445:, agriculture and commerce. Appearance and ancestry were disregarded in favour of culture as the primary factor in differentiating between Manchu and Han. Occasionally identities blurred and could be altered. The creation of the separate Manchu, Mongol and Han banners was rooted in fluctuating categories defined by the Qing government. Banner membership depended on the primary language of the bannermen. It has been suggested that the Han banners were not familiar with the exact meaning of "Hanjun", as the Qing government constantly changed its definition.
342:
elite families. However, the
Jurchens oppressed Han Chinese for labour and stationed Jurchens in Han households to prevent rebellions. As a result, some disgruntled Han Chinese started a revolt in 1623 by sabotaging and killing Jurchens. In response, Nurhaci introduced a practice of discriminating against Han Chinese. For example, Han Chinese might be executed for committing certain offences whereas Jurchens who committed the same offences might be pardoned. However, Nurhaci exempted the
412:
407:
640:) in Chinese. They joined the "upper three" Manchu banners. According to Qing government policy, the immediate family members (e.g. fathers, brothers) of the mother of an emperor was transferred into the upper three Manchu banners by default, even if the family was Han Chinese. Moreover, after the transfer, the family had to include a
128:, means "Han ethnicity"), Banners and were composed of a large number of Han prisoners-of-war and defectors. Since many of these Han men were single, they married Jurchen women. Over time, there were more and more Han Chinese joining the banners, such that they started to outnumber the Jurchens. The Han Chinese and Jurchens in
208:(1644–1912), bannermen and civilians were categorised into ethnic groups based on language, culture, behaviour and way of life. Men were grouped into Manchu and Han banners on the basis of their culture and language. The Qing government regarded Han bannermen and the Han civilian population as distinct.
737:
However, Han Banner families who had joined early in Qing history were still retained in the
Banners, while those who were removed were those who enrolled later. Moreover, the removal of Bannermen was primarily due to the growing costs of supporting the expanding Banner population, rather than ethnic
606:
and wearing a single earring, contrary to Manchu custom. Daughters of Manchu and Mongol bannerman had to submit to the draft where they could be selected to serve in the imperial palace as maids or consorts. Daughters of Han bannermen were exempt this draft.Han banner girls were not allowed to become
782:
Bannermen were segregated from Han civilians in their own garrisons. Manchu and Han bannermen were allowed to take Han civilian women as concubines, but Manchu and Han bannerwomen were punished with expulsion from the banners if they married Han civilian men. Bannerwomen were allowed to marry only
341:
When
Nurhaci conquered Liaodong, he wanted to win over the allegiance of the Han Chinese, so he ordered Jurchens and Han Chinese to be treated equally. He also seized property and resources owned by Jurchens and redistributed them to Han Chinese, and expanded the Jurchen aristocracy to include Han
669:
The Manchu banner companies included Han and Mongol individuals, and Mongol, Korean, Russian and
Tibetan companies. Manchu banners had two main divisions between the higher ranking "Old Manchus" formed of the main Jurchen tribes such as the Jianzhou and the lower ranking "New Manchus" (伊車滿洲/衣車滿洲;
349:
The Manchu Dahai was described with his origin from the Liao valley and his ethnicity as Han
Chinese in the Korean book "Nanjung chamnok; Sok chamnok" (亂中雜錄 / [趙慶南撰) by Cho Kyŏng-nam (趙慶南) (1570–1641) a Korean official and scholar, contradicting Qing texts which says his clan is Giolca. The Qing
102:
Beginning in the late 1620s, the
Jurchens started incorporating Mongol tribes, which they either conquered or were allied with, into the Eight Banners system. The Han Chinese who first joined the Eight Banners were replacements for Jurchen soldiers in existing banners who were killed in battle.
610:
Manchu bannermen typically used their given rather than lineal name to address themselves, while Han bannermen used their both in normal
Chinese style. Many Han bannermen adopted Manchu names, which may have been motivated by associating with the elite. Han bannermen also adopted Manchu naming
337:
The transfrontiersmen became part of the
Jurchen elite and were assimilated into Jurchen culture to the point where their ancestry was the only thing that differentiated them from Jurchens. Nurhaci differentiated between groups of Han Chinese based on the date they became part of the Later Jin
596:
Han bannermen were permitted to marry Han civilian women. However, the emperors were distressed to find that the women followed Han civilian customs in clothing and jewellery when they were drafted for palace service. They then banned daughters of common Han bannermen from serving in the
482:
came up with the idea. Huangtaiji said that "since the Han generals and Manchu women lived together and ate together, it would help these surrendered generals to forget their motherland." Women from the Aisin Gioro clan also married other Han officials, such as the sons of
758:, which contained unfavourable biographies of prominent Han banner defectors and biographies which glorified Ming loyalists who were martyred in battle against the Qing Empire. Some of the emperor's inclusions and omissions on the list were political, such as including
601:
as maids and consorts, exempting them from the draft, out of concern for to the economic plight of Han bannermen. Another possible reason was the Qing government's alarm over Han banner girls following Han civilian customs such as wearing robes with wide sleeves,
139:
The Eight
Banners were then created from the old Han and Jurchen banners, which were given equal status. The Mongol banners were also created around this time. Anyone who was not sorted into either a Han or Mongol banner became Manchu, an ethnic group named by
333:
and spoke the Han language. They eventually became part of the Han banners. Han
Chinese in Ming-ruled Liaodong who defected to the Jurchens after they conquered Liaoding were called "frontiersmen" since they had lived on the frontiers of Ming territory.
