577:(IEA), in its 2023 report, emphasizes the critical urgency of achieving universal access to clean cooking by 2030—a goal integral to health, equity, and environmental sustainability. The IEA estimates that an annual investment of US$ 8 billion is required to overcome funding gaps and enhance the adoption of cleaner cooking technologies, including electric and improved cookstoves, especially in high-need areas such as sub-Saharan Africa. The report suggests that such an investment shift has the potential to avert 2.5 million premature deaths, create 1.5 million jobs, and markedly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IEA affirms the right to clean cooking as a fundamental human right and argues that meeting this target is essential for steering the world towards a more sustainable and equitable future.
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while cooking, avoid leaning over the fire while attending to the meal preparation, staying away while carrying children when cooking and keeping the children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.
317:
550:(IRENA) released a series in 2023 indicating slow progress toward universal clean cooking, with 2.3 billion lacking access in 2021 and 1.9 billion potentially still without it by 2030. The series emphasizes the need for more investment and policy support for renewable-based clean cooking technologies—like biogas and
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Substantial variations in emissions and fuel consumption have been observed across ranges of cookstove designs and between laboratory and field test conditions. At present, a standard testing mechanism does not exist to establish the true impact of alternative cookstove designs as well as descriptive
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and acute reduction in lung function. Studies on the effects of indoor cooking with natural gas have yielded inconsistent results. According to a 2010 meta-analysis, the evidence suggests that the practice leads to small reductions in lung function in children, and that children with allergies may be
303:
uses the term "clean cooking" more broadly. Its definition includes what the WHO refers to as "improved cookstoves", i.e. stoves that burn biomass fuel more efficiently than traditional stoves. As of 2020, the vast majority of stoves that burn biomass fuel do not qualify as clean under WHO standards
498:
Behavioral change interventions, in reducing childhood household exposures, have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20–98%. Indoor Air
Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open
502:
Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing
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When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes. There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the
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Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children. The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work.
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Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke. They reduce fuel needs by 20-75% and drastically cut dangerous smoke and fumes. As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the
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Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence. Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.
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digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.
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more efficiently than traditional stoves are known as "improved cookstoves" or "clean cookstoves". With very few exceptions, these stoves deliver fewer health benefits than stoves that use liquid or gaseous fuels. However, they reduce fuel usage and thus help to prevent
609:. The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions. The shift to clean cooking solutions reduces methane and other greenhouse gas emissions emitted by incomplete combustion in basic stoves by 0.9 Gt of CO2-eq, and
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Initiatives to encourage cleaner cooking practices have yielded limited success. For various practical, cultural, and economic reasons, it is common for families who adopt clean stoves and fuels to continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves.
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In traditional cooking facilities, smoke is typically vented into the home rather than out through a chimney. Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances are
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Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J., ... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2),
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is also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind of
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Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully clean solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible. As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.
1085:
Onakomaiya, Deborah; Gyamfi, Joyce; Iwelunmor, Juliet; Opeyemi, Jumoke; Oluwasanmi, Mofetoluwa; Obiezu-Umeh, Chisom; Dalton, Milena; Nwaozuru, Ucheoma; Ojo, Temitope; Vieira, Dorice; Ogedegbe, Gbenga; Olopade, Christopher (2019-05-14).
625:, whose first target is: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services". Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty (
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According to the Global Burden of
Disease study 1.6 million people died prematurely in 2017 as a result of indoor air pollution ... But it's worth noting that the WHO publishes a substantially larger number of indoor air pollution
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found that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health.
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stated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."
566:, the series calls for a strategic shift in approach to meet growing demand and align with sustainable development goals, underscoring the importance of scaling up renewable clean cooking solutions through targeted actions.
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Improved cookstoves are more efficient, meaning that the stove's users spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, while reducing deforestation and air pollution. However, a closed stove may result in production of more
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Pratiti, Rebecca; Vadala, David; Kalynych, Zirka; Sud, Parul (July 2020). "Health effects of household air pollution related to biomass cook stoves in resource limited countries and its mitigation by improved cookstoves".
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Rhodes, Evelyn; Dreibelbis, Robert; Klasen, Elizabeth; Naithani, Neha; Baliddawa, Joyce; Menya, Diana; Khatry, Subarna; Levy, Stephanie; Tielsch, James; Miranda, J.; Kennedy, Caitlin; Checkley, William (3 October 2014).
