5835:
5809:
5775:
5759:
5743:
5724:Ronda Hauben.
5713:
5706:
5688:
5628:
5598:
5590:Informational.
5541:
5499:
5463:
5430:
5404:
5369:
5356:Vinton G. Cerf
5347:
5334:
5303:
5294:
5261:
5228:
5210:
5185:(March 1977).
5174:
5125:
5091:
5053:(5): 637โ648.
5030:
5023:
5003:
4981:
4962:
4939:
4921:978-1107039193
4920:
4897:
4890:
4870:
4785:
4758:
4692:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4531:
4528:
4481:
4480:
4431:
4429:
4422:
4416:
4413:
4334:physical layer
4307:
4304:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4187:
4183:
4182:
4179:
4176:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4093:
4086:
4079:
4074:Internet model
4072:
4065:
4042:
4039:
3999:user protocols
3913:
3910:
3833:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3760:connectionless
3744:
3741:
3684:Internet layer
3682:Main article:
3679:
3678:Internet layer
3676:
3661:physical layer
3620:Main article:
3617:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3604:
3596:internet layer
3592:
3589:connectionless
3580:
3478:
3475:
3454:
3451:
3343:Barry Appelman
3308:Peter Kirstein
3295:
3292:
3264:
3261:
3209:as a reliable
3076:internetworked
3052:
3051:Early research
3049:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3017:
2998:
2976:
2954:
2928:
2906:
2884:
2865:
2846:
2823:
2804:
2785:
2766:
2743:
2725:
2706:
2687:
2668:
2649:
2630:
2611:
2592:
2573:
2564:The Pirate Bay
2550:
2531:
2513:
2494:
2475:
2456:
2437:
2418:
2399:
2380:
2361:
2342:
2323:
2304:
2285:
2267:
2248:
2230:
2211:
2192:
2173:
2154:
2135:
2116:
2097:
2078:
2051:
2050:
2027:
2009:
1991:
1973:
1954:
1936:
1918:
1900:
1880:
1879:
1861:
1834:
1816:
1811:Dot-com bubble
1797:
1778:
1756:
1737:
1719:
1700:
1681:
1663:
1641:
1638:decommissioned
1622:
1591:
1590:
1571:
1553:
1534:
1511:
1492:
1473:
1454:
1435:
1430:World Wide Web
1416:
1397:
1378:
1360:
1341:
1323:
1318:UUNET/Alternet
1304:
1285:
1269:
1246:
1228:
1209:
1190:
1171:
1153:
1134:
1115:
1096:
1077:
1059:
1040:
1021:
1002:
983:
964:
937:
936:
917:
898:
876:
857:
838:
816:
797:
778:
759:
740:
721:
705:
686:
667:
651:
633:
614:
595:
576:
557:
528:
527:
512:
509:
478:internet layer
470:protocol stack
397:
396:
394:
393:
386:
379:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
358:
353:
348:
343:
335:
334:
328:
327:
326:
325:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
288:
287:
286:
281:
268:
267:
265:Internet layer
261:
260:
259:
258:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
218:
217:
211:
210:
209:
208:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
81:
76:
71:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7282:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7239:
7235:
7234:
7229:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7211:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7194:
7193:
7187:
7184:
7181:
7180:
7176:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7157:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7112:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7096:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7075:0-13-066102-3
7071:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7053:0-201-63495-3
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7031:0-201-63354-X
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7009:0-201-63346-9
7005:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6987:1-59059-345-6
6983:
6979:
6974:
6970:
6968:1-57610-687-X
6964:
6960:
6955:
6951:
6945:
6941:
6936:
6932:
6930:1-56592-322-7
6926:
6922:
6917:
6913:
6907:
6903:
6898:
6894:
6892:0-7356-1291-9
6888:
6884:
6879:
6875:
6873:86-7991-142-9
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6856:
6852:
6844:
6840:
6835:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6818:
6817:
6809:
6807:
6803:
6798:
6797:
6790:
6787:
6779:September 12,
6775:
6769:
6765:
6764:
6756:
6753:
6740:
6736:
6730:
6726:
6725:
6717:
6714:
6706:September 12,
6702:
6700:9780072923544
6696:
6692:
6691:
6683:
6680:
6676:
6669:September 12,
6665:
6663:0-13-066102-3
6659:
6655:
6650:
6649:
6640:
6637:
6629:September 12,
6625:
6623:0-13-187671-6
6619:
6615:
6614:
6606:
6603:
6595:September 12,
6591:
6589:9781593270476
6585:
6581:
6580:
6572:
6569:
6561:September 12,
6557:
6555:9780132877435
6551:
6547:
6546:
6538:
6535:
6522:
6518:
6516:0-201-63346-9
6512:
6508:
6507:
6502:
6496:
6493:
6488:
6482:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6443:
6440:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6404:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6359:
6354:
6352:9781449390785
6348:
6344:
6337:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6321:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6304:
6303:
6298:
6292:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6264:
6261:
6258:. STD 5.