491:, who defected to the Qing dynasty after their conquest of China. The Manchus created an artillery unit composed of Han soldiers and granted Han officials titles such as "ministers", while Manchus in the same position were regarded as "slaves".
2138:
494:
In 1642, the Manchu banners ejected their Han companies and placed them in Han banners, since the members were mostly not assimilated to Manchu culture. However, the banners continued to contain mixed units of both Han and Manchu.
519:
and enrolled in the Plain Blue Banner and whose descendants remained as nobles. The Manchus not only gave extensive titles and honours to pre-1644 Han defectors, but also arranged for marriages between them and Manchu noblewomen.
746:
were also retained in the Banner register. The numbers of discharged Han Bannermen who re-enlisted in the Green Standard Army were very considerable; in the Jingkou garrison, two-thirds of the discharged re-enlisted.
65:) society. The banner armies gradually evolved over time to include members from non-Jurchen/Manchu ethnic groups such as the Mongols and Han Chinese. There were three main types of banners: Manchus of Eight Banners (
783:
bannermen. Since Han bannermen were treated as semi-Manchus according to the law, Manchu bannerwomen were allowed to marry Han bannermen. Manchu women and Han bannermen could marry each other with no prohibitions.
965:. The Mongol and Han bannermen could choose to be classified as Mongol or Han instead of Manchu. The "New Manchu" Daur, Sibe, Evenki, Oroqen and Nanai were allowed to form separate ethnic groups from the Manchus.
527:, regardless of their origin, were categorised as Han Chinese, so some Manchus ended up in Mongol and Han banners. Nurhaci also allowed transfrontiersmen to identify themselves as Manchu after assimilation. The
222:(1368–1644). On the other hand, some ethnic Jurchens actually had Han ancestry but had defected to the Jurchen side, assimilated into Jurchen culture, and lived among the Jurchens in present-day
113:), was mainly used as infantry support. In 1631, a separate Han artillery corps was formed. Four more Han banners were created in 1639. By 1642, the full eight Han banners were established.
582:, living in slums and falling into debt, with signs of their plight appearing as soon as 1655. Their poverty forced them to sell their property to Han Chinese, in violation of the law.
961:
was creating new classifications for ethnic minorities in the 1950s, all members of the Eight Banners could opt to join the newly created Manchu ethnicity which replaced the term
585:
In the early Qing dynasty, the emperors took some Han women as concubines. A 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han men to marry Manchu women with the permission of the
813:, intermarriage began to occur between Han civilians and Manchus, mostly involving Han men marrying Manchu women, since poverty diminished the marital prospects of Manchu men.
611:
practices such as naming their offspring with numbers. Some of them manchu-fied their lineal names by appending "giya" to their original family names. Han bannermen such as
39:
and Manchus participated in the banner system. Identity, however, was defined much more by culture, language and participation in the military (the Eight Banners) until the
589:
if the brides were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of the banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later, the
887:. However, the banner/civilian dichotomy defined people's primary identity, instead of the Manchu/Han ethnic distinction. The Manchus were referred to most often as
853:
The term "Manchu" varies in meaning; various groups within the Eight Banners are considered Manchu. One definition of Manchu was the "Old Manchu" including the
864:
Another definition distinguishes Old Manchus and New Manchus, who together made up the Manchu Eight Banners. After 1644, the Manchu banners incorporated other
103:
However, over time, as more Han soldiers joined the banners, the Jurchens decided to form a separate group for them. This group, known as the "Old Han Army" (
742:, to some specialist units such as naval forces, or high-ranking official positions were also not dismissed. Discharged Han Bannermen who re-enlisted in the
549:
in 1644. As such, they were both distinguished from Han Chinese who joined the Qing Empire after 1644. The pre-1644 Han bannermen were known as "old men" (
329:'s rule after 1618. At that time, these descendants of sinicised Jurchens moved to Liaodong, adopted Han culture and family names, swore loyalty to the
935:(旗民) both referred to the Banners. Qing laws did not say "Manchu" but referred to the affected as "bannermen." The 18th century the identification of "
726:
reclassified the Han banners, saying that they were to be regarded as having the same culture and ancestral extraction as Han civilians. This replaced
2636:
516:
504:
290:
and Nurgan. Han soldiers and peasants moved into Nurgan while Jurchen mercenaries and merchants moved to Liaodong, with some lineages on both sides.
