168:
39:
300:
31:
224:
344:. Actors within the "tribute system" were virtually autonomous and carried out their own agendas despite sending tribute; as was the case with Japan, Korea, Ryukyu, and Vietnam. Chinese influence on tributary states was almost always non-interventionist in nature and tributary states "normally could expect no military assistance from Chinese armies should they be invaded".
487:
765:
Vietnamese sought to conquer
Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back because of a lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. Malacca avoided reciprocating hostilities until they received a letter from the Ming dynasty, in which the Ming emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to raise soldiers and retaliate if the Vietnamese attacked.
412:-led Ming dynasty. Joseon had continued to support the Ming in their wars against the Qing despite incurring military retaliation from the latter. The Manchus were viewed as barbarians by the Korean court, which, regarding itself as the new "Confucian ideological center" in place of the Ming, continued to use the Ming calendar and
353:
sacrifice of participating actors was simply "symbolic obeisance". Nor were states that sent tribute forced to mimic
Chinese institutions, for example in cases such as the Inner Asians, who basically ignored the trappings of Chinese government. Instead they manipulated Chinese tribute practices for their own financial benefit.
201:, with fourteen essays on China's pre-modern relations with Vietnam, Korea, Inner Asia and Tibet, Southeast Asia and the Ryukyus, as well as an Introduction and essays describing Chinese views of the world order. The model presents the tribute system as an extension of the hierarchic and nonegalitarian Confucian social order.
212:, a term with multiple meanings in classical Chinese," since its "root meaning of gift giving from inferiors to superiors applied to all personal relationships...." Fairbank's concept of tribute system "turned a flexible practice with multiple meanings into an overly formalized ritual system" in which
781:
From the late 14th to early 16th centuries, the Ryukyu
Kingdom served an important position in the Ming's tributary order, as they became a key intermediary for the Ming's trade with Northeast and Southeast Asia through goods funnelled into Ming-Ryukyu tribute missions. Ryukyu's intermediary role was
196:
created the "tribute system" theory in a series of articles in the early 1940s to describe "a set of ideas and practices developed and perpetuated by the rulers of China over many centuries." The concept was developed and became influential after 1968, when
Fairbank edited and published a conference
563:
As the struggle between the
Northern Yuan and the Red Turban Rebellion and the Ming remained indecisive, Goryeo retained neutrality despite both sides pleading for their assistance in order to break this stalemate. As the Ming eventually gained the upper hand Goryeo paid an enormous tribute to Ming
1628:
At this point in 1593, the war entered a stalemate during which intrigues and negotiations failed to produce a settlement. As the suzerain of Joseon Korea, Ming China exercised tight control over the
Koreans during the war. At the same time, Ming China negotiated bilaterally with Japan while often
772:
covering
Vietnam-China relations from 1365 to 1841, "the Vietnamese court explicitly recognized its unequal status in its relations with China through a number of institutions and norms." Due to their participation in the tributary system, Vietnamese rulers behaved as though China was not a threat
764:
sent envoys to China to inform them that while returning to
Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, their ship had been driven by a storm to the coast of Vietnam and the Vietnamese killed, enslaved and castrated the survivors. The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and that the
134:
Scholars differ on the nature of China's relations with its neighbors in traditional times. Many describe a system that embodied a collection of institutions, social and diplomatic conventions, and institutions that dominated China's contacts with the non-Chinese world for two millennia, until the
130:
as a form of tribute, and acknowledge his superiority and precedence. The other countries followed China's formal ritual in order to keep the peace with the more powerful neighbor and be eligible for diplomatic or military help under certain conditions. Political actors within the tributary system
629:
dynasties. The nature of these bilateral contacts evolved gradually from political and ceremonial acknowledgment to cultural exchanges; and the process accompanied the growing commercial ties which developed over time. Knowledge was the principal objective of each expedition. For example: Priests
320:
The "tribute system" is often associated with a "Confucian world order", under which neighboring states complied and participated in the "tribute system" to secure guarantees of peace, investiture, and trading opportunities. One member acknowledged another's position as superior, and the superior
545:
If Silla indeed served China wholeheartedly by dispatching tributary ships one after another, why did King
Beopheung use his own reign title? This is indeed confusing! From then on, Silla maintained this erroneous practice for many more years, even after Emperor Taizong had learned about it and
352:
The "tribute" entailed a foreign court sending envoys and exotic products to the
Chinese emperor. The emperor then gave the envoys gifts in return and permitted them to trade in China. Presenting tribute involved theatrical subordination but usually not political subordination. The political
372:
After 1435, the Ming dynasty urged foreign delegations to leave and stopped offering transport assistance for visiting missions. The size of delegations was restricted from hundreds of people to less than a dozen and the frequency of tributary missions was also reduced.
559:
Goryeo's rulers called themselves "Great King" viewing themselves as the sovereigns of the Goryeo-centered world of Northeast Asia. They maintained their own Imperial style, in their setup of government institutions, administrative divisions and own tributary system.
321:
would bestow investiture upon them in the form of a crown, official seal, and formal robes, to confirm them as king. The practice of investing non-Chinese neighbors had been practiced since ancient times as a concrete expression of the loose reign policy.
