494:, and forced to a predetermined result. According to Kenna and Kuroda technetium content expected in a typical pitchblende (50% uranium) is about 10 g/kg of ore. F. Habashi pointed out that uranium was never more than about 5% in Noddacks' columbite samples, and the amount of element 43 could not exceed 3 × 10 μg/kg of ore. Such a low quantity could not be weighed, nor give X-ray lines of element 43 clearly distinguishable from the background noise. The only way to detect its presence was to carry out radioactive measurements, a technique the Noddacks were not able to employ, but Segrè and Perrier did.
1681:... P. H. Van Assche and J. T. Armstrong, cannot stand up to the well-documented assertion of the well-established physicist Paul K. Kuroda (1917 2001) in his paper, "A Note on the Discovery of Technetium" that the Noddacks did not discover technetium, then known as masurium. More about this matter can be found in Kuroda's book, The Origin of Chemical Elements and the Oklo Phenomenon, and the book Ida Noddack (1896 1978). Personal Recollections on the Occasion of 80th Anniversary of the Discovery of Rhenium recently published by the writer...Fathi Habashi
42:
266:. She was one of the first women in Germany to study chemistry, and she was a part of one of the first generations of female students in Germany. In addition, the percent of women studying chemistry increased from 3% before World War I to 35% during the war. After graduating, she worked in the chemistry laboratory of the Berlin turbine factory of
244:) in the northern Rhine region in 1896. She described how she picked her path of study by stating, "since I did not want to be a teacher at all, and research and industry employed proportionally fewer physicists at that time, I decided to become a chemist– a decision that was welcomed by my father who owned a small varnish factory in the
1483:"I simulated the X-ray spectra that would be expected for Van Assche's initial estimates of the Noddacks' residue compositions. ...Over the next couple of years, we refined our reconstruction of their analytical methods and performed more sophisticated simulations. The agreement between simulated and reported spectra improved further. "
430:
in honor of his. After scientists were sceptical of their results, the
Noddack's began to perform more experiments to confirm their discoveries. Only rhenium's discovery was confirmed. They were unable to isolate element 43 and their results were not reproducible. These achievements led to Ida being
320:
elements in his proofs, rather than only down to lead. The paper is considered historically significant today not simply because she correctly pointed out the flaw in Fermi's chemical proof but because she suggested the possibility that "it is conceivable that the nucleus breaks up into several large
1776:
In a recent evaluation of the discovery of "nipponium," supposed to be element 43 by
Masataka Ogawa in 1908, and confirmed but not published by his son Eijiro in the 1940s, Kenji Yoshihara remeasured a photographic plate of an X-ray spectrum taken by Ogawa and found the spectral lines were those of
557:
due to her discovery of rhenium and masurium. Noddack and her husband were repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1932, 1933, 1935 and 1937 (once by
Walther Nernst and K. L. Wagner for 1933; both Noddacks were nominated by W. J. MĂĽller for 1935 and by A. Skrabal for 1937). The two of them were
1739:
Masataka Ogawa's discovery of nipponium was accepted once in the periodic table of chemical elements as the element 43, but disappeared later. However, nipponium clearly shows characteristics of rhenium (Z=75) by inspection of his papers from the modern chemical viewpoints...a record of X-ray
1691:, Fathi Habashi, Gunter Herrmann, and Jean Pierre Adloff, who provided me with additional information and convinced me to better consider the published material on the so-called Noddacks' rehabilitation and to correct with this letter my gross mistake, for which I apologize. Roberto Zingales
337:
and become housewives so that there would be more positions available for men. Noddack was able to escape this law due to her status as an "unpaid collaborator." This may have caused her to be looked down upon by men in the field as she was only able to work due to this loophole.
1862:
Noddack was also awarded the German
Chemical Society's prestigious Liebig Medal in 1931 along with her husband. In 1934, they received the Scheele Medal of the Swedish Chemical Society and in the same year they secured yet another German patent, for rhenium concentrate.