283:
The Manchu, Mongol and Han labels referred to their original composition. Both ethnic Han and sinicised ethnic Jurchens ended up in Han banners.
268:(Han). Those who were considered Jurchen adopted a Jurchen lifestyle, spoke the Jurchen language, and inhabited the eastern part of present-day
738:
discrimination. Han Bannermen stationed in Manchuria or affiliated with Manchu and Mongol Banners were retained. Han Bannermen posted to the
586:
463:
Manchu banners inducted (non-bondservant) Han families, such as the family of Bordered Yellow Banner member Zhang Wenxing, the governor of
240:
2574:
2215:
2195:
2077:
734:'s position of classifying them according to culture. The Qianlong Emperor's view influenced historians and overshadowed their views.
136:) started mixing their cultures. Many bannermen forged genealogies for themselves or decided whether to join a Jurchen or Han banner.
471:
was also Han Chinese. The Manchus' willingness to accept assimilated strangers allowed Han Chinese to integrate into Manchu society.
415:
military system and used it as the name for the Han banners. Its original and new meanings differed in usage. The Qing dynasty used "
2618:
2438:
2387:
2171:
2053:
2005:
1721:
1696:
1671:
593:(秀女; "talented women") system drafted women from the Han banners for the imperial harem, but excluded daughters of Han commoners.
523:
In the early Qing dynasty, the Qing government made distinctions between Han bannermen and Han civilians. Former subjects of the
884:
810:
2087:
2598:
2590:
2566:
2550:
2542:
2523:
2496:
2469:
2411:
2379:
2363:
2355:
2339:
2331:
2288:
2236:
2045:
2029:
2021:
1975:
1947:
939:" with "Manchu" grew stronger due to the policy of using banners to reinforce it. This became more pronounced until the 1911
795:, where both Manchu and Chinese bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai and could not be distinguished from Manchus.
833:
were Han Chinese. Instead they included Koreans and ethnic Manchus. Prisoners-of-war and abductees were another part of the
478:
clan, the imperial clan of the Qing dynasty. A mass marriage of 1,000 Han officers to Manchu women took place in 1632 after
944:
739:
419:" as an adjective for individual bannermen while the Jin dynasty used its literal meaning, for the collective "Han Army".
153:
2656:
974:
425:
and Huangtaiji both viewed ethnic identity in terms of culture, language and attitude: Mongols were associated with the
247:) before 1618 and assimilated with the Jurchens were known as transfrontiermen. They adopted Jurchen culture, spoke the
393:
2425:
984:
448:
Huangtaiji included Han Chinese in his government and adopted the Han style of government. After defeats inflicted by
2559:
Wang, Shuo (2008), "Qing Imperial Women: Empresses, Concubines, and Aisin Gioro Daughters", in Walthall, Anne (ed.),
2187:
2102:
1997:
157:
2430:
2298:
2254:
2163:
579:
86:
1938:
2069:
958:
2068:, Paul Bushkovitch, Nicholas Canny, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Arthur Eckstein, Frank Ninkovich, Loren J. Samons,
857:
clan, of the original founding populations who spoke Manchu and who were the basis of the banner system. The
2651:
2461:
2646:
57:
The Eight Banners represented military organisation and served as the primary organisational structure of
2661:
2515:
2403:
2375:
Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928
630:) to Manchu banners, and of switching ethnicity from Han to Manchu, were known as "raising the banner" (
531:
later moved both Han and Mongol families to Manchu banners from their original Mongol and Han banners.
829:(bondservants) and were attached to Manchu banners. No evidence suggests that after 1621, most of the
2641:
346:– Han Chinese who had joined the Jurchens between 1603 and 1619 – from this discriminatory practice.
196:). Prior to the Qing dynasty, each group had a significantly distinct culture and language/dialect.
2488:
1934:"The Tong in Two Worlds: Cultural Identities in Liaodong and Nurgan during the 13th-17th centuries"
950:
Edward Rhoads asserted that the Manchu ethnic group was synonymous with the Eight Banners from the
883:
The concept of the Manchu ethnic group "Manzu" (滿族) existed during the late Qing dynasty and early
743:
771:
2266:
2130:
2114:
1170:
645:
457:
438:
426:
359:
299:
287:
129:
806:, impoverished Han soldiers took young Manchu women as wives after seizing the banner garrison.
767:
763:
460:, Huangtaiji recruited Han prisoners-of-war who were trained in firearms into the Manchu army.