675:
Membership in the tributary system was a prerequisite for any economic exchange with China. In exiting the system, Japan relinquished its trade relationship with China. Under the rule of the Wanli Emperor, Ming China quickly interpreted the
191:
The term "tribute system" is a Western invention. There was no equivalent term in the Chinese lexicon to describe what would be considered the "tribute system" today, nor was it envisioned as an institution or system. John King Fairbank and
717:, the 19th century Chinese scholar, considered Thailand to be the strongest and most loyal of China's Southeast Asian tributaries, citing the time when Thailand offered to directly attack Japan to divert the Japanese in their planned
158:
Some scholars have suggested that the tributary system is a model for understanding international relations in East Asia today, while others argue that the concept is misleading both about relations in early modern times and today.
1878:
Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's "Oriental Repertory," and the "Asiatic Researches" and "Journal" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume
746:(1802–1945) adopted the imperial Chinese system, with rulers declaring themselves emperors on the Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese imperial tributary system while still remaining a tributary state of China.
364:
was not included in this list, and sent 57 tribute missions from 1372 to 1398, an average of two tribute missions per year. Since geographical density and proximity was not an issue, regions with multiple kings such as the
1438:新罗国...武德四年，遣使朝贡...贞观五年，遣使献女乐二人，皆鬒发美色...开元十六年，遣使来献方物，又上表请令人就中国学问经教，上许之...大历二年，宪英卒，国人立其子干运为王，仍遣其大臣金隐居奉表入朝，贡方物，请加册命...八年，遣使来朝，并献金、银、牛黄、鱼牙纳朝霞䌷等。九年至十二年，比岁遣使来朝，或一岁再至...元和四年，遣使金陆珍等来朝贡。五年，王子金宪章来朝贡...十五年十一月，遣使朝贡...长庆二年十二月，遣使金柱弼朝贡。
332:, whose leaders could hurt their own legitimacy by identifying with Chinese authority. In these politically tricky situations, sometimes a false king was set up to receive investiture for the purposes of tribute trade.
721:
and the Asian mainland, as well as other acts of loyalty to the Ming dynasty. Thailand was welcoming and open to Chinese immigrants, who dominated commerce and trade, and achieved high positions in the government.
773:
and paid very little military attention to it. Rather, Vietnamese leaders were clearly more concerned with quelling chronic domestic instability and managing relations with kingdoms to their south and west."
435:
The Chinese tributary system required a set of rituals from the tributary states whenever they sought relations with China as a way of regulating diplomatic relations. The main rituals generally included:
396:
Participation in a tributary relationship with a Chinese dynasty could also be predicated on cultural or civilizational motivations rather than material and monetary benefits. The Korean kingdom of
356:
The gifts doled out by the Ming emperor and the trade permits granted were of greater value than the tribute itself, so tribute states sent as many tribute missions as they could. In 1372, the
757:, which had sent tribute missions to China seeking help. After the death of Emperor Hongwu, the Chinese intervened after a Vietnamese general, Le Qui Ly, usurped the Vietnamese throne.
546:
reproved the Silla ambassador. Now, they eventually adopted the Tang reign title. Although a move out of necessity, we may still say that they have been able to correct their mistake
2544:
521:
adopted a maritime prohibition policy and issued tallies to "tribute-bearing" embassies for missions. Missions were subject to limits on the number of persons and items allowed.
143:
was central to the self-identification of many elite groups in the surrounding Asian countries. By the late 19th century, China had become part of a European-style community of
2406:
Kang, David C., et al. "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841." Journal of Conflict Resolution 63.4 (2019): 896–922.
1481:
Breuker, Remco E. (2010), Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918-1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty, BRILL, ISBN 9789004183254
846:
122:. It involved multiple relationships of trade, military force, diplomacy and ritual. The other states had to send a tributary envoy to China on schedule, who would
328:, in particular, sought to legitimize their rule through reference to Chinese symbolic authority. On the opposite side of the tributary relationship spectrum was
2955:
2723:
283:
668:
Japan accepted the Ming led worldview. This relationship continued until 1549 (except the 1411-1432 period) when Japan chose to end its recognition of China's
3096:
3055:
3050:
3045:
2980:
718:
677:
114:) at its height was a network of loose international relations centered around China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's
749:
Even though Vietnam was the only sinicized country in Southeast Asia, the Ming dynasty treated it with less respect than Korea or the Ryukyu Kingdom. The
1602:
2975:
2929:
2537:
831:
734:
for 1050 years. When Vietnam gained independence in 939, it became a tributary of China until 1885 when it became a protectorate of France with the
2273:
Siu, Yiu (2023), "The Cessation of Zheng He's Voyages and the Beginning of Private Sailings: Fiscal Competition between Emperors and Bureaucrats",
46:
in Shaanxi, 706. Foreign ambassadors are being received at court. The bald man in the middle is from the West and the man to his right is from
3091:
2114:
2034:
2000:
1822:
1404:
220:
ritual was exclusively and predominately a marker of foreign relations, whereas the Qing conducted "many diverse forms of tributary ritual".
