Indigenous health in Australia

288:. This has had profound effects on physical and intellectual development; Indigenous communities today in remote locations continue to suffer from malnutrition and chronic health problems, as well as lower levels of education. The persistence of inequality in educational attainment among contemporary Indigenous communities is viewed as a product of historical, political and social factors. European colonisers believed that Indigenous people were intellectually inferior, and education was thus denied as it was considered pointless. Low levels of education increase the likelihood of engaging in high risk health behaviours, as well as lower rates of participation in health screening and treatment. However, poor health behaviours and low utilisation of healthcare resources can be due to a combination of many factors. Racial discrimination towards Indigenous peoples that stems from processes of colonialism leads to a cumulative exposure to 265:

determinant of health, and social marginalisation allows for injustices against Indigenous people to persist. Political disempowerment prevented them from accessing social services, sickness benefits, and from voting until the 1960s. Socio-economic inequality has resulted in poor employment opportunities, housing, education and healthcare. One in seven Indigenous Australians reported difficulty in accessing healthcare for their children, which include transportation costs and prescription costs. Displacement and disenfranchisement prevents access to healthcare resources such as screening programs, and results in delayed or inadequate treatment. An example of this can be seen in the high rates of cervical cancer, where a meta-analysis of Indigenous women from Australia,

1064:(which has the greatest proportion of Indigenous Australians than any other state or territory, at 32%), per capita alcohol consumption for adults was 1.5 times the national average. In addition to the health risks associated with alcohol use, there is a relationship among alcohol abuse, violence and trauma. There has been increasing media attention to this problem, but it defies simple analysis or solutions as the issues are complex and intertwined. The study attempted to collate existing data on the problems and attempts to address them, concluding that more funding is needed to investigate the feasibility and suitability of the various interventional approaches in the Northern Territory. 261:. Many of these children were neglected, abused, and denied of an education. The Australian government forced the Indigenous populations to assimilate into the colonisers' culture through schools and programs, where Indigenous languages were banned and any resistance to these practices could result in imprisonment or death. This process of acculturation has led to trauma, including historical, inter-generational, and social trauma. Issues such as anxiety, stress, grief, and sadness are produced from this trauma, which have led to higher suicide rates, violence, substance abuse and incarceration of Indigenous peoples today. 86: 1057:

or more standard drinks per day average for males, two or more for females. The 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey reported that Indigenous peoples were "more likely than other Australians to abstain from alcohol consumption (23.4% versus 16.8%) and also more likely to consume alcohol at risky or high-risk levels for harm in the short term (27.4% versus 20.1%)". These NDSHS comparisons are non-age-standardised; the paper notes that Indigenous figures are based on a sample of 372 people and care should be exercised when using Indigenous figures.

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disease and cancers" in the 2007 study. However, the rate and age distribution between the two populations are very different. Mental disorders and cardiovascular disease account for almost a third of the burden, with diabetes, chronic respiratory disease and cancers the next three leading causes. Also, Indigenous people carried a disproportionate share of the total disease burden for the state, increasing as remoteness increased. The study also highlighted the lack of data on epidemiology of many of the conditions suffered by the Indigenous population.

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to recommend that social inequalities, economic disparities, government policy, and Australia's traumatic colonial history are significant risk factors influencing the increased health inequalities and illness faced by Aboriginal youth. Additionally, family violence and cultural violence largely contribute to AoD abuse amongst young Aboriginal people. Problems in the implementation of rehabilitation programs are strongly linked to the disproportionately high numbers of Aboriginal youth as patients and few Aboriginal staff.

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improving diets for Aboriginal Australians, such as shorter shelf lives of fresh foods, resistance to changing existing consumption habits, and disagreements on how to implement changes. Some suggest the use of taxes on unhealthy foods and beverages to discourage their consumption, but this approach is questionable. Providing subsidies for healthy foods has proven effective in other countries, but has yet to be proven useful for Aboriginal Australians specifically.