6256:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6231:
6228:
6212:
6205:
6201:
6194:
6191:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6145:
6142:
6130:
6126:
6120:
6118:
6114:
6101:
6097:
6091:
6087:
6086:
6078:
6076:
6072:
6064:
6057:
6050:
6047:
6034:
6030:
6029:
6028:IEEE Spectrum
6024:
6017:
6014:
6011:
6005:
6002:
5994:September 12,
5989:
5985:
5978:
5975:
5962:
5958:
5951:
5948:
5940:September 12,
5935:
5931:
5925:
5922:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5903:
5900:
5887:
5883:
5877:
5874:
5859:
5855:
5848:
5847:
5839:
5836:
5823:
5819:
5813:
5810:
5806:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5779:
5776:
5771:
5770:
5763:
5760:
5755:
5754:
5747:
5744:
5731:
5727:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5709:
5707:9780080558783
5703:
5699:
5692:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5664:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5647:
5646:
5641:
5635:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5618:September 25,
5613:
5609:
5602:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5586:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5556:
5551:
5545:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5533:Experimental.
5529:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5512:
5511:
5503:
5500:
5491:September 15,
5483:
5476:
5475:
5467:
5464:
5460:
5447:
5443:
5442:
5434:
5431:
5423:September 11,
5415:
5408:
5405:
5389:
5382:
5381:
5373:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5351:
5348:
5344:
5338:
5335:
5323:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5307:
5304:
5298:
5295:
5282:
5278:
5277:
5272:
5271:"Yogen Dalal"
5265:
5262:
5249:
5245:
5241:
5240:
5232:
5229:
5224:
5217:
5215:
5211:
5195:
5188:
5184:
5178:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5162:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5145:
5144:
5139:
5135:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5114:September 11,
5109:
5105:
5101:
5095:
5092:
5088:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5041:
5034:
5031:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5015:
5007:
5004:
4999:
4992:
4985:
4982:
4969:
4965:
4959:
4955:
4954:
4949:
4948:Abbate, Janet
4943:
4940:
4927:
4923:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4882:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4827:
4822:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4804:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4730:
4727:
4724:. STD 3.
4722:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4653:
4648:
4645:
4642:. STD 3.
4640:
4635:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4600:
4592:
4588:
4582:
4579:
4572:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4477:
4474:
4466:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4437:
4432:This section
4430:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4405:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4373:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4345:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4330:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4313:
4305:
4303:
4301:
4291:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4225:Internetwork
4224:
4221:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4196:Host-to-host
4194:
4190:
4189:
4186:Presentation
4185:
4184:
4180:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4108:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4080:
4073:
4066:
4059:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4049:
4040:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4006:
4004:
4000:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3968:clientโserver
3964:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3872:Voice over IP
3869:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3854:
3849:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3830:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3809:
3807:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3764:error control
3761:
3757:
3750:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3701:
3698:
3697:IP addressing
3694:
3690:
3685:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3645:device driver
3640:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3623:
3615:
3609:
3605:
3602:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3530:
3527:
3526:Encapsulation
3523:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3503:
3495:
3489:
3484:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3384:
3378:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3270:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3253:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3232:
