91:
1722:
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115:. That compositionality is the key notion for the analysis of idioms emphasized in most accounts of idioms. This principle states that the meaning of a whole should be constructed from the meanings of the parts that make up the whole. In other words, one should be in a position to understand the whole if one understands the meanings of each of the parts that make up the whole.
122:" is understood compositionally, it means that Fred has literally kicked an actual, physical bucket. The idiomatic reading, however, is non-compositional: it means that Fred has died. Arriving at the idiomatic reading from the literal reading is unlikely for most speakers. What this means is that the idiomatic reading is, rather, stored as a single
344:(to do everything possible in order to achieve or find something) are not entirely literally interpretable but involve only a slight metaphorical broadening. Another category of idioms is a word having several meanings, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes discerned from the context of its usage. This is seen in the (mostly uninflected)
531:-based account. The catena unit was introduced to linguistics by William O'Grady in 1998. Any word or any combination of words that are linked together by dependencies qualifies as a catena. The words constituting idioms are stored as catenae in the lexicon, and as such, they are concrete units of syntax. The
576:
are not part of the respective proverb and their appearance does not interrupt the fixed words of the proverb. A caveat concerning the catena-based analysis of idioms concerns their status in the lexicon. Idioms are lexical items, which means they are stored as catenae in the lexicon. In the actual
519:
etc. What this means is that theories of syntax that take the constituent to be the fundamental unit of syntactic analysis are challenged. The manner in which units of meaning are assigned to units of syntax remains unclear. This problem has motivated a tremendous amount of discussion and debate in
405:
According to the German linguist
Elizabeth Piirainen, the idiom "to get on one's nerves" has the same figurative meaning in 57 European languages. She also says that the phrase "to shed crocodile tears", meaning to express insincere sorrow, is similarly widespread in European languages but is also
81:
expression to wish a person good luck just prior to their giving a performance or presentation, which apparently wishes injury on them. It may have arisen from the superstition that one ought not utter the words "good luck" to an actor because it is believed that doing so will cause the opposite
421:
usage in which speakers incorporate expressions from their own native tongue, which exposes them to speakers of other languages. Other theories suggest they come from a shared ancestor language or that humans are naturally predisposed to develop certain metaphors.
70:. For instance, the phrase "spill the beans" (meaning to reveal a secret) is first attested in 1919, but has been said to originate from an ancient method of voting by depositing beans in jars, which could be spilled, prematurely revealing the results.
551:
The fixed words of the idiom (in orange) in each case are linked together by dependencies; they form a catena. The material that is outside of the idiom (in normal black script) is not part of the idiom. The following two trees illustrate proverbs:
587:
Various studies have investigated methods to develop the ability to interpret idioms in children with various diagnoses including Autism, Moderate
Learning Difficulties, Developmental Language Disorder and typically developing weak readers.
258:
allow variation for nouns that elicit a similar literal meaning. These types of changes can occur only when speakers can easily recognize a connection between what the idiom is meant to express and its literal meaning, thus an idiom like
160:. For example, a person may be left "high and dry", but never "dry and high". Not all irreversible binomials are idioms, however: "chips and dip" is irreversible, but its meaning is straightforwardly derived from its components.
386:
collected 40 examples of bizarre idioms that cannot be translated literally. They include the
Swedish saying "to slide in on a shrimp sandwich", which refers those who did not have to work to get where they are.
65:
Many idiomatic expressions were meant literally in their original use, but sometimes the attribution of the literal meaning changed and the phrase itself grew away from its original roots—typically leading to a
278:
which cannot be interrupted by non-idiomatic content. Although syntactic modifications introduce disruptions to the idiomatic structure, this continuity is only required for idioms as lexical entries.
168:
Idioms possess varying degrees of mobility. Whereas some idioms are used only in a routine form, others can undergo syntactic modifications such as passivization, raising constructions, and
250:. While most idioms that do not display semantic composition generally do not allow non-adjectival modification, those that are also motivated allow lexical substitution. For example,
242:
The types of movement allowed for certain idioms also relate to the degree to which the literal reading of the idiom has a connection to its idiomatic meaning. This is referred to as
153:. Idioms usually do not translate well; in some cases, when an idiom is translated directly word-for-word into another language, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless.