2879:
2864:
2851:
2816:
2614:
2530:
2329:
139:
see a variety of relationships that differed in character, not an overall "tributary system". They suggest a Sinocentric system, in which
577:
2884:
1965:
1940:
1372:
1005:
2773:
2490:
2312:
2256:
2229:
2026:
1849:
1788:
1754:
1720:
1686:
1652:
1052:
836:
474:
1780:
Vietnam and the Chinese model: a comparative study of Vietnamese and Chinese government in the first half of the nineteenth century
423:
to make it falsely appear as though they came to pay tribute. Joseon Korea remained a tributary of Qing China until 1895, when the
286:; Zhouguke (周古柯), Hebatan (呵跋檀), Humidan (胡密丹), Baiti (白題, similar to the Hephthalite people), who dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (
2874:
229:
2016:
3106:
3060:
3022:
3005:
2756:
2367:
2132:
1778:
1490:
Robinson, David M. “Rethinking the Late Koryŏ in an International Context.” Korean Studies, vol. 41, 2017, pp. 75–98. JSTOR,
514:, as Chinese rulers started perceiving foreign envoys bearing tribute as a "token of conformity to the Chinese world order".
97:
67:
2219:
2040:
3101:
3040:
2970:
2914:
2626:
2412:
Kang, David C. "International Order in Historical East Asia: Tribute and Hierarchy Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism."
1431:
89:
59:
1642:
3081:
2960:
2718:
947:
541:
recorded Silla sending women, 4 in total, all rejected, gold, silver among other things as tribute to the Tang dynasty.
481:
2465:
Swope, Kenneth M. "Deceit, Disguise, and Dependence: China, Japan, and the Future of the Tributary System, 1592–1596."
568:
of gold, fifty thousand jin of silver and fifty thousand bolts of cotton fabric in order to maintain their neutrality.
3086:
656:, who held most of the de facto power in Japan, accepted the title "King of Japan" from the Ming, despite the nominal
419:
Meanwhile, Japan avoided direct contact with Qing China and instead manipulated embassies from neighboring Joseon and
2348:
447:
before the Chinese emperor as "a symbolic recognition of their inferiority" and "acknowledgment of their status of a
664:. Yoshimitsu was the first and only Japanese ruler in the early modern period to accept a Chinese title. During the
2799:
2607:
952:
731:
798:
sent tribute to the Ming dynasty, with their first rulers personally traveling to China with the Imperial fleets.
586:
3017:
1899:
David C. Kang, et al. "War, Rebellion, and Intervention under Hierarchy: Vietnam–China Relations, 1365 to 1841."
962:
782:
also facilitated by Chinese diaspora communities who settled in Ryukyu and served positions in the Ryukyu court.
735:
2751:
2642:
2597:
235:
1613:
2840:
957:
511:
465:
After the completion of the rituals, the tributary states engaged in their desired business, such as trade.
424:
967:
2506:
Zhang, Yongjin, and Barry Buzan. "The tributary system as international society in theory and practice."
1839:
1812:
2859:
2761:
2683:
2647:
813:; by the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the tributary system of China, among them the
1540:
Howe, Christopher. The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia. p. 337
2501:
791:
753:
was firmly opposed to military expeditions in Southeast Asia and only rebuked Vietnam's conquest of
2924:
2909:
2703:
795:
653:
618:
meaning "heavenly king" also used to put the ruler of Japan on the same level as the one of China.
360:
restricted tribute missions from Joseon and six other countries to just one every three years. The
167:
743:
299:
3032:
2575:
2395:
2290:
2206:
1491:
802:
642:
43:
17:
2343:
38:
2407:
1904:
376:
The practice of giving gifts of greater value than the tribute itself was not practiced by the
2934:
2919:
2869:
2678:
2587:
2570:
2486:
2363:
2308:
2252:
2225:
2128:
2110:
2030:
1996:
1992:
1961:
1936:
1876:
1845:
1818:
1784:
1750:
1744:
1716:
1710:
1682:
1648:
1451:
1368:
1343:
1048:
915:
891:
814:
761:
700:
696:
669:
366:
152:
115:
2246:
2070:
2067:
1676:
1583:
in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese – see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric
1554:
2668:
2652:
2592:
2562:
2436:
2387:
2282:
2198:
2177:
1333:
879:
826:
665:
657:
635:
631:
582:
537:
531:
494:
of China (1757), soon after the Qing conquest of Xinjiang. Soon, intensive trade started in
491:
413:
127:
638:. Approximately one third of those who embarked from Japan did not survive to return home.
408:, which invaded Joseon and forced it to become a tributary in 1636, in the same way as the
2939:
1988:
942:
205:
144:
140:
136:
1603:"Beyond Turtleboats: Siege Accounts from Hideyoshi's Second Invasion of Korea, 1597–1598"
2829:
2824:
2766:
2698:
2580:
2554:
903:
750:
518:
420:
361:
357:
208:, the historian of Qing dynasty foreign relations, is "the inadequate translation for
388:. Gifts conferred by the Yuan were worth a fraction of the tribute offered by Goryeo.
3075:
2904:
2602:
2483:
Past and Present in China's Foreign Policy: From "Tribute System" to "Peaceful Rise".