2614:
2594:
2570:
2546:
2538:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China
2519:
2492:
2465:
2457:
Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911
2434:
2407:
2383:
2359:
2335:
2284:
2232:
2211:
2191:
2167:
2122:
2073:
2049:
2025:
2001:
1979:
1951:
1717:
1692:
1667:
940:
838:
803:
662:(魏佳). Such transfers typically occurred in cases of intermarriage between Han Chinese and the
474:
The Manchus attracted Han military officers to their banners by offering them brides from the
322:
255:
181:
272:. On the other hand, those who lived in the west and spoke the Han language were regarded as
2532:
2505:
2478:
2313:
2258:
2106:
1162:
979:
916:
865:
723:
675:
560:
442:
401:
248:
40:
2508:(1979), "The Shun Interregnum of 1644", in Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.),
411:
406:
2420:
951:
699:
649:
539:
434:
121:
2299:"Banner Estates and Banner Lands in 18th Century China - Evidence from Two New Sources"
784:
707:
703:
598:
535:
528:
488:
453:
389:
371:
338:
dynasty, a state created by the Jianzhou Jurchens which later became the Qing dynasty.
305:
264:
215:
62:
545:
Both Manchus and Han Chinese joined the Han banners before Qing forces passed through
2630:
873:
683:
654:
479:
277:
169:
161:
58:
52:
24:
20:
2134:
1689:
Remote Homeland, Recovered Borderland: Manchus, Manchoukuo, and Manchuria, 1907–1985
2448:
877:
858:
751:
750:
The Qianlong Emperor held that loyalty was the most important trait, labelling the
691:
687:
603:
546:
524:
449:
330:
219:
212:
205:
193:
185:
28:
2511:
From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-century China
1035:
as "Chinese-martial", but Naquin argues that "Chinese Bannermen" is more apposite.
2584:
2560:
2536:
2509:
2482:
2455:
2445:
2397:
2373:
2349:
2325:
2278:
2226:
2205:
2181:
2157:
2063:
2039:
2015:
1991:
1963:
1933:
869:
854:
759:
695:
679:
663:
612:
508:
475:
177:
173:
165:
32:
943:. All bannermen and their descendants were recognised as ethnic Manchus by the
626:
The practices of transferring families from Han banners or bondservant status (
358:
The Han Chinese who joined the banners between 1629 and 1643 came from western
2110:
731:
620:
616:
484:
381:
141:
2589:, Studies on China, vol. 12, Joint Committee on Chinese Studies (U.S.),
2041:
Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China
1983:
1955:
1714:
Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China
2159:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
1664:
Shifting Forms of Continental Colonialism: Unfinished Struggles and Tensions
837:. Manchus integrated with some of the captured Han Chinese and Koreans. The
788:
711:
2126:
623:
kept their Chinese names, while others used both Manchu and Chinese names.
2608:
954:
until the People's Republic of China recognised the Manchu ethnic group.
799:
468:
430:
367:
133:
698:
from the northeast who were incorporated into the Manchu banners by the
1993:
Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World
1174:
727:
575:
512:
422:
326:
259:
36:
2317:
2283:, Cornell Linguistic Contributions, V. 5, vol. 5, Brill Archive,
2270:
2118:
2038:
Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Siu, Helen F.; Sutton, Donald S., eds. (2006),
363:
310:
189:
31:(1644–1912). China consisted of multiple ethnic groups, of which the
2017:
A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology
1166:
756:
Record of Those Martyred for Their Dynasty and Sacrificed for Purity
507:
and their descendants continued to be awarded noble titles, such as
2262:
503:
Some Han bannermen and their lineages became successful members of
437:
and participation in the banners; Han Chinese were associated with
262:, the founder of the Qing dynasty, classified people as Jurchen or
825:(enslaved Jurchens, Koreans, Han and Mongols), became part of the
792:
464:
350:
texts said Dahau's family lived near Fushun in the Giolca region.
269:
244:
223:
2351:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
1964:"The Qianlong Retrospect on the Chinese-martial (hanjun) Banners"
903:", which indicated Manchu as an ethnicity, was generally unused.
706:
Emperors after 1644. They fought for the Qing Empire against the
2245:
Lattimore, Owen (Jul–Sep 1933), "Wulakai Tales from Manchuria",
2204:
Hammond, Kenneth James; Stapleton, Kristin Eileen, eds. (2008).
172:. The country had many other smaller ethnic groups, such as the
1662:
Dittmar Schorkowitz; John R. Chávez; Ingo W. Schröder (2019).
1153:
Huang, Pei (1990). "New Light on The Origins of The Manchus".
2231:, Studia Orientalia, vol. 87, Finnish Oriental Society,
1712:
Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (2006).