35: 1315:, Western conversational interaction is typically "dyadic", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame. 919:. Up to 15% of the 10 year life expectancy gap compared to non-Indigenous Australians has been attributed to mental health disorders. Mental health should be taken into consideration in the Aboriginal concept of health and well-being. In the incidence of children and the elderly many problems tend to be hidden. Some of the behavioural problems encountered tend to be linked to neurodevelopment delay and a failing education system. 368:

than for non-Indigenous) and 72.9 years for Indigenous women (9.7 years fewer than for non-Indigenous). Estimated life expectancy of Indigenous men ranged from 61.5 years for those living in the Northern Territory to a high of 69.9 years for those living in New South Wales, and for Indigenous women, 69.2 years for those living in the Northern Territory to a high of 75.0 years for those living in New South Wales.

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reduced in numbers and the survivors were largely confined to remote reserves and missions. They were associated in the public mind with disease, which led to exclusion from institutions and isolation from non-Indigenous society for fear of contamination. These colonial policies resulted in segregated oppression and a lack of access to adequate medical care, leading to further disease and mortality.

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turn contributes to poor social, educational and emotional outcomes for the children concerned. Such children as they grow into adults are also more likely to experience employment difficulties and find themselves caught up in the criminal justice system. Research in 2012 revealed that nine out of ten Aboriginal prison inmates in the

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concepts understood in the dominant Western health paradigm) are suggested to be viewed in the Indigenous cultural context as a sense of connection to land and a collective, rather than an individualistic sense of efficacy. Thus, it is important to implement culturally appropriate systems when addressing Indigenous healthcare.

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A 2003 study found that complete loss of all natural teeth was higher for Aboriginal people of all age groups (16.2%) compared to non-Aboriginal people (10.2%). In remote communities, those with diabetes were found to have over three times the number of missing teeth than those without diabetes. Type

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Between 1998 and 2008 the Indigenous to non-Indigenous rate ratio (the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rate divided by the rate for other Australians) for infant mortality declined in the Northern Territory an average of 1.7% per year, while the rate difference (the Aboriginal and Torres Strait

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rate varies across Australia. In New South Wales, the rate was 7.7 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2006–2008, compared with the non-Indigenous infant mortality rate of 4.3 deaths per 1,000 live births. In the Northern Territory, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander infant mortality rate was over

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Furthermore, Anderson and Kowal (2012) present a similar critique of the lack of cultural understanding of Indigenous knowledge paradigms relating to health. For example, colonisation and assimilative cultural and linguistic practices such as psychosocial health determinants and 'self-efficacy' (both

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were more common in the Indigenous than non-Indigenous population. Overall mortality rate from cancer was higher in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, WA, and the NT 2007–2014 (50% vs 65%, or 1.3 times as likely to die); this may be because they are less likely to receive the necessary treatments

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treatment. Indigenous women experience twice the adjusted-age risk of gestational diabetes, thus leading to Indigenous women having a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes after pregnancy and birth. Compared with the general Australian population, Indigenous Australians develop type 2 diabetes at

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A specific estimate of the life expectancy gap has not been established among stakeholders in Indigenous health. Agreement on the magnitude of the gap is arguably needed in order to evaluate strategies aimed at improving health outcomes for Indigenous Australians. Moreover, measuring progress towards

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Indigenous Australians go to hospital at a higher rate than non-Indigenous Australians. In 2010–11, Indigenous Australians used hospitals 2.5 times more frequently than non-Indigenous people. This rate comes from an age-standardised separation rate (hospital check-out) of 911 per 1,000 for Indigenous

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The high statistics in comparison to non-indigenous people (Mitchell et al.:2019) showcase the lack of appropriate and culturally inclusive healthcare available to these communities. For example, ARF and RHD require a monthly injection of penicillin after the initial infection which is neglected due

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Changes in the Australian Indigenous diet away from a traditional diet, which had originally contained high levels of protein and vitamins. High in fibre and sugar and low in saturated fats – to a diet high in sugar, saturated fats and refined carbohydrates has negatively affected the oral health of

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AoD programs focus on prevention, education, treatment, and support for individuals dealing with addiction or other negative impacts of substance issues. Marijuana and amphetamines were the most common types of drugs used. Methods such as interviews and participant observation led Hill et al. (2022)