2294:
2210:
1872:
927:
922:
739:
708:
565:
495:
401:
340:
In practice, the tribute system only became formalized during the early years of the
2985:
2834:
2077:
1572:
1568:
841:
810:
806:
704:
646:
626:
507:
448:
405:
381:
341:
304:
279:
243:
119:
2202:
1522:"Cultures Combined in the Mists of Time: Origins of the China-Japan relationship,"
703:, the first unified Thai state, established official tributary relations with the
680:
which failed as a challenge to the Ming centered predominant worldview and order.
502:, Kyrgyz horses, sheep and goats being traded for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics.
2302:
2020:
1982:
1362:
1042:
630:
studied Chinese Buddhism. Officials studied Chinese government. Doctors studied
3010:
2794:
2673:
2619:
2360:
East Asia at the Center : Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World.
692:
622:
458:
409:
239:
193:
30:
2522:
2181:
135:
collapse of the system around the end of the 19th century. Other scholars like
2965:
1746:
Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia
1644:
Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia
1521:
936:
898:
590:
554:(1075–1151) writing on the nature of Silla's tributary relationship with China
551:
287:
271:
263:
2221:
Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics
1347:
621:
Between 607 and 838, Japan submitted and sent 19 missions to China under the
2708:
2693:
2417:
910:
886:
597:
499:
486:
223:
184:
148:
612:
2441:
1338:
1321:
2804:
2789:
714:
688:
454:
The presentation of tribute and receipt of the emperor's "vassals' gifts"
275:
176:
2286:
1783:(reprint, illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 234.
1495:
2399:
2375:
1916:
Geoff Wade (July 2007). "Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s-1580s".
1509:
Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time,
874:
862:
377:
131:
were largely autonomous and in almost all cases virtually independent.
1933:
Imperial Alchemy: Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia
1551:
Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time
611:, meaning "Great King" in relation to the Chinese emperor. Internally
2688:
2104:
857:
754:
650:
444:
397:
385:
325:
251:
247:
172:
123:
105:
75:
2391:
1871:
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch,
593:". The Emperors of China commonly referred to the ruler of Japan as
2424:
607:) meaning "King of Wa", while they themselves styled themselves as
2728:
661:
564:
in February 1385 consisting of five thousand horses, five hundred
329:
308:
267:
259:
255:
222:
180:
47:
37:
594:
461:
of the tributary state's ruler as the legitimate king of his land
2733:
2189:——— (2015). "The Tenacious Tributary System".
852:
2526:
2475:
Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War
2425:"'Tributary' from a Multilateral and Multilayered Perspective"
2161:
The Chinese World Order; Traditional China's Foreign Relations
1561:[https://books.google.com/books?id=JWpF-dObxW8C&pg=PA1316
867:
2168:
Perdue, Peter C. (2009). "China and Other Colonial Empires".
2152:
China's Hegemony: Four Hundred Years of East Asian Domination
416:
in defiance of the Qing, despite sending tribute missions.
2496:
Womack, Brantly. "Asymmetry and China's tributary system."
2022:
Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society
711:, and Thailand remained a tributary of China until 1853.
699:
of the late Qing dynasty during the mid-19th century. The
589:
dynasty and its successors and were appointed as "King of
27:
Network of loose international relations centered on China
307:
painting of a tribute giraffe, which was thought to be a
805:, trade with China is believed to have begun during the
1814:
Early Ming China : A political history, 1355-1435
1712:
Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World
1575:
tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (
1181:
1179:
1958:
Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century
1196:
1194:
440:
The sending of missions by tributary states to China
3031:
2998:
2948:
2897:
2850:
2815:
2782:
2744:
2661:
2635:
2561:
2248:
Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols
2106:Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589-1276
1458:新罗国...贞观五年，献女乐二...玄宗开元中，数入朝，献果下马、朝霞䌷、鱼牙䌷、海豹皮。又献二女。
691:was an important Chinese tributary state from the
1553:(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009)
490:Kyrgyz deliver a white horse as a tribute to the
34:China (yellow) and its tributaries (orange), 1820
1841:Early Ming China: a political history, 1355-1435
2516:Zhaoling: The Mausoleum of Emperor Tang Taizong
2304:Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750
847:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty
543:
234:. Song Dynasty copy of 6th-century painting in
1715:. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. 137–138.
2956:Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers
2538:
2125:Li Hung-Chang and China's Early Modernization
1629:ignoring the wishes of the Korean government.
1367:, Columbia University Press, pp. 45–47,
1326:The Chinese Journal of International Politics
8:
2362:New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
2224:, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press,
2143:Capitalism and Democracy: A Fragile Alliance
645:again became a tributary of China under the
151:with other countries in the world following
1981:Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter, eds. (2004).
1417:
1236:
672:and cancel any further tribute missions.
2945:
2812:
2545:
2531:
2523:
1984:Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History
1935:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51.
1844:. Stanford University Press. p. 117.
1678:Thailand's Policies towards China, 1949–54
1364:Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang
2930:Grand coordinator and provincial governor
2508:Chinese Journal of International Politics
2498:Chinese Journal of International Politics
2440:
2429:Chinese Journal of International Politics
2418:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818319000274
1337:
1047:. Harvard University Press. p. 211.
585:had formal diplomatic inquiries with the
369:benefited immensely from this exchange.
2251:. Harvard University Press. p. 49.
2170:Journal of American-East Asian Relations
2123:Chu, Samuel C.; Liu, K.C., eds. (1994),
1749:. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 100–101.