1969:
325:. However, Noddack's theory did not exhibit experimental proof or a theoretical basis for this possibility. Therefore, the paper was generally ignored and mocked by others, despite the fact that she was correct. Several German scientists, like
301:
bombarded uranium with neutrons in his laboratory in Rome, and identified a new type of radioactivity whose atomic chemistry differed greatly from uranium and similar elements. He published his findings claiming this to be evidence of a new
458:
due to its artificial source. No isotope of technetium has a half-life longer than 4.2 million years and was presumed to have disappeared on Earth as a naturally occurring element. In 1961 minute amounts of technetium in
1740:
spectrum of Ogawa's nipponium sample from thorianite was contained in a photographic plate reserved by his family. The spectrum was read and indicated the absence of the element 43 and the presence of the element 75
501:
who had made a prior claim to the
Noddacks. In 1908 he claimed to have isolated element 43, calling it Nipponium. Using an original plate (not a simulation), Kenji Yoshihara determined Ogawa had not found the
353:
in 1938 raised what they called "interpretational difficulties" when the supposed transuranics exhibited the properties of rare earths rather than those of adjacent elements. Ultimately on
December 17, 1938,
311:
might have been produced. This theory was widely accepted for a few years. However, Noddack's paper "On
Element 93" suggested a number of possibilities, but centered on Fermi's failure to chemically eliminate
1684:
Since the publication in this
Journal of my paper on the discovery of element 43 , I have received a few letters questioning the correctness of the next to last paragraph, in the section entitled Nemesis....
1446:
By reanalysing the original experimental conditions, we conclude that the detection limit for their observing the X-rays of Z = 43 can be 1000 times lower than the 10 detection limit for the element Z = 75.
306:
Ida
Noddack quickly published a paper questioning Fermi’s conclusion. Noddack correctly criticized Enrico Fermi's chemical proofs in his 1934 neutron bombardment experiments, from which he postulated that
651:
Noddack, Ida, and Walter
Noddack. 1939. Die Häufigkeiten der Schwermetalle in Meerestieren. Arkiv för zoologi, Bd. 32, A, Nr. 4. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. (The frequency of heavy metals in marine
648:
Noddack, Walter, and Ida Noddack. 1937. Aufgaben und Ziele der Geochemie. Freiburger wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Hft. 26. Freiburg im Breisgau: H. Speyer, H.F. Schulz. (Tasks and goals of Geochemistry)
558:
also awarded the German Chemical Society's prestigious Liebig Medal in 1931. In 1934, they received the Scheele Medal of the Swedish Chemical Society as well as the German patent for rhenium concentrate.
256:'s universities. Nine out of the eighty-five members of her class studied chemistry. In 1918, she graduated from the University with a degree in chemical and metallurgical engineering, specifically on
1577:
Abstract: A careful study of the history of the element 43 covering a period of 63 years since 1925 reveals that there is no reason for believing the Noddacks and Berg have discovered element 43.
321:
fragments, which would of course be isotopes of known elements but would not be neighbors of the irradiated element." In doing so she presaged what would become known a few years later as
1779:
H. Kenji Yoshihra; Teiji Kobayashi; Masanori Kaji (November 2005). "Ogawa Family and Their'Nipponium' Research: Successful Separation of the Element 75 before Its Discovery by Noddacks".
467:. Based on this discovery, Belgian physicist Pieter van Assche constructed an analysis of their data to show that the detection limit of Noddacks' analytical method could have been
471:
than the 10 value reported in their paper, in order to show the Noddacks could have been the first to find measurable amounts of element 43, as the ores they had analyzed contained
1917:
402:
also experimentally verified the fission reaction by means of a cloud chamber, confirming the energy release. Therefore, Noddack's original hypothesis was finally accepted.
1102:
289:
while he was working as a researcher. They were married in 1926. Both before and after their marriage they worked as partners, an "Arbeitsgemeinschaft" or "work unit."
1223:
1999:
1964:
956:
B. Fernandez and Georges Ripka, Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus: A Sixty Year Journey 1896-1956 (New York, NY: Springer, 2013), 352, Google Books.