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are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper. For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted to
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Traditional cooking facilities are highly inefficient, allowing heat to escape into the open air. The inefficiency of fuel burning results in more wood needing to be harvested and also causes emissions of
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Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.
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or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits
519:
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking". For instance, a recent study in
1325:
641:). An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of "clean".
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can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.
90:, alcohol, and solar heat meet WHO guidelines for clean cooking. Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and for
78:
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity,
1858:"Behavioral Attitudes and Preferences in Cooking Practices with Traditional Open-Fire Stoves in Peru, Nepal, and Kenya: Implications for Improved Cookstove Interventions"
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Improved cook stoves (ICS), often marketed as "clean cookstoves", are biomass stoves that generally burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves and open fires.
374:, the savings are even greater.. As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity, and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Because
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and ultra-fine particles than an open fire would. Some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires.
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Amegah, A. K., & Jaakkola, J. J. (2016). Household air pollution and the sustainable development goals. Bulletin of the World Health
Organization, 94(3), 215.
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The World Health
Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.
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language for exposure. Stove testing studies are not always consistent depending largely on the discipline of investigators and their scientific specialization.
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The WHO has criticized the marketing of biomass cookstoves as "improved" when they have not been tested against standards and their health benefits are unclear.
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The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks because for certain conditions, such as childhood
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and is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor for
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standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO. A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.
227:, the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight. Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause of
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Shankar, Anita; Johnson, Michael; Kay, Ethan; Pannu, Raj; Beltramo, Theresa; Derby, Elisa; Harrell, Stephen; Davis, Curt; Petach, Helen (2014-07-22).
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A traditional three-stone fire in
Nigeria. This is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three suitable stones of the same height on which a
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1088:"Implementation of clean cookstove interventions and its effects on blood pressure in low-income and middle-income countries: systematic review"
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1213:"Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services"
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ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.
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Improved cook stoves, such as the ones shown here, burn biomass relatively efficiently but usually still emit toxic levels of pollutants.
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While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to
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The term "clean cookstove" has often been used without defining what the term means. Organizations vary in how they define "clean":
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Burning opportunity : clean household energy for health, sustainable development, and wellbeing of women and children
1516:"Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries: Research and Implementation Needs for Improvements in Global Public Health"
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for electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.
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106:. Improved cookstoves are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible.
2160:
1364:"Electric cooking can improve health, reduce climate impacts, and boost business models for universal electrification"
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554:—which are crucial for health, environment, and climate but are often neglected in favor of fossil fuel options like
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and agricultural and livestock productivity as it means these materials are not available as soil conditioners,
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478:. This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk. A 2020
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712:"A comprehensive review and a systematic approach to enhance the performance of improved cookstove (ICS)"
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and land conversion. Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on
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1621:"Maximizing the benefits of improved cookstoves: moving from acquisition to correct and consistent use"
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Memon, Shebaz A.; Jaiswal, Meet S.; Jain, Yuvan; Acharya, Vaibhav; Upadhyay, Darshit S. (2020-09-01).
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study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million, and the death rate is highest in Africa.
1724:
1326:"The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group"
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419:"Biomass cooking stove" redirects here. For a kitchen cooker, stove, range, oven, or stove top, see
389:, which are widely used in richer countries, are not without health risks. They emit high levels of
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Work of the
Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
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As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries rely on burning polluting
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are nonpolluting and free to use, but require favourable weather and longer cooking times.
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1047:"Most of the world's poor continue to use unhealthy and polluting traditional cookstoves"
474:, the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to be
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Gall, Elliott T.; Carter, Ellison M.; Matt
Earnest, C.; Stephens, Brent (April 2013).
957:"Clean Cooking: Why is Adoption Slow Despite Large Health and Environmental Benefits?"
75:(WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.
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168:(WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The
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2137:"Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities"
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Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
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1451:"Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health"
1257:"Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health"
67:. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful
2021:
United
Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017,
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1678:"Study finds improved cookstoves solve one emissions problem, but create another"
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253:, a contributor to climate change. Serious local environmental damage, including
1487:"How Hillary Clinton's clean stoves will help African women | Madeleine Bunting"
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257:, can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material.