1563:Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368–1644,
1527:February 3, 2006; reprinting article in
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1272:
832:List of recipients of tribute from China
485:
298:
166:
29:
984:
678:Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)
506:Tributary relations emerged during the
238:. Tributary envoys from right to left:
2374:Fairbank, John K.; Teng, S.Y. (1941).
2163:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
2082:Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty
1610:Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies
1110:
1098:
1074:
1028:
991:
183:. Painting produced 7th century AD by
2043:from the original on February 3, 2024
1920:. Working Paper Series No. 93: 13–31.
1224:
1185:
7:
1571:; note: the economic benefit of the
1469:
1122:
1044:China's Last Empire - The Great Qing
3097:Foreign relations of Imperial China
1555:p. 27; Goodrich, Luther Carrington
1403:sfn error: no target: CITEREF2014 (
1386:
1296:
1284:
1260:
1248:
1212:
1200:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1086:
578:Japanese missions to Imperial China
473:For a more comprehensive list, see
2380:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
1647:. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 99.
1525:Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus.
290:). Original attributed to Xiao Yi.
25:
2485:Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2010.
2159:Fairbank, John King, ed. (1968).
2145:, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited
2027:Ateneo de Manila University Press
837:List of tributary states of China
768:According to a 2018 study in the
475:List of tributary states of China
216:always had the same meanings and
18:Imperial Chinese tributary system
2376:"On the Ch'ing Tributary System"
2071:International Relations of Asia,
1956:Marie-Sybille de Vienne (2015).
1675:Chinvanno, Anuson (1992-06-18).
1398:
230:Portraits of Periodical Offering
1882:. Trübner & Co. p. 252
1322:"The American Tributary System"
649:in 1401. As a result, in 1404,
311:by court officials, from Bengal
2757:Three Lords and Nine Ministers
2423:Song, Nianshen (Summer 2012).
2141:de Klundert, Theo van (2013),
1901:Journal of Conflict Resolution
770:Journal of Conflict Resolution
110:
101:
93:
80:
71:
63:
1:
2971:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
2203:10.1080/10670564.2015.1030949
2191:Journal of Contemporary China
1960:. NUS Press. pp. 41–44.
1817:. Stanford University Press.
3092:Classical Chinese philosophy
2477:, University of Hawaii Press
2467:International History Review
2461:, University of Hawaii Press
2349:Resources in other libraries
2025:. Quezon City, Philippines:
1743:Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000).
1641:Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000).
948:Emperor at home, king abroad
482:Emperor at home, king abroad
2245:Robinson, David M. (2009).
2154:, Columbia University Press
1777:Alexander Woodside (1971).
1709:Leonard, Jane Kate (1984).
1361:Millward, James A. (2007),
3123:
2800:Bureau of Military Affairs
2724:Territorial administration
2608:Heirloom Seal of the Realm
2459:Maritime Ryukyu, 1050-1650
2414:International Organization
2275:Journal of Chinese History
2182:10.1163/187656109793645706
2103:Bielenstein, Hans (2005),
1811:Dreyer, Edward L. (1982).
953:East Asian cultural sphere
809:, and expanded during the
707:during the reign of King
575:
479:
472:
3018:Embroidered Uniform Guard
2344:Resources in your library
2335:Tributary system of China
2307:. New York: Basic Books.
2301:Westad, Odd Arne (2012).
1838:Edward L. Dreyer (1982).
1507:Fogel, Joshua A. (2009).
963:Mandala (political model)
427:ended this relationship.
56:tributary system of China
2981:Administrative divisions
1681:. Springer. p. 24.
1498:. Accessed 11 Dec. 2022.
236:National Museum of China
2841:Secretariat-Chancellery
2473:Wang, Zhenping (2013),
2457:Smits, Gregory (2019),
2218:Smits, Gregory (1999),
1918:Asia Research Institute
958:Little China (ideology)
786:Maritime Southeast Asia
425:First Sino-Japanese War
276:in present-day Malaysia
199:The Chinese World Order
120:Sinocentric world order
2518:, Sino-Platonic Papers
2150:Lee, Ji-Young (2017),
1903:63.4 (2019): 896-922.
1041:Rowe, William (2010).
557:
503:
443:The tributary envoys'
312:
291:
204:"Tribute", points out
188:
81:Zhōnghuá cháogòng tǐxì
51:
35:
3107:Politics of East Asia
2915:Imperial Commissioner
2860:Ministry of Personnel
2762:Three Ducal Ministers
2684:Imperial examinations
2648:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
2514:Zhou, Xiuqin (2009),
2469:24.4 (2002): 757–782.
1931:Anthony Reid (2010).
1612:: 761. Archived from
1320:Khong, Y. F. (2013).
1010:Oxford Bibliographies
695:(581–618), until the
510:, under the reign of
489:
302:
226:
170:
41:
33:
3102:History of East Asia
3023:Qing Imperial Guards
3006:Tang Imperial Guards
2061:Shambaugh, David L.
2017:Scott, William Henry
1006:"The Tribute System"
792:Sultanate of Malacca
736:Treaty of Huế (1884)
583:Early kings of Japan
149:diplomatic relations
3082:Chinese imperialism
2925:Imperial Clan Court
2910:Remonstrance Bureau
2880:Ministry of Justice
2865:Ministry of Revenue
2719:Historical capitals
2704:Academies (Shuyuan)
2500:5.1 (2012): 37–54.