543:
507:
The fixed words of this idiom (in bold) do not form a constituent in any theory's analysis of syntactic structure because the object of the preposition (here
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A relatively recent development in the syntactic analysis of idioms departs from a constituent-based account of syntactic structure, preferring instead the
394:) is translated as "in the same boat", and it carries the same figurative meaning as the equivalent idiom in English. Another example would be the Japanese
352:, the common use of the same word for an activity, for those engaged in it, for the product used, for the place or time of an activity, and sometimes for a
560:
1618:
1311:
Mel’čuk, I. 1995. "Phrasemes in language and phraseology in linguistics". In M. Everaert, E.-J. van der Linden, A. Schenk and R. Schreuder (eds.),
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Idioms tend to confuse those unfamiliar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions as vocabulary. Many
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1319:
Mashal, Nira; Kasirer, Anat (2011). "Thinking maps enhance metaphoric competence in children with autism and learning disabilities".
445:
45:
attached to the phrase. Some phrases which become figurative idioms, however, do retain the phrase's literal meaning. Categorized as
762:
478:
402:), which is translated as "one stone, two birds". This is, of course, analogous to "to kill two birds with one stone" in English.
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can in fact be maintained. Units of meaning are being assigned to catenae, whereby many of these catenae are not constituents.
50:
39:
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The non-compositionality of meaning of idioms challenges theories of syntax. The fixed words of many idioms do not qualify as
1283:
Lundblom, E.; Woods, J. (2012). "Working in the
Classroom: Improving Idiom Comprehension Through Classwide Peer Tutoring".
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Some idioms are transparent. Much of their meaning gets through if they are taken (or translated) literally. For example,
112:
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137:, the meaning of which is not the regular sum of the meanings of its component parts. John Saeed defines an idiom as
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20:
371:'to know by heart', with the same meaning as in English, was shortened to 'saber de cor', and, later, to the verb
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449:
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Speech and language processing: An introduction to natural language processing, computational linguistics, and
1127:"Investigating the effectiveness of idiom intervention for 9-16 year olds with developmental language disorder"
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Certain idioms, allowing unrestricted syntactic modification, can be said to be metaphors. Expressions such as
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all represent their meaning independently in their verbs and objects, making them compositional. In the idiom
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The catena-based analysis of idioms provides a basis for an understanding of meaning compositionality. The
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Conversely, idioms may be shared between multiple languages. For example, the Arabic phrase في نفس المركب (
336:
meaning to reveal previously unknown intentions or to reveal a secret. Transparency is a matter of degree;
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1704:
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1638:
1603:
1377:
Osborne, T.; Groß, T. (2012). "Constructions are catenae: Construction
Grammar meets Dependency Grammar".
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24:
99:—an idiom meaning a person who is in love can see no faults or imperfections in the person whom they love
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the saying is generally used to mean that a person is often unable to see faults in the one they love.
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of an opaque idiom will most likely not convey the same meaning in other languages. The
English idiom
239:. Semantically composite idioms have a syntactic similarity between their surface and semantic forms.
215:, meaning that the idiom contains the semantic role of a verb, but not of any object. This is true of
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involves joining something and a 'bandwagon' can refer to a collective cause, regardless of context.
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but are assimilated and so lose their figurative senses. For example, in
Portuguese, the expression
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of the idiom). One can know that it is not part of the idiom because it is variable; for example,
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The origin of cross-language idioms is uncertain. One theory is that cross-language idioms are a
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When two or three words are conventionally used together in a particular sequence, they form an
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How do we get to the bottom of this situation / the claim / the phenomenon / her statement /
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The fixed words of the proverbs (in orange) again form a catena each time. The adjective
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used in Arabic, Swahili, Persian, Chinese, Vietnamese, Mongolian, and several others.
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1465:– Online cross-language idioms dictionary in English, Spanish, French and Portuguese.
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syntax, however, some idioms can be broken up by various functional constructions.
460:
123:
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Keizer, Evelien (2016). "Idiomatic expressions in
Functional Discourse Grammar".
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trees of a few sentences containing non-constituent idioms illustrate the point:
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Gibbs, R (1987). "Linguistic factors in children's understanding of idioms".
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alone there are an estimated twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions.