528:), preceding the Noddacks by 17 years. However this claim has been disputed by chemistry historian Eric Scerri in his book titled "A Tale of Seven Elements"
1994:
1742:
H. K. Yoshihara (31 August 2004). "Discovery of a new element 'nipponium': re-evaluation of pioneering works of Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro Ogawa".
486:
the original X-ray spectrum with a computer, and claimed that the results were "surprisingly close to their published spectrum!" Gunter Herrmann from the
1260:
1974:
1954:
969:
1032:
252:
because she was drawn to its long and demanding programs. She entered the school in 1915, six years after women were allowed to study in all of
1883:
1959:
1623:
1562:
897:
539:
411:
570:
286:
249:
1204:
Bohr N.; Kalckar F. (1937). "On the Transmutation of Atomic Nuclei by Impact of Material Particles. I. General theoretical remarks".
1911:
924:
1984:
632:, and Ida Tacke. 1925. Zwei neue Elemente der Mangangruppe, Chemischer Teil. . (Two new elements of the manganese chemical group)
110:
1138:
1979:
1231:
1081:(1938). "On the Nature of a Radioactive Element with 3.5-Hour Half-Life Produced in the Neutron Irradiation of Uranium".
635:
Noddack, Ida, and Walter Noddack. 1927. Das Rhenium. Ergebnisse Der Exakten Naturwissenschaften. 6. Bd. (1927) (Rhenium)
1699:
341:
Noddack's idea of nuclear fission was not confirmed until much later. Experiments along a similar line to Fermi's, by
414:. In 1925, they published a paper (Zwei neue Elemente der Mangangruppe, Chemischer Teil) and called the new elements
346:
1989:
1838:. pp. 278, 279, 283, 284, 292, 293, 300, 301, Memorial medal for discovery of Re – via www.pinterest.ru.
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687:
329:, saw Noddack's work as "ridiculous." A woman's position in the workplace had been dwindling for years due to the
1867:
The Nobel Population 1901-1950: A Census of the Nominations and Nominees for the Prizes in Physics and Chemistry
1835:
The Nobel Population 1901-1950: A Census of the Nominations and Nominees for the Prizes in Physics and Chemistry
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229:
176:
1897:
1850:"95 Anniversary of the discovery of RHENIUM by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke-Noddack and Otto Berg | Rhenium"
1554:
Ida Noddack (1896-1978):Personal Recollections on the Occasion of 80th Anniversary of the Discovery of Rhenium
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330:
172:
83:
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221:
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Günter Herrmann (11 December 1989). "Technetium or masurium — a comment on the history of element 43".
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rhenium. Thus actually, rhenium was discovered many years before Noddack, Tacke, and Berg's work. .
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1103:"Concerning the Existence of Alkaline Earth Metals Resulting from Neutron Irradiation of Uranium"
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Noddack, Ida (1934). Ăśber das Element 93. Angewandte Chemie. 47(37): 653-655. (On Element 93).
930:
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893:
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Noddack, Ida (1934). Ăśber das Element 93. Angewandte Chemie. 47(37): 653-655. (On Element 93).
535:
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Following on the van Assche and Armstrong claims, an investigation was made into the works of
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Kenna, B. T.; Kuroda, P. K. (December 1961). "Isolation of naturally occurring technetium".
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in 1935) to provide a first theoretical model and mathematical proof of what Frisch coined
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Noddack and her husband-to-be looked for the then still unknown elements 43 and 75 at the
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Annotated Bibliography for Ida Noddack from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
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In 2020 a memorial medal of the discovery was issued by ISTR, designed by Igor Petrov.
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374:, explaining the process as a 'bursting' of the uranium nucleus into lighter elements.
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Pieter H. M. Van Assche (4 April 1988). "The ignored discovery of the element-Z=43".
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919:. Caroline L. Herzenberg. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. p. 30.
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1805:). From the modern chemical viewpoint it has to be considered to be element 75.