2583:
Watson, Rubie Sharon; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, eds. (1991),
2399:
Tsʻao Yin and the Kʻang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master
542:. They "were barely distinguishable from Manchu nobility."
2402:, Yale Historical Publications: Miscellany, vol. 85,
321:. Descendants of sinicised Jurchens were conquered by the
1342:
1340:
1015:
1013:
1011:
2562:
Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History
1405:
1403:
778:
Segregation from civilian population and intermarriage
239:
Han Chinese who deserted the Ming Empire and moved to
2565:, The California World History Library, vol. 7,
2062:
Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2010), Kagan, Kimberly (ed.),
2183:
Imperial Masquerade: The Legend of Princess Der Ling
899:(滿洲人), which were not ethnic terms, while the word "
538:
rose to powerful positions and prominence under the
1716:. University of California Press. pp. 50, 57.
309:"; the Han Chinese who defected to the Manchus at
1457:
1445:
915:(旗人; bannermen) emerged in the 17th century. The
841:accepted some Han Chinese and Koreans who became
1283:
298:From 1618 to 1629, the Han Chinese from eastern
218:spoke the Han language and had served under the
19:Identity in China was strongly dependent on the
2225:Janhunen, Juha; Rybatzki, Volker, eds. (1999),
787:reported that during his January 1930 visit to
571:, Koreans and Mongols into the Manchu banners.
456:upon the Manchus with artillery such as at the
1691:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 30–32.
1601:
1589:
1493:
644:(佳) suffix to their family name. For example,
2277:McCoy, John F.; Light, Timothy, eds. (1986),
433:and horses; Manchus were associated with the
8:
754:defectors as traitors. He compiled the book
652:, had her maiden family name converted from
302:who joined the Eight Banners were known as "
2088:"Manchu Widows and Ethnicity in Qing China"
1505:
1481:
578:ended up in poverty just decades after the
2586:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society
2095:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1199:
1056:
276:, even though some of them had Jurchen or
2460:, Louvain Chinese studies, vol. 15,
1772:
1553:
251:, and became part of the Manchu banners.
43:resurrected the ethnic classifications.
2327:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400-1900
1736:
1649:
1541:
1529:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1259:
1247:
1235:
1223:
1211:
1187:
1140:
1116:
1080:
1068:
1044:
1002:
1892:
1880:
1832:
1820:
1808:
1748:
1625:
1517:
1433:
1421:
1394:
1319:
1128:
1104:
1092:
1019:
995:
2144:from the original on November 18, 2016
1916:
1904:
1868:
1856:
1844:
1796:
1784:
1760:
1637:
1613:
1469:
1346:
1331:
1307:
1295:
1271:
2280:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan Studies
919:referred to all bannermen (Manchu or
286:People from both sides moved between
7:
2312:(2), Hitotsubashi University: 1–13,
1577:
1565:
1409:
923:) as Manchu and civilians as Han or
845:(freeholders) in Jurchen territory.
2207:The Human Tradition in Modern China
2044:, Studies on China, vol. 28,
1155:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
14:
2306:Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics
2086:Elliott, Mark C. (January 1999),
911:Interchangeability of Manchu and
2637:Ethnic groups in Chinese history
2247:The Journal of American Folklore
1666:. Springer Nature. p. 179.
678:and Mongolic tribes such as the
410:
405:
317:and were considered part of the
1458:Crossley, Siu & Sutton 2006
1446:Crossley, Siu & Sutton 2006
880:), who became the new Manchus.
563:ordered a mass transfer of the
116:The Han banners were known as "
2591:University of California Press
2567:University of California Press
2543:University of California Press
2380:University of Washington Press
2356:University of California Press
2332:University of California Press
2180:Hayter-Menzies, Grant (2008),
2046:University of California Press
2022:University of California Press
2014:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1999),
1990:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990),
1976:Johns Hopkins University Press
1948:Johns Hopkins University Press
636:
555:
109:
104:
95:
90:
81:
71:
66:
1:
2372:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000),
762:(to undermine his descendant
740:Imperial Household Department
75:), Mongols of Eight Banners (
2396:Spence, Jonathan D. (1988),
2297:Muramatsu, Yuji (Feb 1972),
2210:. Rowman & Littlefield.
1284:Hammond & Stapleton 2008
975:Military of the Qing dynasty
907:Convergence with the Banners
791:, he studied a community in
674:; or 新滿洲) made out of other
230:Han and Jurchen assimilation
2426:The Search for Modern China
2228:Writing in the Altaic World
985:Sinicization of the Manchus
861:relied most on this group.