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words that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a
1176:"Teaching Idiom Comprehension To Children with Mental Retardation"
822:
Horn, George (2003). "Idioms, Metaphors, and
Syntactic Mobility".
89:
78:
176:, allowing such movement, maintain their idiomatic meaning where
145:. This collocation of words redefines each component word in the
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phenomenon, resulting from a word-for-word translation called a
353:
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1014:"40 brilliant idioms that simply can't be translated literally"
429:
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International
Journal of Language and Communication Disorders
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linguistics circles and it is a primary motivator behind the
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172:, demonstrating separable constituencies within the idiom.
884:
Mostafa, Massrura (2010). "Variation in V+the+N idioms".
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The Oxford companion to the English language (1992:495f.)
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has a variety of equivalents in other languages, such as
19:
For the realized structure particular to a language, see
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The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
126:
that is now largely independent of the literal reading.
73:
Other idioms are deliberately figurative. For example, "
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1427:
Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries (2011).
53:
meaning. Idioms occur frequently in all languages; in
49:, an idiom's figurative meaning is different from the
1272:. Dorling Kindersley (India): Pearson Education, Inc.
980:"Translation of the idiom kick the bucket in Italian"
955:"Translation of the idiom kick the bucket in French"
456:
1692:
1548:
1509:
1399:What is meaning?: Fundamentals of formal semantics
16:Combination of words that has a figurative meaning
1431:(5th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade.
1313:Idioms: Structural and psychological perspectives
919:O'Grady, William (1998). "The Syntax of Idioms".
1163:, 4th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.
511:) is not part of the idiom (but rather it is an
417:. Piirainen says that may happen as a result of
223:. By contrast, the semantically composite idiom
497:
694:"The Mavens' Word of the Day: Spill the Beans"
1487:
1315:, 167–232. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
1125:Benjamin, L.; Ebbels, S.; Newton, C. (2020).
340:(to let secret information become known) and
8:
1408:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
807:For Saeed's definition, see Saeed (2003:60).
231:, contains both a semantic verb and object,
1348:O'Grady, W (1998). "The syntax of idioms".
1277:In the know: Understanding and using idioms
1494:
1480:
1472:
459:. Please do not remove this message until
1201:
1191:
1161:A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics
1142:
751:The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
479:Learn how and when to remove this message
1257:The architecture of the language faculty
455:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1279:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1166:Culicover, P. and R. Jackendoff. 2005.
667:
1350:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory
1321:Research in Developmental Disabilities
1259:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
1170:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
921:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory
325:("to break one’s pipe") in French and
192:The beans were spilled on our project.
133:, idioms are defined as a sub-type of
38:or expression that usually presents a
817:
815:
813:
329:("pulling the leathers") in Italian.
7:
1180:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
1066:Culicver and Jackendoff (2005:32ff.)
107:, idioms are usually presumed to be
1700:International scientific vocabulary
1457:– Online English idioms dictionary.
1401:. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
188:I spilled the beans on our project.
700:. 23 February 2001. Archived from
14:
1415:. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
1285:Communication Disorders Quarterly
1174:Ezell, H.; Goldstein, H. (1992).
1102:Benjamin, Ebbels and Newton, 2020
426:Dealing with non-compositionality
321:("kick the calendar") in Polish,
118:For example, if the phrase "Fred
1720:
558:
541:
434:
1406:English syntax: An introduction
1024:from the original on 2016-04-09
986:from the original on 2018-01-07
961:from the original on 2022-05-19
749:Elizabeth Knowles, ed. (2006).
731:from the original on 2015-04-02
1619:Language-for-specific-purposes
1075:Osborne and Groß (2012:173ff.)
274:, idioms are represented as a
201:The old man kicked the bucket.
1:
651:Principle of compositionality
582:Principle of Compositionality
207:(by the old man). (confusing)
113:principle of compositionality
334:lay one's cards on the table
1710:List of online dictionaries
1049:(in Vietnamese). 2011-11-16
495:in any sense. For example:
461:conditions to do so are met
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1333:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.08.012
21:Idiom (language structure)
18:
1718:
1233:10.1017/s0305000900010291
1221:Journal of Child Language
1093:Ezell and Goldstein, 1992
898:10.1017/s0266078410000325
836:10.1017/s0022226703002020
1297:10.1177/1525740111404927
1193:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-181
1111:Lundblom and Woods, 2012
1084:Mashal and Kasirer, 2011
311:word-by-word translation
270:From the perspective of
1362:10.1023/A:1005932710202
1144:10.1111/1460-6984.12519
982:. www.idiommaster.com.