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379:
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from a discarded piece of molybdenum foil from a cyclotron which had undergone
1802:
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1502:
1366:
1317:"Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment"
740:
Starke, K. (1979). "The detours leading to the discovery of nuclear fission".
455:
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260:
1899:
Women In Their Element: Selected Women's Contributions To The Periodic System
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Annette Lykknes; Donald L. Opitz; Brigitte van Tiggelen, eds. (7 June 2012).
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In 1932, a German law, replicating others in Europe, was put into place that
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659:. Freiburg i.Br: Schulz. (The development and structure of chemical science)
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1970:
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
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P. K. Kuroda (16 October 1989). "A Note on the Discovery of Technetium".
914:
853:"A tale of oblivion: Ida Noddack and the 'universal abundance' of matter"
622:. Berlin, TeH., Diss., 1921. (On higher aliphatic fatty acid anhydrides )
419:
17:
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produced from spontaneous U fission were discovered by B. T. Kenna and
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1261:"Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction"
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475:. Using Van Assche's estimates of the Noddacks' residue compositions,
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Matematisk-Fysiske Meddelelser Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
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For better or for worse? : collaborative couples in the sciences
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Annette Lykknes, Donald L. Opitz, and Brigitte Van Tiggelen, eds.,
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examined van Assche's arguments, and concluded they were developed
1557:. Québec City, Canada: Métallurgie Extractive Québec. p. 59.
1224:"Report Of The Third Washington Conference On Theoretical Physics"
241:
1099:
Translation in American Journal of Physics, January 1964, p. 9-15
992:"Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than 92"
281:, was world-famous and resembled a turbine. She met her husband,
240:
Ida Tacke was born in Lackhausen (nowadays a part of the city of
1801:
and named nipponium. He inadequately assigned it as element 43 (
521:
510:
476:
212:. In 1934 she was the first to mention the idea later named
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Noddack, W.; Tacke, I.; Berg, O (1925). "Die Ekamangane".
171:, Berlin; Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin;
812:
For Better or for Worse? Collaborative Couples in Science
1797:
Element 75 was isolated in 1908 by the Japanese chemist
1616:
The Origin of Chemical Elements and the Oklo Phenomenon
1228:
President's Papers/RG0002; Office of Public Relations
980:, last modified March 9, 2016, accessed May 15, 2018.
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wrote these exciting results to his exiled colleague
362:
provided chemical proof that the previously presumed
916:
Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project
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1869:. pp. 278, 279, 283, 284, 292, 293, 300, 301.
775:Noddack, Ida Tacke (1934). "Ăśber das Element 93".
657:Entwicklung und Aufbau der chemischen Wissenschaft
1698:Fathi Habashi; Roberto Zingales (February 2006).
827:Lykknes, Opitz, and Van Tiggelen, For Better, 105
857:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
620:Über Anhydride höherer aliphatischer Fettesäuren
442:Element 43 was definitively isolated in 1937 by
179:; Staatliche Forschungs Institut fĂĽr Geochemie,
1744:Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy
1700:"Letters The History of Element 43--Technetium"
553:Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the
390:'s liquid drop hypothesis (first proposed by
270:, which is a company that is affiliated with
167:Allgemein Elektrizität Gesellschaft, Berlin;
8:
1694:Zingales, R. J. Chem. Educ. 2005, 82, 221227
823:
821:
534:. New York;Oxford:Oxford University Press.
335:obligated married women to leave their jobs
1422:Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry
1157:"Neutron capture and nuclear constitution"
913:Howes, Ruth; Herzenberg, Caroline (1999).
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40:
29:
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1015:
722:. University of Alabama Astronomy Program
1929:www.pinterest.ru/pin/747879081861611384/
638:Noddack, Ida, and Walter Noddack. 1933.
277:The building she worked in, designed by
228:. She was nominated three times for the
195:(25 February 1896 – 24 September 1978),
1813:Elementymology & Elements Multidict
1101:O. Hahn; F. Strassmann (January 1939).