16:Qing dynasty Chinese system
2678:
2484:The Fall of Imperial China
2454:Taveirne, Patrick (2004),
2431:W. W. Norton & Company
2348:Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998),
2188:Hong Kong University Press
2103:Cambridge University Press
1998:Princeton University Press
945:People's Republic of China
125:
50:
2255:American Folklore Society
2164:Stanford University Press
2156:Elliott, Mark C. (2001),
2111:10.1017/S0010417599001863
1962:Crossley, Pamela (1989),
1932:Crossley, Pamela (1983),
631:
550:
467:in 1647. Manchu official
87:Han Army of Eight Banners
76:
2070:Harvard University Press
1200:金光平, 金启孮 & 乌拉熙春 1996
580:Manchu conquest of China
323:Jianzhou Jurchen Khanate
256:Jianzhou Jurchen Khanate
2607:金光平; 金启孮; 乌拉熙春 (1996),
2462:Leuven University Press
1506:Watson & Ebrey 1991
1482:Watson & Ebrey 1991
394:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
384:appropriated the term "
2324:Naquin, Susan (2000),
1057:McCoy & Light 1986
694:, Kiakar (Kuyula) and
534:Han bannermen such as
511:, who was ennobled by
374:. They were known as "
2533:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
2516:Yale University Press
2506:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
2479:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
2404:Yale University Press
1520:, pp. 1016–1017.
607:imperial concubines.
132:(part of present-day
2489:Simon & Schuster
1031:Crossley translates
770:(to protect his son
664:Manchu imperial clan
574:Manchu bannermen in
517:third class viscount
211:Some descendants of
152:The three principal
2657:National identities
2421:Spence, Jonathan D.
2065:The Imperial Moment
1968:Late Imperial China
1939:Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i
1919:, pp. 278–279.
1739:, pp. 291–293.
1602:Hayter-Menzies 2008
1590:Hayter-Menzies 2008
1580:, pp. 143–144.
1568:, pp. 140–141.
1508:, pp. 180–181.
1494:Hayter-Menzies 2008
744:Green Standard Army
646:Empress Xiaoyichun
458:Battle of Ningyuan
23:system during the
1687:Shao Dan (2011).
1652:, pp. 55–56.
1616:, pp. 56–57.
1448:, pp. 43–44.
1436:, pp. 78–79.
1397:, pp. 42–45.
1310:, pp. 28–30.
1047:, pp. 89–90.
1005:, pp. 95–96.
941:Xinhai Revolution
891:(旗人; bannermen),
885:Republican period
839:Jianzhou Jurchens
804:Xinhai Revolution
160:society were the
134:Liaoning Province
2669:
2623:
2603:
2579:
2555:
2528:
2501:
2474:
2443:
2416:
2392:
2368:
2344:
2320:
2303:
2293:
2273:
2241:
2221:
2200:
2176:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2143:
2092:
2082:
2058:
2034:
2010:
1986:
1958:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1746:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1029:
1023:
1017:
1006:
1000:
980:New Qing History
917:Qianlong Emperor
866:Tungusic peoples
821:After 1616, the
802:during the 1911
766:) and excluding
724:Qianlong Emperor
638:
633:
587:Board of Revenue
561:Qianlong Emperor
559:). In 1740, the
557:
552:
414:
409:
249:Jurchen language
243:(in present-day
127:
111:
106:
97:
92:
83:
78:
73:
68:
41:Qianlong Emperor
2677:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2606:
2601:
2582:
2577:
2558:
2553:
2531:
2526:
2504:
2499:
2477:
2472:
2453:
2441:
2419:
2414:
2395:
2390:
2371:
2366:
2347:
2342:
2323:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2276:
2244:
2239:
2224:
2218:
2203:
2198:
2179:
2174:
2155:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2061:
2056:
2037:
2032:
2013:
2008:
1989:
1961:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1891:
1887:
1879:
1875:
1867:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1831:
1827:
1819:
1815:
1807:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1771:
1767:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1724:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1699:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1488:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1345:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1167:10.2307/2719229
1152:
1151:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1026:
1018:
1009:
1001:
997:
993:
971:
959:Communist Party
952:Boxer Rebellion
909:
851:
849:Manchu identity
819:
780:
720:
650:Jiaqing Emperor
648:, who bore the
599:imperial palace
540:Shunzhi Emperor
501:
435:Manchu language
427:Mongol language
376:fu xi baitangga
356:
296:
237:
232:
202:
150:
55:
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2675:
2673:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2652:Mongol peoples
2649:
2644:
2639:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2604:
2599:
2580:
2576:978-0520254442
2575:
2556:
2551:
2529:
2524:
2502:
2497:
2475:
2470:
2451:
2439:
2417:
2412:
2393:
2388:
2369:
2364:
2345:
2340:
2321:
2294:
2289:
2274:
2263:10.2307/535718
2242:
2237:
2222:
2217:978-0742554665
2216:
2201:
2197:978-9622098817
2196:
2177:
2172:
2153:
2083:
2079:978-0674054097
2078:
2059:
2054:
2035:
2030:
2011:
2006:
1987:
1959:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1909:
1897:
1885:
1883:, p. 133.