3229:in 1999, the
3228:
3224:
3223:Donald Davies
3220:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3096:Steve Crocker
3093:
3089:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3057:
3050:
3040:
3036:
3035:video sharing
3032:
3018:
3013:
2999:
2995:
2994:photo sharing
2991:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2946:photo sharing
2943:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2885:
2880:
2866:
2862:search engine
2861:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2824:
2819:
2805:
2800:
2786:
2781:
2767:
2762:
2758:
2744:
2740:
2726:
2721:
2707:
2703:microblogging
2702:
2688:
2684:virtual globe
2683:
2669:
2664:
2650:
2646:video sharing
2645:
2631:
2627:image hosting
2626:
2612:
2607:
2593:
2588:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2551:
2546:
2532:
2528:
2514:
2509:
2495:
2490:
2476:
2471:
2457:
2452:
2438:
2433:
2419:
2414:
2400:
2396:search engine
2395:
2381:
2376:
2362:
2357:
2343:
2338:
2324:
2319:
2305:
2300:
2286:
2282:
2268:
2263:
2249:
2245:
2244:Google Search
2231:
2227:search engine
2226:
2212:
2207:
2193:
2189:search engine
2188:
2174:
2169:
2155:
2150:
2136:
2131:
2117:
2113:web directory
2112:
2098:
2093:
2079:
2074:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2046:
2042:
2028:
2024:
2010:
2006:
1992:
1988:
1974:
1969:
1955:
1951:
1937:
1933:
1919:
1915:
1901:
1896:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1835:
1831:
1817:
1812:
1798:
1793:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1757:
1752:
1738:
1734:
1720:
1715:
1701:
1696:
1682:
1678:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1642:
1637:
1623:
1619:
1616:connected at
1615:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1586:
1572:
1568:
1554:
1549:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1512:
1507:
1493:
1488:
1474:
1469:
1455:
1450:
1436:
1431:
1417:
1412:
1398:
1393:
1379:
1375:
1361:
1356:
1342:
1338:
1324:
1319:
1305:
1300:
1286:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1247:
1243:
1229:
1224:
1210:
1205:
1191:
1187:
1172:
1168:
1154:
1149:
1135:
1130:
1116:
1111:
1097:
1092:
1078:
1074:
1060:
1055:
1041:
1036:
1022:
1017:
1003:
998:
984:
979:
965:
960:
946:
945:
944:
943:
942:
932:
918:
913:
899:
895:
891:
877:
872:
858:
853:
839:
835:
831:
817:
812:
798:
793:
779:
774:
760:
755:
741:
736:
722:
706:
701:
687:
682:
668:
652:
648:
634:
629:
615:
610:
609:Merit Network
596:
591:
577:
572:
558:
553:
539:
538:
537:
536:
535:
530:
529:
526:
523:
522:
518:
510:
508:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
392:
387:
385:
380:
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373:
372:
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369:
364:
363:
359:
357:
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342:
339:
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336:
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329:
324:
323:
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304:
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285:
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245:
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232:
230:
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216:
212:
207:
206:
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200:
197:
195:
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185:
182:
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177:
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172:
170:
167:
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162:
160:
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155:
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147:
145:
142:
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137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
89:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
69:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
55:
54:
51:
47:
44:
40:
37:
33:
19:
7238:the original
7232:
7214:
7191:
7160:
7154:
7146:(May 1974).
7128:. Retrieved
7094:
7065:
7043:
7021:
6999:
6977:
6958:
6939:
6923:. O'Reilly.
6920:
6901:
6882:
6863:
6853:Bibliography
6838:
6815:
6795:
6789:
6777:. Retrieved
6762:
6755:
6743:. Retrieved
6723:
6716:
6704:. Retrieved
6689:
6682:
6674:
6667:. Retrieved
6647:
6639:
6627:. Retrieved
6612:
6605:
6593:. Retrieved
6578:
6571:
6559:. Retrieved
6544:
6537:
6525:. Retrieved
6505:
6495:
6481:cite journal
6456:
6452:
6442:
6420:(6): 52โ57.
6417:
6413:
6378:(4): 71โ80.
6375:
6371:
6361:
6342:
6336:
6324:
6301:
6297:B. Carpenter
6291:
6267:
6240:
6230:
6218:. Retrieved
6193:
6161:(2): 41โ49.