1908:"Advancing renewables-based clean cooking solutions: Key messages and outcomes"
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Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers,
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Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhood
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Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise
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According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity,
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found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much
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According to the WHO, cooking facilities are "clean" if their emissions of
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Issues involving access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking
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Roy, J.; Tschakert, P.; Waisman, H.; Abdul Halim, S.; et al. (2018).
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Healthy Stoves and Fuels for
Developing Nations and the Global Environment
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is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.
216:, which are thought to have both short and long-term health consequences.
1265:. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.
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71:, resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the
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collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.
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A traditional wood-fired 3-stone stove in
Guatemala, which causes
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International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
753:"Access to clean cooking – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis"
563:
316:
228:
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1301:"Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis"
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is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for
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Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) (2020).
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Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN
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A woman cooks with electricity, a clean energy source, in
2070: This article incorporates text available under the
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Garcia, Erika; Rice, Mary B; Gold, Diane R (July 2021).
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even if they are more efficient than traditional stoves.
1456:
Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition
1262:
Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition
1933:"A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All – Analysis"
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1836:
1238:
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938:
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2059:
The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services
1461:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
346:, alcohol, and solar heat are "clean". Best-in-class
1816:"Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking"
515:
Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking.
1146:Gill-Wiehl, A.; Ray, I.; Kammen, D. (2021-11-01).
955:Timilsina, Govinda R.; Malla, Sunil (2021-01-01).
231:among women and children in developing countries.
1026:Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya
581:Environmental and sustainable development effects
2081:Sustainable Energy : Choosing Among Options
795:"Household air pollution and health: fact sheet"
857:"Why cooking causes 4m premature deaths a year"
527:as households that are primary charcoal users.
1981:IEA, International Energy Agency (July 2023).
1563:IEA, International Energy Agency (July 2023).
1398:The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
961:Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy
160:and also contributes significantly to outdoor
51:. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in
2144:Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C
2009:
1394:"Air pollution and lung function in children"
393:, an atmospheric pollutant that is linked to
136:Household air pollution § Health impacts
8:
613:is also reduced, saving 0.7 Gt in 2030. The
1983:"A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All"
1565:"A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All"
1348:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1255:Nugent, R; Mock, CN; Kobusingye, O (2017).
716:Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry
365:, in addition to standard electric stoves.
2126:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
686:Indoor air pollution in developing nations
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1453:. In Kobusingye, O.; et al. (eds.).
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615:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
548:The International Renewable Energy Agency
1152:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
1016:, Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007.
312:WHO-recommended clean cooking facilities
55:routinely cook with fuels such as wood,
2083:. Cambridge, Massachutetts: MIT Press.
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1148:"Is clean cooking affordable? A review"
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2112:. Geneva, Switzerland. Archived from
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1771:Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves
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1035:, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.
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503:the effects of indoor air pollution.
114:Issues with traditional cooking fuels
7:
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538:2023 Reports on Clean Cooking Access
1625:Global Health: Science and Practice
2106:World Health Organization (2016).
1467:from the original on 13 April 2021
156:for cooking, which causes harmful
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1520:American Journal of Public Health
921:from the original on 21 July 2017
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1682:ClimateWire E & E Publishing
665:
651:
97:Stoves that burn wood and other
1790:Indoor air pollution and health
629:), good health and well-being (
575:The International Energy Agency
494:Non-technological interventions
1957:World Health Organization 2016
1702:World Health Organization 2016
1607:World Health Organization 2016
1595:World Health Organization 2016
1449:Nugent, R; Mock, C.N. (2017).
1196:World Health Organization 2016
1073:World Health Organization 2016
782:World Health Organization 2016
623:Sustainable Development Goal 7
1:
2062:. Washington, DC: World Bank.
1676:Umair Irfan (April 5, 2013).
442:can be balanced over a fire.
210:polycyclic aromatic compounds
1737:10.1016/j.envres.2020.109574
381:integrated resource planning
1104:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026517
558:. Sharing experiences from
2207:
2079:Tester, Jefferson (2012).
2042:(Updated on 30 March 2016)
1410:10.1016/j.jaci.2021.05.006
1165:10.1016/j.rser.2021.111537
973:10.5547/2160-5890.9.1.gtim
728:10.1007/s10973-020-09736-2
418:
327:A high priority in global
235:Impacts on women and girls
194:volatile organic compounds
133:
2166:International development
1794:World Health Organization
1767:"Research and Evaluation"
915:World Health Organization
372:electric pressure cookers
367:Electric induction stoves
296:are below certain levels.
