435:
zoning information, and from remote imagery. Land use coefficient methods commonly are used because planning and zoning maps that identify similar areas are, increasingly, available in GIS formats. Also, land use methods are selected to estimate potential effects of future development on TIA with planning maps that quantify projected changes in land use. There are substantial differences in actual and estimated TIA estimates from different studies in the literature. Terms like low density and high density may differ in different areas. A residential density of one-half acre per house may be classified as high density in a rural area, medium density in a
534:
site of interest. Wetlands may act as a natural impervious area during storms when groundwater discharge and saturation overland flow are a substantial proportion of stormflow. Barren ground in riparian areas may act as a natural impervious area during storms because these areas are a source of infiltration excess overland flows. Seemingly pervious areas that have been affected by development activities may act as impervious areas and generate infiltration excess overland flows. These stormflows may occur even during storms that do not meet precipitation volume or intensity criteria to produce runoff based on nominal infiltration rates.
389:
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used for predicting potential effects of future development. Although there may be substantial variation in relations between population density and TIA the accuracy of such estimates tend to improve with increasing drainage area as local variations are averaged out. Granato (2010) provides a table with 8 population-density relations from the literature and a new equation developed by using data from 6,255 stream basins in the USGS GAGESII dataset. Granato (2010) also provides four equations to estimate TIA from
373:
20:
266:
229:
494:(CNNs), have revolutionized our capacity to identify and quantify impervious surfaces from high-resolution satellite imagery. These models can automatically extract intricate spatial and spectral features, enabling them to discriminate between impervious and non-impervious surfaces with exceptional accuracy.
522:. Natural impervious areas, depending on their nature and antecedent conditions, may produce stormflow from infiltration excess overland flow, saturation overland flow, or direct precipitation. The effects of natural impervious areas on runoff generation are expected to be more important in areas with low
421:
TIA for the NLCD at a 30-meter (a 900 m2) pixel resolution throughout the Nation. Within the data set, each pixel is quantified as having a TIA value that ranges from 0 to 100 percent. TIA estimates made with the NLCD impervious surface data set represent an aggregated TIA value for each pixel rather
380:
The percentage imperviousness, commonly referred to as PIMP in calculations, is an important factor when considering drainage of water. It is calculated by measuring the percentage of a catchment area which is made up of impervious surfaces such as roads, roofs and other paved surfaces. An estimation
533:
provides land-cover statistics that can be used as a qualitative measure of the prevalence of different land covers that may act as natural impervious areas. Open water may act as a natural impervious area if direct precipitation is routed through the channel network and arrives as stormflow at the
470:
data by estimating the population in an area of interest and using regression equations to calculate the associated TIA. Population-density data are used because nationally consistent census-block data are available in GIS formats for the entire United States. Population-density methods also can be
396:
Homer and others (2007) indicate that about 76 percent of the conterminous United States is classified as having less than 1 percent impervious cover, 11 percent with impervious cover of 1 to 10 percent, 4 percent with an estimated impervious cover of 11 to 20 percent, 4.4 percent with an estimated
442:
The percent developed area (PDA) is commonly used to estimate TIA manually by using maps. The Multi-Resolution Land
Characteristics Consortium (MRLCC) defines a developed area as being covered by at least 30 percent of constructed materials). Southard (1986) defined non-developed areas as natural,
434:
categories for large blocks of land, summing the total area of each category, and multiplying each area by a characteristic TIA coefficient. Land use categories commonly are used to estimate TIA because areas with a common land use can be identified from field studies, from maps, from planning and
256:
and dense urban areas, it is over 90 percent. In the contiguous 48 states of the US, urban impervious cover adds up to 43,000 square miles (110,000 km). Development adds 390 square miles (1,000 km) annually. Typically, two-thirds of the cover is pavements and one-third is building roofs.