957:. www.idiommaster.com.
933:10.1023/a:1005932710202
798:Mel'čuk (1995:167–232).
755:Oxford University Press
626:English-language idioms
621:Comprehension of idioms
342:leave no stone unturned
211:Many fixed idioms lack
40:figurative, non-literal
1705:List of lexicographers
863:10.1515/ling-2016-0022
824:Journal of Linguistics
505:
100:
25:Idiom (disambiguation)
23:. For other uses, see
1634:Monolingual learner's
1391:10.1515/cog-2012-0006
1379:Cognitive Linguistics
1265:and J. Martin. 2008.
1255:Jackendoff, R. 1997.
727:. The Phrase Finder.
295:jump on the bandwagon
283:jump on the bandwagon
205:The bucket was kicked
158:irreversible binomial
93:
780:Radford (2004:187f.)
641:Multiword expression
599:Catena (linguistics)
522:Construction Grammar
213:semantic composition
151:idiomatic expression
1674:Spelling dictionary
1584:Defining vocabulary
1020:. 20 January 2015.
1003:Gibbs, R. W. (1987)
789:Portner (2005:33f).
448:of this section is
1726:Linguistics portal
1559:Advanced learner's
1397:Portner, P. 2005.
1269:speech recognition
757:. pp. 302–3.
683:Jackendoff (1997).
533:dependency grammar
503:of this situation?
319:kopnąć w kalendarz
272:dependency grammar
111:contradicting the
101:
47:formulaic language
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1275:Leaney, C. 2005.
1043:"Nước mắt cá sấu"
656:Rhetorical device
501:get to the bottom
489:
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392:fi nafs al-markeb
365:idiomatic origins
256:grease the wheels
120:kicked the bucket
109:figures of speech
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1594:Encyclopedic
1574:Biographical
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1503:Lexicography
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1639:Multi-field
1604:Explanatory
1535:Phrase book
1047:scov.gov.vn
851:Linguistics
616:Collocation
524:framework.
363:words have
305:Translation
131:phraseology
105:linguistics
75:break a leg
61:Derivations
1739:Categories
1609:Historical
1589:Electronic
1579:Conceptual
1520:Dictionary
1454:The Idioms
1053:2024-07-10
1028:2016-04-08
990:2018-01-06
965:2018-01-06
735:2015-03-29
663:References
499:How do we
446:neutrality
396:yojijukugo
375:, meaning
244:motivation
227:, meaning
147:word-group
139:collocated
1679:Sub-field
1569:Bilingual
1549:Types of
1540:Thesaurus
1510:Types of
1413:Semantics
1370:170903210
1305:143858683
1159:Crystal,
941:170903210
906:145266570
871:151574119
457:talk page
382:In 2015,
350:polysemes
1525:Glossary
1341:21985987
1153:31867833
1022:Archived
1018:TED Blog
984:Archived
959:Archived
729:Archived
636:Metaphor
592:See also
513:argument
450:disputed
377:memorize
180:do not:
170:clefting
164:Mobility
135:phraseme
82:result.
77:" is an
1654:Rhyming
1649:Reverse
1644:Picture
1629:Medical
1564:Anagram
1530:Lexicon
1249:6544015
1241:2447110
1212:1582965
1203:1279665
708:28 July
605:Chengyu
373:decorar
299:jump on
194:(valid)
55:English
51:literal
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611:Cliché
574:always
529:catena
415:calque
398:一石二鳥 (
289:, and
276:catena
237:secret
233:reveal
184:Mobile
79:ironic
36:phrase
1693:Other
1614:Idiom
1366:S2CID
1301:S2CID
1245:S2CID
937:S2CID
902:S2CID
867:S2CID
197:Fixed
34:is a
32:idiom
1659:Rime
1433:ISBN
1337:PMID
1237:PMID
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1149:PMID
759:ISBN
710:2021
443:The
354:verb
254:and
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