1873:
1871:, p. 290.
1861:
1859:, p. 292.
1849:
1847:, p. 269.
1837:
1825:
1813:
1801:
1799:, p. 270.
1789:
1787:, p. 193.
1777:
1775:, p. 272.
1773:Lattimore 1933
1765:
1763:, p. 263.
1753:
1741:
1729:
1722:
1704:
1697:
1679:
1672:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1628:, p. 243.
1618:
1606:
1594:
1592:, p. 343.
1582:
1570:
1558:
1554:Muramatsu 1972
1546:
1544:, p. 128.
1534:
1532:, p. 105.
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1484:, p. 179.
1474:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1412:, p. 148.
1399:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1361:, p. 339.
1351:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1298:, p. 371.
1288:
1276:
1264:
1252:
1250:, p. 102.
1240:
1228:
1216:
1214:, p. 232.
1204:
1202:, p. 230.
1192:
1190:, p. 103.
1180:
1161:(1): 239–282.
1145:
1143:, p. 180.
1133:
1121:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1073:
1061:
1049:
1037:
1024:
1007:
994:
992:
989:
988:
987:
982:
977:
970:
967:
908:
905:
850:
847:
818:
815:
811:Republican era
793:Jilin Province
785:Owen Lattimore
779:
776:
719:
716:
708:Russian Empire
536:Geng Zhongming
529:Kangxi Emperor
500:
497:
489:Geng Zhongming
465:Gansu Province
454:Yuan Chonghuan
398:miŋgan moumukə
355:
352:
313:were known as
295:
292:
270:Jilin Province
245:Jilin Province
236:
233:
231:
228:
224:Jilin Province
201:
198:
149:
146:
51:Main article:
48:
45:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2674:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2647:Manchu people
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2622:
2620:9787805951485
2616:
2612:
2611:
2610:《爱新觉罗氏三代满学论集》
2605:
2602:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2581:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2440:0-393-30780-8
2436:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2389:0-295-98040-0
2385:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2295:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2243:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2173:9780804746847
2169:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2154:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2055:9780520230156
2051:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2012:
2009:
2007:9780691008776
2003:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1898:
1895:, p. 15.
1894:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1874:
1870:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1835:, p. 52.
1834:
1829:
1826:
1823:, p. 51.
1822:
1817:
1814:
1811:, p. 83.
1810:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1751:, p. 70.
1750:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1737:Crossley 1999
1733:
1730:
1725:
1723:9780520230156
1719:
1715:
1708:
1705:
1700:
1698:9780824860226
1694:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1673:9789811398179
1669:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1650:Crossley 1999
1646:
1643:
1640:, p. 20.
1639:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1607:
1604:, p. 25.
1603:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1547:
1543:
1542:Crossley 1999
1538:
1535:
1531:
1530:Crossley 1999
1526:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1475:
1472:, p. 72.
1471:
1466:
1463:
1460:, p. 44.
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1424:, p. 79.
1423:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1385:, p. 71.
1384:
1383:Crossley 1989
1379:
1376:
1373:, p. 48.
1372:
1371:Crossley 1999
1367:
1364:
1360:
1359:Taveirne 2004
1355:
1352:
1349:, p. 55.
1348:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1325:
1322:, p. 78.
1321:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1286:, p. 75.
1285:
1280:
1277:
1274:, p. 71.
1273:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1260:Crossley 1990
1256:
1253:
1249:
1248:Crossley 2010
1244:
1241:
1238:, p. 39.
1237:
1236:Crossley 1983
1232:
1229:
1226:, p. 97.
1225:
1224:Crossley 1999
1220:
1217:
1213:
1212:Crossley 1990
1208:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1188:Crossley 1999
1184:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1141:Crossley 1999
1137:
1134:
1131:, p. 19.
1130:
1125:
1122:
1119:, p. 94.
1118:
1117:Crossley 1999
1113:
1110:
1107:, p. 45.
1106:
1101:
1098:
1095:, p. 75.
1094:
1089:
1086:
1083:, p. 98.
1082:
1081:Crossley 1999
1077:
1074:
1071:, p. 58.
1070:
1069:Crossley 1999
1065:
1062:
1059:, p. 92.
1058:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1045:Crossley 1999
1041:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1022:, p. 85.