669:
688:"Ida Noddack and the missing elements"
1059:. English Translation. Archived from
681:
679:
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675:
673:
412:Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt
7:
2000:Technische Universität Berlin alumni
1965:20th-century German women scientists
1485:Armstrong, John T. (February 2003).
426:in respect of Ida's birthplace, and
287:Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg
250:Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg
1618:. Berlin;New York:Springer-Verlag.
1995:Scientists from the Rhine Province
815:(n.p.: Springer Basel, 2012), 105.
642:. Leipzig: Leopold Foss. (Rhenium)
513:), but had successfully separated
25:
1037:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Angewandte Chemie
777:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Angewandte Chemie
1975:Discoverers of chemical elements
1371:"Disintegration of Heavy Nuclei"
1230:. March 12, 1937. Archived from
618:Tacke, Ida, and D. Holde. 1921.
1920:from the original on 2021-02-12
1491:Chemical & Engineering News
1031:Noddack, Ida (September 1934).
686:Habashi, Fathi (1 March 2009).
1955:20th-century German physicists
892:(1st ed.). : Birkhäuser.
549:Notable nominations and awards
422:(43). They named the elements
1:
1865:Crawford, E. (May 20, 2002).
1852:– via www.pinterest.ru.
1832:Crawford, E. (May 20, 2002).
1707:Journal of Chemical Education
742:Journal of Chemical Education
366:were isotopes of barium, and
224:, she discovered element 75,
111:Technische Universität Berlin
1960:20th-century German chemists
1601:10.1016/0375-9474(89)90260-1
1538:10.1016/0375-9474(89)90379-5
1471:10.1016/0375-9474(88)90393-4
1434:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80098-5
696:. Vol. 46, no. 2.
609:Resources in other libraries
590:Resources in other libraries
248:." She chose to attend the
2016:
698:Royal Society of Chemistry
454:. It was eventually named
27:German chemist (1896–1978)
1764:10.1016/j.sab.2003.12.027
1503:10.1021/cen-v081n036.p110
604:Resources in your library
585:Resources in your library
186:
142:
39:
1687:I am deeply indebted to
1057:10.1002/ange.19340473707
967:"Ida and the Atom, 1934"
851:Gildo Magalhäes Santos,
797:10.1002/ange.19340473707
555:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
532:A Tale of Seven Elements
230:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
177:University of Strasbourg
1985:German women physicists
1107:Die Naturwissenschaften
875:Encyclopædia Britannica
433:German Chemical Society
331:1929 Wall Street crash.
693:Education in Chemistry
274:in the United States.
173:University of Freiburg
84:Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
1980:German women chemists
1894:Brigitte Van Tiggelen
1807:Peter van der Krogt.
1614:P. K. Kuroda (1982).
1142:(English Translation)
530:E. R. Scerri (2013).
347:Frédéric Joliot-Curie
1781:Historia Scientiarum
1551:Habashi, F. (2005).
655:Noddack, Ida. 1942.
364:transuranic elements
309:transuranic elements
304:transuranic element.
169:Siemens & Halske
88:Rhineland-Palatinate
1756:2004AcSpe..59.1305Y
1727:10.1021/ed083p213.2
1719:2006JChEd..83..213Z
1653:1925NW.....13..567.
1641:Naturwissenschaften
1593:1989NuPhA.503..178K
1530:1989NuPhA.505..352H
1463:1988NuPhA.480..205V
1389:1939Natur.143..330B
1335:1939Natur.143..276F
1279:1969Natur.224..466M
1173:1936Natur.137..344B
1119:1939NW.....27...11H
1075:Joliot-Curie, Irène
1049:1934AngCh..47..653N
1008:1934Natur.133..898F
789:1934AngCh..47..653N
754:1979JChEd..56..771S
488:University of Mainz
482:John T. Armstrong,
216:. With her husband
1689:George B. Kauffman
1661:10.1007/BF01558746
1313:Otto Robert Frisch
1301:on April 18, 2008.
1257:Otto Robert Frisch
1127:10.1007/BF01488241
990:FERMI, E. (1934).