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in a grassy field has a TIA value of 100 percent, but the pixel containing the road would have a TIA value of 26 percent. If the road (equally) straddles the boundary of two pixels, each pixel would have a TIA value of 13 percent. The Data-quality analysis of the NLCD 2001 data set with manually
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and subsequent use tends to compact soils and reduce infiltration rates. For example, Felton and Lull (1963) measured infiltration rates for forest soils and lawns to indicate a potential 80 percent reduction in infiltration as a result of development activities. Similarly, Taylor (1982) did
849:
Falcone, James, Stewart, J., Sobieszczyk, S., Dupree, J., McMahon, G., and Buell, G., 2007, A comparison of natural and urban characteristics and the development of urban intensity indices across six geographic settings: U.S. Geological Survey
Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5123, 43
459:. He noted that this method was advantageous because large basins could quickly be delineated and TIA estimated manually from available maps. Granato (2010) developed a regression equation by using data from 262 stream basins in 10 metropolitan areas of the conterminous United States with
703:
Homer, C., Dewitz, J., Fry, J., Coan, M., Hossain, N., Larson, C., Herold, N., McKerrow, A., VanDriel, J.N., and
Wickham, J., 2007, Completion of the 2001 National land cover database for the conterminous United States: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, v. 73, no. 4, p.
405:
The total impervious area (TIA), commonly referred to as impervious cover (IC) in calculations, can be expressed as a fraction (from zero to one) or a percentage. There are many methods for estimating TIA, including the use of the
National Land Cover Data Set (NLCD) with a
314:, a number of concrete manufacturers such as CEMEX and Quikrete have begun producing permeable materials which partly mitigate the environmental impact of conventional impervious concrete. These new materials are composed of various combinations of naturally derived
829:
Greater
Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District, 1999, Assessment of current and future GVS&DD area watershed and catchment conditions--Burnaby, Vancouver British Columbia, Canada, Greater Vancouver Sewerage and Drainage District, 53 p. available at:
381:
of PIMP is given by PIMP = 6.4J^0.5 where J is the number of dwellings per hectare (Butler and Davies 2000). For example, woodland has a PIMP value of 10%, whereas dense commercial areas have a PIMP value of 100%. This variable is used in the
354:. The COVID-19 pandemic gave birth to proposals for radical change in the organisation of the city, being the drastic reduction of the presence of impermeable surfaces and the recovery of the permeability of the soil one of the elements.
212:
Impervious pavements deprive tree roots of aeration, eliminating the "urban forest" and the canopy shade that would otherwise moderate urban climate. Because impervious surfaces displace living vegetation, they reduce
139:
states that "while urban areas cover only 3 percent of the U.S., it is estimated that their runoff is the primary source of pollution in 13 percent of rivers, 18 percent of lakes and 32 percent of estuaries."
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and used in place of main water. The island of
Catalina located West of the Port of Long Beach has put extensive effort into capturing rainfall to minimize the cost of transportation from the mainland.
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Southard, R.E., 1986, An alternative basin characteristic for use in estimating impervious area in urban
Missouri basins: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 86-4362, 21 p.
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Hitt, K.J., 1994, Refining 1970's land use data with 1990 population data to indicate new residential development: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources
Investigations Report 94-4250, 15 p.
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density (such as a number of homes per acre in a subdivision), but this approach causes land elsewhere (outside the subdivision) to be developed, to accommodate the growing population. (See
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Taylor, C.H. 1982, The effect on storm runoff response of seasonal variations in contributing zones in small watersheds (Ontario): Nordic
Hydrology, v. 13, no. 3, p. 165-182.
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during small and large storms, but commonly are classified as pervious areas. These areas are not commonly considered as an important source of stormflow in most highway and
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287:) Alternatively, urban structures can be built differently to make them function more like naturally pervious soils; examples of such alternative structures are
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area, and low density in an urban area. Granato (2010) provides a table with TIA values for different land-use categories from 30 studies in the literature.