1021:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:Crossley 2010
999:
996:
990:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
972:
968:
966:
964:
960:
955:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
906:
904:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
881:
879:
875:
871:
868:(such as the
867:
862:
860:
856:
848:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
816:
814:
812:
807:
805:
801:
796:
794:
790:
786:
777:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
748:
745:
741:
735:
733:
729:
725:
717:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
667:
665:
661:
657:
656:
651:
647:
643:
639:
629:
624:
622:
618:
614:
608:
605:
600:
594:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
572:
570:
567:and selected
566:
562:
558:
548:
543:
541:
537:
532:
530:
526:
521:
518:
514:
510:
506:
505:Qing nobility
498:
496:
492:
490:
486:
481:
477:
472:
470:
466:
461:
459:
455:
451:
446:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
418:
413:
408:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
353:
351:
347:
345:
339:
335:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
307:
301:
293:
291:
289:
284:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:
261:
257:
252:
250:
246:
242:
234:
229:
227:
226:before 1618.
225:
221:
217:
214:
209:
207:
199:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:ethnic groups
147:
145:
143:
137:
135:
131:
123:
119:
114:
112:
100:
98:
88:
84:
74:
64:
60:
54:
53:Eight Banners
47:Eight Banners
46:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2662:Qing dynasty
2609:
2585:
2561:
2541:, Berkeley:
2537:
2510:
2483:
2456:
2449:Google Books
2424:
2398:
2374:
2350:
2326:
2309:
2305:
2279:
2250:
2246:
2227:
2206:
2182:
2158:
2148:November 17,
2146:, retrieved
2098:
2094:
2064:
2040:
2016:
1992:
1971:
1967:
1943:
1937:
1926:Bibliography
1912:
1907:, p. 8.
1900:
1893:Elliott 2001
1888:
1881:Elliott 2001
1876:
1864:
1852:
1840:
1833:Elliott 2001
1828:
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1905:Rhoads 2000
1869:Rhoads 2000
1857:Rhoads 2000
1845:Rhoads 2000
1797:Rhoads 2000
1785:Rhoads 2000
1761:Rhoads 2000
1638:Rhoads 2000
1614:Rhoads 2000
1470:Rawski 1998
1347:Rhoads 2000
1332:Spence 1988
1308:Spence 1990
1296:Naquin 2000
1272:Rawski 1998
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855:Aisin Gioro
809:During the
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760:Li Yongfang
613:Zhao Erfeng
509:Li Yongfang
480:Prince Yoto
476:Aisin Gioro
388:" from the
331:Ming Empire
220:Ming Empire
204:During the
72:bāqímǎnzhōu
2631:Categories
2600:0520071247
2552:0520048040
2525:0300026722
2498:0029336805
2471:9058673650
2446:Profile at
2413:0300042779
2365:052092679X
2341:0520923456
2318:10086/8019
2290:9004078509
2238:9519380434
2031:0520928849
991:References
897:Manzhouren
872:, Evenki,
768:Ma Mingpei
732:Huangtaiji
712:Amur River
672:i'ce manju
621:Cao Xueqin
617:Zhao Erxun
485:Shang Kexi
382:Huangtaiji
280:ancestry.
142:Huangtaiji
110:jiù hànjūn
96:bāqíhànjūn
82:bāqíménggǔ
2613:, 远方出版社,
2105:: 33–71,
1984:0884-3236
1956:0577-9235
1578:Wang 2008
1566:Wang 2008
1410:Wang 2008
957:When the
895:(滿人), or
789:Manchuria
764:Li Shiyao
569:tai nikan
354:1629-1643
344:tai nikan
319:tai nikan
294:1618-1629
213:sinicised
192:(such as
158:Later Jin
148:Ethnicity
2535:(1985),
2481:(1977),
2423:(1990),
2139:archived
2135:31374587
2127:20120554
969:See also
676:Tungusic
469:Duanfang
452:general
439:Liaodong
431:nomadism
368:Shandong
360:Liaodong
300:Liaodong
288:Liaodong
235:Pre-1618
216:Jurchens
200:Identity
182:Russians
130:Liaodong
2253:(181),
1175:2719229
929:Man-Han
728:Nurhaci
714:Basin.
710:in the
700:Shunzhi
660:Weigiya
658:(魏) to
576:Beijing
556:jiù rén
513:Nurhaci
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400:(猛安謀克;
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260:Nurhaci
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874:Oroqen
704:Kangxi
684:Oroqen
637:tái qí
441:, the
417:Hanjun
386:Hanjun
364:Shanxi
325:under
311:Fushun
278:Korean
241:Nurgan
190:Evenks
122:Manchu
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59:Manchu
25:Manchu
2302:(PDF)
2267:JSTOR
2142:(PDF)
2131:S2CID
2115:JSTOR
2101:(1),
2091:(PDF)
1974:(2),
1946:(9),
1171:JSTOR
963:qiren
937:qiren
933:qimin
927:(民).
921:qiren
913:qiren
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2168:ISBN
2150:2016
2123:PMID
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2002:ISBN
1980:ISSN
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