2442:10.1093/cjip/pos005
2416:(2019): 1-29. DOI:
2358:Cohen, Warren I. .
2287:10.1017/jch.2022.45
1987:. London, England:
1589:Japan Encyclopedia,
1339:10.1093/cjip/pot002
796:Sultanate of Brunei
654:Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
634:. Painters studied
98:traditional Chinese
68:traditional Chinese
3087:Chinese inventions
1520:Hoffman, Michael.
968:Hua–Yi distinction
803:Philippine islands
719:invasions of Korea
660:still residing in
658:sovereign of Japan
643:Ashikaga shogunate
504:
400:did not treat the
313:
292:
278:); Dengzhi (鄧至) (
189:
90:simplified Chinese
60:simplified Chinese
52:
44:Qianling Mausoleum
36:
3069:
3068:
2994:
2993:
2935:Viceroys in China
2920:Grand Secretariat
2893:
2892:
2885:Ministry of Works
2870:Ministry of Rites
2817:Three Departments
2774:Translated titles
2679:Five Directorates
2510:5.1 (2012): 3-36.
2330:Library resources
2197:(96): 1002–1014.
2116:978-90-474-0761-4
2036:978-971-550-135-4
2002:978-0-415-29777-6
1824:978-0-8047-1105-0
1531:January 29, 2006.
1089:, pp. 28–29.
916:Mandate of Heaven
892:Dynasty of Heaven
815:Sultanate of Sulu
762:Malacca sultanate
701:Sukhothai Kingdom
697:Taiping Rebellion
670:regional hegemony
517:The Ming founder
367:Sultanate of Sulu
153:international law
42:A mural from the
16:(Redirected from
3114:
2946:
2813:
2714:Tributary system
2669:Nine-rank system
2653:Scholar-official
2643:Grand Chancellor
2547:
2540:
2533:
2524:
2519:
2481:Wills, John E.
2478:
2462:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2444:
2403:
2318:
2297:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2214:
2185:
2164:
2155:
2146:
2137:
2119:
2089:
2080:citing the 1818
2059:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1913:
1907:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1618:
1607:
1601:Swope, Kenneth.
1598:
1592:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1532:
1518:
1512:
1505:
1499:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1453:New Book of Tang
1447:
1441:
1440:
1433:Old Book of Tang
1427:
1421:
1418:Bielenstein 2005
1415:
1409:
1408:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1341:
1317:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1237:de Klundert 2013
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1215:, p. 15-16.
1210:
1204:
1198:
1189:
1183:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1004:Zhang, Yongjin,
1001:
995:
989:
880:All Under Heaven
827:Emperor of China
742:(1428–1527) and
666:Muromachi period
641:Japan under the
636:Chinese painting
632:Chinese medicine
555:
538:New Book of Tang
532:Old Book of Tang
492:Qianlong Emperor
147:and established
145:sovereign states
112:
103:
95:
82:
73:
65:
21:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3027:
2999:Imperial guards
2990:
2944:
2940:Mandarin square
2889:
2875:Ministry of War
2846:
2811:
2783:Middle Imperial
2778:
2740:
2657:
2631:
2557:
2551:
2513:
2472:
2456:
2447:
2445:
2422:
2392:10.2307/2718006
2373:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2324:Further reading
2321:
2315:
2300:
2272:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2244:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2217:
2188:
2176:(1–2): 85–103.
2167:
2158:
2149:
2140:
2135:
2122:
2117:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2086:DaQing hui-tien
2060:
2056:
2046:
2044:
2037:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1989:RoutledgeCurzon
1980:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1898:
1894:
1885:
1883:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1837:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1519:
1515:
1506:
1502:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1319:
1318:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1263:, p. 7-12.
1259:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1192:
1184:
1177:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1101:, p. 1005.
1097:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1077:, p. 1002.
1073:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1027:
1023:
1014:
1012:
1003:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
981:
976:
943:Tributary state
823:
788:
779:
728:
686:
580:
574:
556:
550:
527:
512:Emperor Taizong
484:
478:
471:
433:
394:
350:
338:
318:
297:
206:Peter C. Perdue
165:
141:Chinese culture
137:Odd Arne Westad
128:Chinese emperor
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3120:
3118:
3110:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3037:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2856:
2854:
2852:Six Ministries
2848:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2837:
2832:
2830:Zhongshu Sheng
2827:
2825:Shangshu Sheng
2821:
2819:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2797:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2767:Nine Ministers
2764:
2754:
2748:
2746:
2745:Early Imperial
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2699:Hanlin Academy
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2590:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2555:Imperial China
2553:Government of
2552:
2550:
2549:
2542:
2535:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2511:
2504:
2494:
2479:
2470:
2463:
2454:
2435:(2): 155–182.
2420:
2410:
2404:
2386:(2): 135–246.