972:2018-07-03 at the
343:Irène Joliot-Curie
246:Lower Rhine region
1990:People from Wesel
1625:978-0-387-11679-2
1581:Nuclear Physics A
1564:978-2-922686-08-1
1518:Nuclear Physics A
1451:Nuclear Physics A
1273:(5218): 239–240.
1002:(3372): 898–899.
899:978-3-0348-0285-7
869:Gregersen, Erik.
762:10.1021/ed056p771
571:Library resources
541:978-0-19-539131-2
406:Element discovery
190:
189:
144:Scientific career
75:24 September 1978
16:(Redirected from
2007:
1931:
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1904:World Scientific
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1750:(8): 1305–1310.
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1428:(1–2): 142–144.
1417:
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1398:10.1038/143330a0
1369:(Feb 25, 1939).
1363:
1357:
1356:
1346:
1344:10.1038/143276a0
1315:(Feb 18, 1939).
1309:
1303:
1302:
1297:. Archived from
1287:10.1038/224466a0
1259:(Feb 11, 1939).
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1239:
1220:
1214:
1213:
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1194:
1184:
1182:10.1038/137344a0
1155:Bohr, N (1936).
1152:
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1143:
1137:. Archived from
1097:
1091:
1090:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1019:
1017:10.1038/133898a0
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981:
965:Miriam Grobman,
963:
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727:
720:"Tacke, Ida Eva"
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709:
707:
705:
700:. pp. 48–51
683:
545:
469:1000 times lower
360:Fritz Strassmann
272:General Electric
258:higher aliphatic
78:
56:25 February 1896
44:
30:
21:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2004:
1935:
1934:
1923:
1921:
1914:
1896:, eds. (2019).
1890:Annette Lykknes
1888:
1880:
1875:
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1861:
1857:
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1792:
1778:
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1771:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1702:
1697:
1680:
1676:
1647:(26): 567–574.
1638:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1550:
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1515:
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1510:
1484:
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1478:
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1365:
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1306:
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1237:
1235:
1222:
1221:
1217:
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1202:
1198:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1073:
1072:
1068:
1033:"On Element 93"
1030:
1029:
1025:
989:
988:
984:
974:Wayback Machine
964:
960:
955:
951:
946:
942:
927:
912:
911:
907:
900:
887:
886:
882:
868:
867:
863:
859:68 (2014): 374.
850:
831:
826:
819:
808:
804:
783:(37): 653–655.
774:
773:
769:
739:
738:
734:
725:
723:
718:
717:
713:
703:
701:
685:
684:
671:
666:
626:Noddack, Walter
615:
614:
613:
595:
594:
579:
578:
574:
567:
551:
542:
529:
518:Group 7 element
507:Group 7 element
435:'s prestigious
408:
396:nuclear fission
323:nuclear fission
295:
293:Nuclear fission
238:
214:nuclear fission
204:, was a German
137:
125:nuclear fission
107:Alma mater
94:
80:
76:
67:
57:
55:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2013:
2011:
2003:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
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1878:External links
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1824:
1799:Masataka Ogawa
1790:
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1696:
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1631:
1624:
1606:
1587:(1): 178–182.
1570:
1563:
1543:
1524:(2): 352–360.
1508:
1476:
1457:(2): 205–214.
1439:
1412:
1358:
1304:
1244:
1234:on May 2, 2007
1215:
1196:
1147:
1144:on 2007-02-05.
1092:
1083:Comptes Rendus
1066:
1063:on 2007-02-05.
1023:
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499:Masataka Ogawa
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82:Bad Neuenahr,
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79:(aged 82)
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1383:(3617): 330.
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1329:(3616): 276.