6158:
6154:
6144:
6134:February 27,
6132:. Retrieved
6128:
6104:. Retrieved
6084:
6063:the original
6049:
6037:. Retrieved
6026:
6016:
6009:
6004:
5992:. Retrieved
5977:
5967:September 9,
5965:. Retrieved
5961:the original
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5934:the original
5924:
5916:the original
5911:
5902:
5890:. Retrieved
5885:
5876:
5865:, retrieved
5845:
5838:
5828:December 31,
5826:. Retrieved
5822:the original
5812:
5804:
5797:. Retrieved
5792:
5788:
5778:
5768:
5762:
5752:
5746:
5734:. Retrieved
5697:
5691:
5667:
5644:
5623:
5616:. Retrieved
5612:the original
5601:
5589:
5554:
5550:B. Carpenter
5544:
5532:
5509:
5502:
5489:. Retrieved
5473:
5466:
5457:
5452:November 21,
5450:. Retrieved
5446:the original
5440:
5433:
5421:. Retrieved
5407:
5397:December 28,
5395:. Retrieved
5379:
5372:
5363:
5359:
5350:
5342:
5337:
5326:, retrieved
5316:
5306:
5297:
5285:. Retrieved
5275:
5264:
5254:September 5,
5252:. Retrieved
5238:
5231:
5201:. Retrieved
5183:Cerf, Vinton
5177:
5165:
5142:
5128:
5119:
5112:. Retrieved
5103:
5094:
5085:
5078:. Retrieved
5050:
5046:
5033:
5013:
5006:
4997:
4984:
4972:. Retrieved
4952:
4942:
4932:December 20,
4930:. Retrieved
4910:
4880:
4873:
4825:
4802:
4788:
4771:
4767:
4761:
4733:
4710:
4651:
4628:
4581:
4484:
4469:
4460:
4445:Please help
4433:
4406:
4401:
4374:
4350:
4346:
4331:
4315:
4297:
4181:Application
4178:Application
4175:Application
4172:Application
4169:Application
4166:Application
4163:Application
4154:Seven layers
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4119:Three layers
4118:
4102:TCP/IP model
4053:
4044:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3996:
3971:
3965:
3953:
3945:encapsulated
3931:(HTTP), the
3921:
3900:
3897:
3891:
3888:
3857:
3850:
3834:
3810:
3803:
3791:port numbers
3790:
3787:network port
3784:
3780:port numbers
3772:flow control
3768:segmentation
3752:
3721:
3702:
3687:
3673:
3649:network card
3641:
3627:
3625:
3601:IP addresses
3573:peer-to-peer
3564:
3545:
3531:
3524:
3516:
3508:
3467:
3456:
3444:
3388:
3382:
3379:
3373:. The first
3359:FTP Software
3336:
3324:
3297:
3283:
3273:
3266:
3250:
3235:
3215:
3183:packet voice
3175:Bob Metcalfe
3155:
3135:Louis Pouzin
3128:
3083:
3081:
3078:transmission
2682:Google Earth
2568:torrent file
2527:iTunes Store
2054:
2053:
2052:
1751:IEEE 802.11b
1658:
1594:
1593:
1592:
1263:
1185:
977:
940:
939:
938:
533:
532:
531:
524:
494:
480:, providing
455:
442:
438:
434:
417:and similar
413:used in the
406:
402:
400:
361:
321:
254:
204:
42:
36:
7130:October 16,
6106:November 7,
6039:February 6,
6008:Phil Karn,
5867:January 17,
5592:This is an
5535:This is an
5366:(4): 10โ11.
5312:Postel, Jon
5080:October 18,
4794:J. Reynolds
4506:(UDP), and
4280:(Hardware)
4149:Five layers
4144:Five layers
4139:Five layers
4129:Four layers
4124:Four layers
4105:(Stallings)
4091:(Tanenbaum)
4011:black boxes
3935:(FTP), the
3841:multihoming
3715:(ICMP) and
3663:and over a
3438:(OSI), and
3179:Danny Cohen
3151:Yogen Dalal
3112:Vinton Cerf
2898:Kickstarter
2879:Google Docs
2665:link voting
1852:Code Red II
1508:established
1167:Morris worm
933:established
892:news using
590:NPL network
425:(TCP), the
7249:Categories
6980:. Apress.
6220:October 8,
6168:2003.10279
5287:October 8,
4601:References
4463:March 2014
4310:See also:
4266:Data link
4260:Data link
4257:Data link
4217:Transport
4211:Transport
4208:Transport
4205:Transport
4202:Transport
4199:Transport
4070:(RFC 1122)
3972:well-known
3916:See also:
3848:over IP).
3835:The newer
3747:See also:
3733:IP address
3622:Link layer
3616:Link layer
3608:link layer
3481:See also:
3244:, and the
3185:work; and
3124:Xerox PARC
2432:BitTorrent
2262:Babel Fish
2168:Craigslist
1970:registered
1848:Code Red I
854:introduced
474:link layer
332:Link layer
7084:Clark, D.
6675:networks.
6527:April 25,
6473:1001-9081
6434:1089-7801
6392:1089-7801
6236:J. Postel
6185:2471-2825
5578:2070-1721
5345:, 129โ30.
5320:, IEN 2,
5203:August 4,
5166:Obsolete.