2371:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2313:
2298:
2270:
2257:
2242:
2230:
2215:
2186:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2138:
2133:
2120:
2115:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2054:
2035:
2008:
2001:
1973:
1967:978-9971698188
1966:
1948:
1942:978-0521872379
1941:
1923:
1908:
1892:
1863:
1850:
1830:
1823:
1803:
1789:
1769:
1755:
1735:
1721:
1701:
1687:
1667:
1653:
1633:
1593:
1567:, p. 1316, at
1549:Joshua Fogel,
1542:
1533:
1513:
1500:
1483:
1474:
1462:
1442:
1422:
1420:, p. 142.
1410:
1391:
1379:
1374:978-0231139243
1373:
1353:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1253:
1241:
1239:, p. 176.
1229:
1217:
1205:
1190:
1175:
1163:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1125:, p. 154.
1115:
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1053:
1033:
1021:
996:
994:, p. 177.
983:
982:
980:
977:
975:
972:
971:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
933:
932:
931:
919:
907:
904:Khan of Heaven
895:
883:
849:
844:
839:
834:
829:
822:
819:
787:
784:
778:
777:Ryukyu Kingdom
775:
751:Hongwu Emperor
744:Nguyễn dynasty
732:ruled by China
727:
724:
685:
682:
573:
570:
548:
526:
523:
519:Hongwu Emperor
470:
467:
463:
462:
455:
452:
441:
432:
429:
393:
390:
362:Ryukyu Kingdom
358:Hongwu Emperor
349:
346:
337:
334:
324:The rulers of
317:
314:
296:
293:
164:
161:
118:role within a
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3119:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2961:Grand Council
2959:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2905:Three Bureaus
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:Late Imperial
2896:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2613:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2603:Son of Heaven
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2548:
2543:
2541:
2536:
2534:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2517:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2491:9781878282873
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2323:
2316:
2314:9780465019335
2310:
2306:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2260:
2258:9780674036086
2254:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2233:
2231:0-8248-2037-1
2227:
2223:
2222:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2136:
2130:
2127:, Routledge,
2126:
2121:
2118:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2095:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2012:
2009:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1977:
1974:
1969:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1881:
1880:
1874:
1873:Reinhold Rost
1867:
1864:
1853:
1851:0-8047-1105-4
1847:
1843:
1842:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1807:
1804:
1792:
1790:0-674-93721-X
1786:
1782:
1781:
1773:
1770:
1758:
1756:9783825843861
1752:
1748:
1747:
1739:
1736:
1724:
1722:9780674948556
1718:
1714:
1713:
1705:
1702:
1690:
1688:9781349124305
1684:
1680:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1656:
1654:9783825843861
1650:
1646:
1645:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1619:on 2013-11-03
1615:
1611:
1604:
1597:
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1566:
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1562:
1558:
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1517:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1478:
1475:
1472:, p. 96.
1471:
1466:
1463:
1459:
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1454:
1446:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1411:
1406:
1401:, p. 19.
1400:
1395:
1392:
1389:, p. 18.
1388:
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1314:
1312:
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1306:
1302:
1299:, p. 24.
1298:
1293:
1290:
1287:, p. 23.
1286:
1281:
1278:
1275:, p. 48.
1274:
1273:Robinson 2009
1269:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1254:
1251:, p. 17.
1250:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1227:, p. 35.
1226:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1203:, p. 12.
1202:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1188:, p. 65.
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1161:, p. 33.
1160:
1155:
1152:
1149:, p. 13.
1148:
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1140:
1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1113:, p. 85.
1112:
1111:Perdue (2009)
1107:
1104:
1100:
1099:Perdue (2015)
1095:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1075:Perdue (2015)
1071:
1068:
1060:September 27,
1056:
1054:9780674054554
1050:
1046:
1045:
1037:
1034:
1031:, p. 10.
1030:
1029:Westad (2012)
1025:
1022:
1015:September 27,
1011:
1007:
1000:
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928:Son of Heaven
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187:(c. 600–673).
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86:Cefeng system
83:
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69:
61:
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49:
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40:
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19:
2986:Zongli Yamen
2835:Menxia Sheng
2713:
2662:Institutions
2515:
2507:
2497:
2482:
2474:
2466:
2458:
2446:. Retrieved
2432:
2428:
2413:
2383:
2379:
2359:
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2303:
2278:
2274:
2262:. Retrieved
2247:
2235:, retrieved
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2194:
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2173:
2169:
2160:
2151:
2142:
2124:
2105:
2085:
2081:
2078:Google Books
2076:, p. 54, at
2072:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2045:. Retrieved
2021:
2011:
1983:
1976:
1957:
1951:
1932:
1926:
1917:
1911:
1900:
1895:
1884:. Retrieved
1877:
1866:
1855:. Retrieved
1840:
1833:
1813:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1779:
1772:
1760:. Retrieved
1745:
1738:
1726:. Retrieved
1711:
1704:
1692:. Retrieved
1677:
1670:
1658:. Retrieved
1643:
1636:
1627:
1621:. Retrieved
1614:the original
1609:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:Google Books
1564:
1560:
1556:
1550:
1545:
1536:
1529:Japan Times,
1528:
1524:
1516:
1511:pp. 102-107.
1508:
1503:
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1244:
1232:
1220:
1208:
1173:, p. 3.
1166:
1154:
1142:
1137:, p. 9.