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922:
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872:
871:"Ida Noddack"
865:
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522:dvi-manganese
519:
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511:eka-manganese
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448:Carlo Perrier
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389:
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384:Fritz Kalckar
381:
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324:
319:
316:lighter than
315:
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279:Peter Behrens
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138:Scheele Medal
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65:German Empire
62:
51:
47:
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38:
31:
19:
1928:
1922:. Retrieved
1898:
1866:
1858:
1844:
1834:
1827:
1816:. Retrieved
1812:
1809:"75 Rhenium"
1793:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1747:
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1677:
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1490:
1487:"Technetium"
1479:
1454:
1450:
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1425:
1421:
1415:
1380:
1374:
1361:
1326:
1320:
1307:
1299:the original
1270:
1264:
1253:Lise Meitner
1247:
1236:. Retrieved
1232:the original
1227:
1218:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1139:the original
1113:(1): 11–15.
1110:
1106:
1095:
1089:(906): 1643.
1086:
1082:
1079:Savić, Pavle
1069:
1061:the original
1040:
1036:
1026:
999:
995:
985:
961:
952:
943:
915:
908:
889:
883:
874:
864:
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805:
780:
776:
770:
745:
741:
735:
724:. Retrieved
714:
702:. Retrieved
691:
656:
639:
619:
597:
575:
565:Bibliography
560:
552:
531:
496:
491:
483:
468:
444:Emilio Segrè
441:
437:Liebig Medal
431:awarded the
409:
392:George Gamow
372:Lise Meitner
340:
313:
299:Enrico Fermi
296:
276:
239:
201:
196:
192:
191:
164:Institutions
143:
135:Liebig Medal
92:West Germany
77:(1978-09-24)
59:Lackhausen,
1950:1978 deaths
1945:1896 births
1497:(36): 110.
1043:(37): 653.
748:(12): 771.
640:Das Rhenium
576:Ida Noddack
461:pitchblende
380:Otto Frisch
351:Pavle Savić
193:Ida Noddack
99:Citizenship
34:Ida Noddack
1939:Categories
1924:2021-02-11
1818:2007-04-03
1803:technetium
1713:(2): 213.
1367:Niels Bohr
1238:2007-04-01
726:2013-03-11
704:29 January
664:References
456:technetium
452:beta decay
388:Niels Bohr
264:anhydrides
261:fatty acid
236:Background
630:Otto Berg
484:simulated
480:scientist
439:in 1931.
418:(75) and
382:utilized
356:Otto Hahn
327:Otto Hahn
297:In 1934,
285:, at the
222:Otto Berg
210:physicist
158:physicist
53:Ida Tacke
18:Ida Tacke
1918:Archived
1669:32974087
1212:(10): 1.
970:Archived
935:40964725
652:animals)
515:Period 6
504:Period 5
428:masurium
420:masurium
1752:Bibcode
1715:Bibcode
1649:Bibcode
1589:Bibcode
1526:Bibcode
1459:Bibcode
1407:4090055
1385:Bibcode
1353:4076376
1331:Bibcode
1295:4188874
1275:Bibcode
1191:4117020
1169:Bibcode
1135:5920336
1115:Bibcode
1045:Bibcode
1004:Bibcode
785:Bibcode
750:Bibcode
526:rhenium
473:uranium
424:rhenium
416:rhenium
376:Meitner
318:uranium
226:rhenium
206:chemist
181:Bamberg
154:Chemist
121:Rhenium
102:Germany
1910:
1667:
1622:
1561:
1405:
1376:Nature
1351:
1322:Nature
1293:
1266:Nature
1189:
1161:Nature
1133:
996:Nature
978:Medium
933:
923:
896:
573:about
538:
492:ad hoc
400:Frisch
254:Berlin
220:, and
150:Fields
131:Awards
1703:(PDF)
1665:S2CID
1403:S2CID
1349:S2CID
1291:S2CID
1187:S2CID
1131:S2CID
242:Wesel
202:Tacke
1908:ISBN
1787:(2).
1620:ISBN
1559:ISBN
931:OCLC
921:ISBN
894:ISBN
706:2018
536:ISBN
520:75 (
509:43 (
477:NIST
446:and
386:and
378:and
368:Hahn
358:and
349:and
208:and
156:and
72:Died
49:Born
1760:doi
1723:doi
1657:doi
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524:) (
314:all
268:AEG
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