790:
Cappiella, K., and Brown, K., 2001, Land use and impervious cover in the
Chesapeake Bay region: Watershed Protection Techniques, v. 3, no. 4, p. 835-840.
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410:(GIS), land-use categories with categorical TIA estimates, a generalized percent developed area, and relations between population density and TIA.
248:. In rural areas, impervious cover may only be one or two percent. In residential areas, coverage increases from about 10 percent in low-density
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to predict TIA using percent developed area (table 6-1). He developed his equation using logarithmic power function with data from 23 basins in
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U.S. Geological Survey, 2007, The USGS Land Cover Institute NLCD land cover statistics database--View the NLCD land cover statistics database
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Felton, P.M., and Lull, H.W., 1963, Suburban hydrology can improve watershed conditions: Journal of Public Works, v. 94, p. 93-94.
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to over 50 percent in multifamily communities. In industrial and commercial areas, coverage rises above 70 percent. In regional
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delimited TIA sample areas indicates that the average error of predicted versus actual TIA may range from 8.8 to 11.4 percent.
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514:-quality studies, but may produce a substantial amount of stormflow. These natural impervious areas may include open water,
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impervious cover of 21 to 40 percent, and about 4.4 percent with an estimated impervious cover greater than 40 percent.
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Methods for development of planning-level estimates of stormflow at unmonitored sites in the conterminous United States
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data set in a GIS-ready format that can be used to estimate TIA value. The NLCD consistently quantifies the percent
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482:. Remote sensing has been extensively utilized to detect impervious surfaces. Detection of impervious areas using
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1054:"Automatic extraction of urban impervious surfaces based on deep learning and multi-source remote sensing data"
1007:"Automatic extraction of impervious surfaces from high resolution remote sensing images based on deep learning"
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122:
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201:, and increasing energy consumption in buildings. The warm runoff from impervious surfaces reduces dissolved
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concern because their construction initiates a chain of events that modifies urban air and water resources:
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alteration and compaction by construction activities reduced infiltration rates by more than 77 percent.
909:"Urban Impervious Surface Detection From Remote Sensing Images: A review of the methods and challenges"
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126:
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009, National Land Cover Data (NLCD) Classification Schemes
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in conjunction with satellite images has emerged as a transformative method in remote sensing and
244:, is usually expressed as a percentage of the total land area. The coverage increases with rising
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YouTube presentation: The total impervious area (TIA) affects the volume and timing of runoff
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The U.S. NLCD impervious surface data set may provide a high-quality nationally consistent
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966:"ReFuse: Generating Imperviousness Maps from Multi-Spectral Sentinel-2 Satellite Imagery"
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ranging from 0.35 to 216 square miles and PDA values ranging from 0.16 to 99.06 percent.
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in their dense mass. When the heat is released, it raises air temperatures, producing
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Paving Paradise: The Peril of Impervious Surfaces, Environmental Health Perspectives
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The total coverage by impervious surfaces in an area, such as a municipality or a
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Giacco, Giovanni; Marrone, Stefano; Langella, Giuliano; Sansone, Carlo (2022).
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than a TIA value for an individual impervious feature. For example, a two lane
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such as cigarette butts, 6-pack holders and plastic bags carried by surges of
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184:, causing them to overflow, flushing their raw sewage into streams. Polluted
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Slonecker, E. Terrence; Jennings, David B.; Garofalo, Donald (August 2001).
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Artificial structures such as pavements covered with water-tight materials
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Anti-Impervious Surfaces: The Ecological Impact of Concrete Alternatives
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Overview of Methods Used to Estimate Imperviousness in a Drainage Basin
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tests in areas before and after suburban development and noted that
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can have many negative effects on fish, animals, plants and people.
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Developed pervious areas may behave like impervious areas because
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69:, all of which use considerable paved areas) that are covered by
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TIA is also estimated from impervious maps extracted through
680:"Manifesto for the Reorganisation of the City after COVID19"
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Impervious surface coverage can be limited by restricting
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2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
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Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation
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Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation
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Rainwater from impervious surfaces can be collected in
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Some of these pollutants include excess nutrients from
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC.