166:World Health Organization
104:environmental degradation
73:World Health Organization
1532:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300955
1368:EarthSpark International
1045:Vaidyanathan, Gayathri.
599:greenhouse gas emissions
542:
458:Benefits and limitations
170:Global Burden of Disease
2186:Sustainable development
1875:10.3390/ijerph111010310
1637:10.9745/GHSP-D-14-00060
1211:United Nations (2018).
637:), and climate action (
361:, and highly efficient
329:sustainable development
294:fine particulate matter
158:household air pollution
69:household air pollution
1717:Environmental Research
594:
516:
443:
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301:Clean Cooking Alliance
262:agricultural expansion
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38:
2116:on November 24, 2017.
2038:UN Statistics (2016)
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376:access to electricity
319:
244:Environmental impacts
134:Further information:
121:
33:
2181:Environmental health
1031:13 June 2007 at the
633:), gender equality (
415:Improved cook stoves
336:liquid petroleum gas
80:liquid petroleum gas
53:developing countries
36:indoor air pollution
2146:. pp. 445–538.
1868:(10): 10310–10326.
1729:2020ER....186j9574P
784:, pp. VII–XIV.
124:wood-burning stoves
18:Improved cookstoves
2161:Sustainable energy
2010:IPCC SR15 Ch5 2018
1463:/ The World Bank.
917:. September 2016.
828:"Access to Energy"
691:Sustainable energy
595:
560:Sub-Saharan Africa
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444:
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398:more susceptible.
387:Natural gas stoves
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270:organic fertilizer
182:particulate matter
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2090:978-0-262-01747-3
1820:Our World in Data
1704:, pp. 11–12.
1198:, pp. 25–29.
832:Our World in Data
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350:stoves that burn
84:piped natural gas
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1337:
1336:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1287:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1217:
1208:
1199:
1193:
1178:
1177:
1167:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1123:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1057:
1042:
1036:
1023:
1017:
1011:
1005:
999:
993:
992:
952:
946:
940:
931:
930:
928:
926:
907:
901:
895:
889:
885:
879:
878:
876:
875:
853:
847:
846:
840:
838:
816:
810:
809:
807:
806:
791:
785:
779:
768:
767:
765:
764:
749:
740:
739:
722:(6): 2253–2263.
707:
675:
670:
669:
661:
656:
655:
654:
543:IRENA's Findings
395:oxidative stress
391:nitrogen dioxide
363:induction stoves
272:, and livestock
21:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2151:
2150:
2139:
2134:
2118:
2105:
2091:
2078:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2046:
2037:
2033:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1994:
1992:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1942:
1940:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1854:
1853:
1849:
1841:
1834:
1824:
1822:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1773:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1684:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1618:
1617:
1613:
1605:
1601:
1593:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1567:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1513:
1512:
1505:
1496:
1494:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1391:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1340:
1334:
1332:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1309:
1307:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1285:
1283:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1234:
1224:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1209:
1202:
1194:
1181:
1145:
1144:
1137:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1064:
1055:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1033:Wayback Machine
1024:
1020:
1012:
1008:
1000:
996:
954:
953:
949:
941:
934:
924:
922:
909:
908:
904:
896:
892:
886:
882:
873:
871:
855:
854:
850:
836:
834:
820:Ritchie, Hannah
818:
817:
813:
804:
802:
793:
792:
788:
780:
771:
762:
760:
751:
750:
743:
709:
708:
704:
699:
671:
664:
657:
652:
650:
647:
583:
572:
545:
540:
509:
496:
460:
424:
417:
352:biomass pellets
314:
290:carbon monoxide
282:
255:desertification
246:
237:
178:carbon monoxide
138:
132:
116:
92:gender equality
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2204:
2202:
2194:
2193:
2191:Women's health
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2132:
2103:
2089:
2076:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2031:
2014:
2002:
1973:
1961:
1949:
1924:
1899:
1847:
1832:
1807:
1798:
1782:
1758:
1706:
1694:
1668:
1631:(3): 268–274.
1611:
1599:
1584:
1555:
1526:(4): e67–e72.