5104:Economist
5067:1558-0857
4798:J. Postel
4706:R. Braden
4624:R. Braden
4434:does not
4292:Physical
4289:Physical
4286:Physical
4283:Physical
4237:Internet
4231:Internet
4228:Internet
4222:Internet
4109:OSI model
4063:(RFC 871)
3957:libraries
3558:processes
3544:, titled
3199:version 4
3166:datagrams
3094:in 1969,
2942:Instagram
2841:DRM-based
2720:WikiLeaks
2451:Knowledge
2187:AltaVista
1770:Internet2
1411:ANS CO+RE
1262:(without
1184:Complete
505:OSI model
7086:(1988).
7064:(2003).
7042:(1996).
6862:(2001).
6745:July 16,
6739:Archived
6521:Archived
6211:Archived
6100:Archived
6033:Archived
5988:Archived
5892:June 29,
5858:archived
5730:Archived
5640:F. Baker
5482:Archived
5388:Archived
5341:Abbate,
5328:June 11,
5322:archived
5281:Archived
5248:Archived
5194:Archived
5138:Y. Dalal
5108:Archived
5071:Archived
4968:Archived
4950:(2000).
4926:Archived
4530:See also
4498:(ICMP),
4364:and the
4240:Network
4234:Network
4191:Session
4019:firewall
4015:switches
3864:datagram
3855:(HDLC).
3657:chipsets
3653:firmware
3647:for the
3577:services
3465:(IETF).
3395:BSD UNIX
3361:and the
3320:flag day
3294:Adoption
3288:gateways
3259:(IPv6).
3143:CYCLADES
3104:Bob Kahn
3012:Coursera
2990:Snapchat
2761:e-reader
2587:Facebook
2470:LinkedIn
2453:, the ๐
1697:proposed
1550:released
1506:InterNIC
1056:released
912:Ethernet
754:CYCLADES
449:through
415:Internet
7125:6156615
5984:"About"
5799:May 29,
5769:IEN 152
5753:IEN 207
5736:July 5,
5134:V. Cerf
4974:May 15,
4514:(NDP),
4502:(TCP),
4494:(ARP),
4455:removed
4440:sources
3988:Clients
3725:ARPANET
3693:routing
3442:(XNS).
3331:Interop
3284:gateway
3092:ARPANET
3022: (
3003: (
2981: (
2968:Google+
2959: (
2933: (
2920:Bitcoin
2911: (
2889: (
2870: (
2851: (
2837:Spotify
2828: (
2809: (
2799:Dropbox
2790: (
2771: (
2748: (
2730: (
2711: (
2701:Twitter
2692: (
2673: (
2654: (
2644:YouTube
2635: (
2616: (
2606:Podcast
2597: (
2578: (
2555: (
2536: (
2518: (
2499: (
2489:Myspace
2480: (
2461: (
2442: (
2423: (
2404: (
2385: (
2375:Napster
2366: (
2347: (
2328: (
2309: (
2290: (
2272: (
2253: (
2235: (
2225:RankDex
2216: (
2197: (
2178: (
2159: (
2140: (
2121: (
2102: (
2083: (
2064: (
2032: (
2014: (
1996: (
1978: (
1959: (
1941: (
1923: (
1905: (
1897:founded
1886: (
1866: (
1839: (
1821: (
1802: (
1783: (
1761: (
1742: (
1724: (
1705: (
1686: (
1668: (
1646: (
1627: (
1604: (
1576: (
1558: (
1539: (
1516: (
1497: (
1478: (
1459: (
1440: (
1421: (
1402: (
1383: (
1365: (
1346: (
1328: (
1309: (
1290: (
1274: (
1251: (
1233: (
1214: (
1195: (
1176: (
1158: (
1139: (
1131:founded
1120: (
1101: (
1082: (
1064: (
1045: (
1026: (
1007: (
988: (
969: (
961:(CSNET)
950: (
922: (
903: (
881: (
862: (
852:Minitel
843: (
821: (
811:Telenet
802: (
783: (
764: (
745: (
726: (
710: (
691: (
672: (
656: (
638: (
628:ARPANET
619: (
611:founded
600: (
581: (
562: (
543: (
511:History
362:more...
346:Tunnels
322:more...
255:more...
205:more...
194:TLS/SSL
149:ONC/RPC
86: (
7123:
7113:
7072:
7050:
7028:
7006:
6984:
6965:
6946:
6927:
6908:
6889:
6870:
6770:
6731:
6697:
6660:
6620:
6586:
6552:
6513:
6471:
6432:
6390:
6349:
6183:
6092:
5704:
5576:
5065:
5021:
4960:
4918:
4888:
4518:, and
4516:ICMPv6
4490:(IP),
4362:Telnet
3984:Telnet
3906:HTTP/3
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