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Huang, Fenghua; Yu, Ying; Feng, Tinghao (2019-04-01).
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Huang, Fenghua; Yu, Ying; Feng, Tinghao (2019-01-01).
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TIA estimates from land use are made by identifying
746:: Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-HEP-09-005
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862:"Remote sensing of impervious surfaces: A review"
475:density, which is related to population density.
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502:Natural impervious areas are defined herein as
392:Graph of impervious surface coverage in the US.
376:Impervious surface percentage in various cities
907:Wang, Yuliang; Li, Mingshi (September 2019).
699:
697:
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1167:Document No. EPA 833-B-03-002. January 2003.
620:"Report: EPA Failing to stop Sprawl Runoff."
506:that can contribute a substantial amount of
180:. In some cities, the flood waters get into
1175:material from websites or documents of the
913:IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine
310:Partly in response to recent criticism by
205:in stream water, making life difficult in
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490:. Deep learning algorithms, particularly
33:are mainly artificial structures—such as
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1223:Urban studies and planning terminology
53:, as well as industrial areas such as
767:"National Land Cover Data Set (NLCD)"
645:The Practice of Watershed Protection.
7:
1139:Butler, D. and Davies, J.W., 2000,
633:"The Importance of Imperviousness."
261:Mitigation of environmental impacts
595:Sustainable urban drainage systems
359:Low-impact development (Canada/US)
168:loads from stream bed erosion and
14:
1160:, Vol. 113, No. 7, pg. A457-A462.
318:including fine to coarse-grained
1177:United States Geological Survey
678:Paolini, Massimo (2020-04-20).
1181:Federal Highway Administration
622:Seattle Times, 16 October 2008
1:
526:than highly developed areas.
492:convolutional neural networks
408:Geographic information system
1218:Hydrology and urban planning
193:Impervious surfaces collect
101:are also highly impervious.
1070:10.1016/j.jvcir.2018.12.051
1023:10.1016/j.jvcir.2018.11.041
668:, Troy, NY: Luminopf Press.
466:TIA also is estimated from
109:Impervious surfaces are an
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1208:Environmental soil science
1171:This article incorporates
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236:are completely impervious.
222:atmospheric carbon cycling
934:10.1109/MGRS.2019.2927260
878:10.1080/02757250109532436
664:Rosenberg, Carter, 2006,
383:Flood Estimation Handbook
368:Percentage imperviousness
1153:, Boca Raton: CRC Press.
488:environmental monitoring
121:, eliminating rainwater
498:Natural impervious area
449:residential development
117:The pavement materials
866:Remote Sensing Reviews
570:Hydraulic conductivity
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26:are highly impervious.
1156:Frazer, Lance, 2005,
736:Granato, G.E., 2010,
401:Total impervious area
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357:Further information:
338:, weathered rock and
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119:seal the soil surface
105:Environmental effects
22:
748:"Available on-line."
631:Schueler, Thomas R.
580:Permeability (fluid)
199:urban "heat islands"
164:from vehicles; high
133:. An article in the
127:groundwater recharge
67:distribution centres
1100:"Available on line"
925:2019IGRSM...7c..64W
832:"Available on line"
810:"Available on-line"
453:regression equation
297:infiltration basins
272:in Belgrade, Serbia
270:Green tramway track
31:Impervious surfaces
1165:"After the Storm."
1147:Ferguson, Bruce K.
1105:2015-09-10 at the
983:10.3390/fi14100278
837:2005-11-02 at the
753:2015-09-06 at the
651:2008-12-23 at the
638:2009-02-27 at the
468:population density
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207:aquatic ecosystems
73:materials such as
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618:Cappiello, Dina.
451:. He developed a
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685:2021-05-01
606:References
585:Soil crust
415:land cover
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