1503:
1478:
1441:
1379:
1355:
1316:
1292:
1268:
1247:
1232:
1200:
1179:
1135:
1098:(5): e026517.
1077:
1062:
1037:
1018:
1006:
1004:, p. 504.
994:
947:
932:
902:
890:
880:
848:
811:
786:
769:
759:. October 2020
741:
701:
700:
698:
695:
694:
693:
688:
683:
681:Energy poverty
677:
676:
662:
659:Cooking portal
646:
643:
582:
579:
571:
568:
544:
541:
539:
536:
508:
505:
495:
492:
459:
456:
416:
413:
313:
310:
306:
305:
297:
281:
278:
245:
242:
236:
233:
214:benzo-a-pyrene
144:such as wood,
131:
130:Health impacts
128:
115:
112:
44:energy poverty
41:One aspect of
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2203:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:Air pollution
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2145:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2061:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2049:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2003:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1971:, p. 22.
1970:
1965:
1962:
1959:, p. 75.
1958:
1953:
1950:
1938:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1913:
1912:www.irena.org
1909:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1848:
1845:, p. 42.
1844:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1695:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1612:
1609:, p. 12.
1608:
1603:
1600:
1597:, p. 88.
1596:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1573:
1566:
1559:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1345:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1306:
1302:
1296:
1293:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1245:, p. 19.
1244:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1221:
1214:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1078:
1075:, p. 11.
1074:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1003:
998:
995:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:
948:
945:, p. 20.
944:
939:
937:
933:
920:
916:
912:
906:
903:
900:, p. 17.
899:
894:
891:
884:
881:
870:
866:
862:
861:The Economist
858:
852:
849:
845:
833:
829:
825:
821:
815:
812:
800:
796:
790:
787:
783:
778:
776:
774:
770:
758:
754:
748:
746:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
706:
703:
696:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
678:
674:
668:
663:
660:
649:
644:
642:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
619:
616:
612:
611:deforestation
608:
604:
600:
592:
587:
580:
578:
576:
569:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
537:
535:
532:
528:
526:
522:
513:
506:
504:
500:
493:
491:
488:
484:
481:
477:
473:
468:
466:
457:
455:
451:
447:
441:
436:
428:
422:
421:Kitchen stove
414:
412:
410:
409:Solar cookers
406:
403:
399:
396:
392:
388:
384:
382:
377:
373:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
338:(LPG), piped
337:
332:
330:
322:
321:Solar cookers
318:
311:
309:
302:
298:
295:
291:
287:
286:
285:
279:
277:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
256:
252:
243:
241:
234:
232:
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
206:1,3-butadiene
203:
199:
195:
192:; a range of
191:
190:sulfur oxides
187:
186:nitrous oxide
183:
179:
173:
171:
167:
163:
162:air pollution
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
142:biomass fuels
137:
129:
125:
120:
113:
111:
107:
105:
100:
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
76:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:
37:
32:
19:
2143:
2114:the original
2108:
2080:
2064:
2058:
2050:Book sources
2034:
2027:A/RES/71/313
2017:
2005:
1993:. Retrieved
1989:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1941:. Retrieved
1939:. 2023-07-26
1936:
1927:
1916:. Retrieved
1914:. 2024-03-07
1911:
1902:
1865:
1861:
1850:
1823:. Retrieved
1819:
1810:
1801:
1785:
1774:. Retrieved
1770:
1761:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1697:
1685:. Retrieved
1681:
1671:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1602:
1575:. Retrieved
1571:
1558:
1523:
1519:
1495:. Retrieved
1493:. 2010-09-21
1491:The Guardian
1490:
1481:
1469:. Retrieved
1455:
1444:
1401:
1397:
1371:. Retrieved
1367:
1358:
1333:. Retrieved
1329:
1324:ESMAP.2020.