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1070:
1058:. Retrieved
1043:
1036:
1024:
1013:, retrieved
1009:
999:
987:
935:
921:
909:
897:
885:
873:
861:
851:
842:Ming dynasty
811:Song dynasty
807:Tang dynasty
800:
789:
780:
769:
767:
759:
748:
730:Vietnam was
729:
713:
705:Yuan dynasty
687:
674:
647:Ming dynasty
640:
620:
615:
608:
604:
600:
581:
562:
558:
544:
536:
530:
528:
516:
508:Tang dynasty
505:
464:
449:vassal state
434:
418:
406:Qing dynasty
395:
382:Yuan dynasty
375:
371:
355:
351:
342:Ming dynasty
339:
323:
319:
244:Hephthalites
228:
217:
213:
209:
203:
198:
190:
171:Envoys from
157:
133:
111:Cèfēng tǐzhì
109:
85:
79:
55:
53:
3011:Shence Army
2795:Jimi system
2674:Nine Courts
2620:Consort kin
2047:October 18,
1581:kanhe maoyi
1577:kangō bōeki
1573:Sinocentric
1332:(1): 1–47.
992:ChuLiu 1994
693:Sui dynasty
459:investiture
384:court with
295:In practice
194:Teng Ssu-yu
3076:Categories
2966:Lifan Yuan
2368:0231101082
2281:: 95–114,
2134:1563242427
2073:p. 54 n15.
1991:. p.
1886:2011-01-09
1857:2010-11-28
1623:2013-09-07
1225:Smits 2019
1186:Smits 2019
974:References
937:Pax Sinica
899:Tian Kehan
740:Lê dynasty
576:See also:
552:Kim Bu-sik
480:See also:
316:Legitimacy
272:Langkasuka
163:Definition
3033:Dynasties
2709:Censorate
2694:Guozijian
2295:258586977
2211:142685195
2109:, Brill,
1470:Wang 2013
1348:1750-8916
1123:Zhou 2009
979:Citations
911:Tian Ming
887:Tian Chao
601:wōkouwang
500:Chuguchak
445:kowtowing
414:era names
185:Yan Liben
116:hegemonic
2805:Shumishi
2790:Jiedushi
2571:Monarchy
2563:Nobility
2237:June 20,
2065:(2008).
2041:Archived
2019:(1994).
1875:(1887).
1796:June 20,
1587:(2005).
1559:(1976).
1496:44508440
1387:Lee 2017
1297:Lee 2017
1285:Lee 2017
1261:Siu 2023
1249:Lee 2017
1213:Lee 2017
1201:Lee 2017
1171:Lee 2017
1159:Lee 2017
1147:Lee 2017
1135:Lee 2017
1087:Lee 2017
821:See also
794:and the
715:Wei Yuan
689:Thailand
684:Thailand
549:—
336:Autonomy
305:Ming-era
232:of Liang
197:volume,
177:Goguryeo
2636:Offices
2615:Empress
2593:Emperor
2576:Dynasty
2448:11 July
2400:2718006
2096:Sources
1762:19 July
1728:19 July
1694:19 July
1660:19 July
1591:p. 471.
1450:"199".
1430:"199".
875:Tianxia
863:Shangdi
801:In the
726:Vietnam
469:History
431:Rituals
392:Culture
348:Tribute
126:to the
2689:Taixue
2588:Titles
2502:online
2489:
2408:online
2398:
2366:
2332:about
2311:
2293:
2264:8 June
2255:
2228:
2209:
2131:
2113:
2063:et al.
2033:
1999:
1964:
1939:
1905:online
1848:
1821:
1787:
1753:
1719:
1685:
1651:
1585:et al.
1557:et al.
1494:
1371:
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1051:
923:Tianzi
858:Heaven
755:Champa
738:. The
651:Shogun
421:Ryukyu
402:Manchu
398:Joseon
386:Goryeo
378:Mongol
326:Joseon
252:Baekje
248:Persia
179:, and
173:Baekje
124:kowtow
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106:pinyin
100::
92::
84:), or
78::
76:pinyin
72:中華朝貢體系
70::
64:中华朝贡体系
62::
2976:Ranks
2729:Yamen
2627:Harem
2581:Cycle
2396:JSTOR
2291:S2CID
2207:S2CID
1617:(PDF)
1606:(PDF)
1492:JSTOR
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662:Kyōto
616:tennō
609:ōkimi
605:wakuō
572:Japan
525:Korea
496:Kulja
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288:Qiemo
284:Ngawa
280:Qiang
268:Japan
260:Qiuci
256:Korea
181:Silla
48:Silla
3061:Qing
3056:Yuan
3051:Liao
3046:Tang
2949:Qing
2752:King
2734:Tusi
2598:List
2487:ISBN
2450:2016
2364:ISBN
2309:ISBN
2266:2019
2253:ISBN
2239:2011
2226:ISBN
2129:ISBN
2111:ISBN
2049:2015
2031:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1962:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1846:ISBN
1819:ISBN
1798:2011
1785:ISBN
1764:2016
1751:ISBN
1730:2016
1717:ISBN
1696:2016
1683:ISBN
1662:2016
1649:ISBN
1405:help
1399:2014
1369:ISBN
1344:ISSN
1062:2023
1049:ISBN
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627:Tang
625:and
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529:The
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210:gong
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