1319:
1308:. Retrieved
1304:
1295:
1284:. Retrieved
1280:
1277:"eCookbooks"
1271:
1261:
1250:
1223:. Retrieved
1219:
1155:
1151:
1095:
1091:
1080:
1054:. Retrieved
1050:
1040:
1021:
1009:
997:
964:
960:
950:
923:. Retrieved
914:
905:
893:
883:
872:. Retrieved
860:
851:
842:
835:. Retrieved
831:
814:
803:. Retrieved
801:. 8 May 2018
798:
789:
761:. Retrieved
756:
719:
715:
705:
620:
607:black carbon
596:
573:
546:
533:
529:
518:
501:
497:
489:
485:
469:
461:
452:
448:
445:
407:
400:
385:
359:rice cookers
356:
348:fan gasifier
333:
326:
307:
283:
266:soil quality
259:
251:black carbon
247:
238:
218:
198:formaldehyde
196:, including
180:(CO); small
174:
139:
122:Traditional
108:
96:
77:
48:
42:
40:
1990:www.iea.org
1825:15 February
1796:fact sheet.
1572:www.iea.org
1404:(1): 1–14.
1002:Tester 2012
673:Food portal
440:cooking pot
340:natural gas
280:Terminology
99:solid fuels
57:animal dung
2155:Categories
2012:, SPM.5.1.
1969:ESMAP 2020
1943:2024-04-07
1918:2024-04-06
1843:ESMAP 2020
1776:2017-10-27
1723:: 109574.
1497:2023-01-08
1373:2022-10-28
1335:2022-10-28
1330:World Bank
1310:2021-05-05
1286:2022-10-28
1243:ESMAP 2020
1158:: 111537.
1056:2021-09-26
943:ESMAP 2020
898:ESMAP 2020
874:2024-07-13
824:Roser, Max
805:2020-11-21
763:2021-03-31
697:References
570:IEA Report
552:bioethanol
507:Challenges
476:non-linear
212:, such as
2122:cite book
2099:892554374
2072:CC BY 3.0
1753:219033298
1645:2169-575X
1418:0091-6749
1281:MECS Plus
1174:1364-0321
1112:2044-6055
1051:Scroll.in
989:219660388
981:2160-5882
869:0013-0613
736:1588-2926
472:pneumonia
225:cataracts
221:pneumonia
2074:license.
1894:25286166
1745:32668541
1687:April 5,
1663:25276586
1550:23409891
1471:13 April
1465:Archived
1436:34238501
1344:cite web
1225:April 5,
1130:31092656
1092:BMJ Open
1029:Archived
925:1 August
919:Archived
844:deaths..
826:(2019).
645:See also
591:Ethiopia
525:charcoal
154:kerosene
146:dry dung
65:kerosene
2176:Cooking
1885:4210980
1725:Bibcode
1654:4168629
1541:3673244
1427:8274324
1121:6530298
911:"Burns"
837:1 April
639:Goal 13
603:methane
342:(PNG),
202:benzene
86:(PNG),
82:(LPG),
49:cooking
2097:
2087:
1995:11 May
1892:
1882:
1751:
1743:
1661:
1651:
1643:
1577:11 May
1548:
1538:
1434:
1424:
1416:
1220:UN.org
1172:
1128:
1118:
1110:
987:
979:
888:86-95.
867:
734:
635:Goal 5
631:Goal 3
627:Goal 1
402:Biogas
344:biogas
274:fodder
208:; and
164:. The
88:biogas
2140:(PDF)
1986:(PDF)
1749:S2CID
1568:(PDF)
1216:(PDF)
985:S2CID
967:(1).
521:Kenya
229:burns
152:, or
63:, or
2128:link
2095:OCLC
2085:ISBN
1997:2024
1890:PMID
1827:2020
1741:PMID
1689:2013
1659:PMID
1641:ISSN
1579:2024
1546:PMID
1473:2021
1432:PMID
1414:ISSN
1350:link
1227:2021
1170:ISSN
1126:PMID
1108:ISSN
977:ISSN
927:2017
865:ISSN
839:2021
732:ISSN
605:and
564:Asia
562:and
465:soot
299:The
292:and
204:and
150:coal
61:coal
1937:IEA
1880:PMC
1870:doi
1733:doi
1721:186
1649:PMC
1633:doi
1536:PMC
1528:doi
1524:103
1422:PMC
1406:doi
1402:148
1305:IEA
1160:doi
1156:151
1116:PMC
1100:doi
969:doi
799:WHO
757:IEA
724:doi
720:141
556:LPG
2157::
2142:.
2124:}}
2120:{{
2093:.
1988:.
1935:.
1910:.
1888:.
1878:.
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1864:.
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963:.
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863:.
859:.
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1946:.
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1872::
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1132:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