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Hill et al. (2022) report that treatment in alcohol and other drug ('AoD') programs host disproportionally high numbers of young Aboriginal people compared to other groups. Additionally, the same study highlighted an essential element of healing for these indigenous youth involves the implementation

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has been a problem among some remote Indigenous communities. Petrol vapour produces euphoria and dulling effect in those who inhale it, and due to its widespread availability, became a popular drug. Proposed solutions to the problem became a topic of heated debate among politicians and the community

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NATSIHS 2004/5 found that the proportion of the Indigenous adult population engaged in "risky" and "high-risk" alcohol consumption (15%) was comparable with that of the non-Indigenous population (14%), based on age-standardised data. The definition of "risky" and "high-risk" consumption used is four

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In 2009, after previous methods of comparing life expectancy rates proved unreliable, a new method was developed by the ABS, based on tracing the deaths of people identified as Indigenous at the 2006 census. In 2009 the ABS estimated life expectancy at 67.2 years for Indigenous men (11.5 years fewer

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Due to the lack of accessible healthcare in many areas of central Australia, indigenous Australians are prevented from taking the necessary medications to be cured. Thus, morbidity and mortality rates amongst Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders under 55 years of age with ARF and RHD are 60% more

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A number of factors help to explain why Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have poorer health than other Australians. In general, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are more likely to have lower levels of education, lower health education, higher unemployment, inadequate housing

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among the young in Aboriginal communities. Aboriginal children experience middle ear disease for two and a half years on average during childhood compared with three months for non indigenous children. If untreated it can leave a permanent legacy of hearing loss. The higher incidence of deafness in

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has been a problem, but the rate of pregnant women drinking had dropped from 20% in 2008 to 10% in 2015. To combat the problem, a number of programs to prevent or mitigate alcohol abuse have been attempted in different regions, many initiated from within the communities themselves. These strategies

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of the 1970s and 1980s, when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land, brought health benefits, but funding them proved expensive, training and employment opportunities were not provided in many cases, and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s, particularly in

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Social, political and economic factors that result from colonisation present barriers to quality healthcare, health education, and health behaviours. Acculturation has produced xenophobia, which has socially marginalized Indigenous people and excluded them from society. Social inclusion is a social

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The statistics of Acute Rheumatic Fever ('ARF') and Rheumatic Heart Disease ('RHD') highlight the lack of access to healthcare within Indigenous communities in Australia. According to the ENDRHD (End Rheumatic Heart Disease Centre of Research Excellence) (2023) ARF and RHD are third-world diseases

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in Australia were tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs, high body mass, inadequate physical activity, low intake of fruit and vegetables, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, unsafe sex, child sexual abuse and intimate partner violence. The 11 risk factors considered together explain 37% of the total

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From 1996 to 2001, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) used indirect methods for its calculations, because census results were deemed to be unreliable, and figures published in 2005 (59.4 years for males and 64.8 years for females) indicated a widely quoted gap of 17 years between indigenous

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A 2013 study of Indigenous dietary patterns in Northern Territory communities found there was a high expenditure on beverages and corresponding high intake of sugar-sweetened beverages coupled with low expenditure (and low intakes) of fruit and vegetables. Similarly high per capita consumption of

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In 2015, more than 150 Indigenous people died by suicide, the highest figure ever recorded nationally and double the rate of non-Indigenous people, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Additionally, Indigenous children make up one in three child suicides despite making up a minuscule

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in 1788. In the following decades, foreign diseases, dispossession, exploitation, warfare and violence proved devastating for the Indigenous population, and the immediate effect was a widespread increase in mortality and disease. By the end of the 19th century, Indigenous Australians were greatly

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contrasts. Australian Aboriginal languages thus seem to show similarities to the speech of people with hearing loss, and avoid those sounds and distinctions which are difficult for people with early childhood hearing loss to perceive. At the same time, Australian languages make full use of those

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Tobacco use has been estimated to be the "greatest contributor (23%) to the gap in the disease burden between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians", with Indigenous people more than 2.5% likely to smoke daily than non-Indigenous Australians. The 2004–05 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait

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contributing to chronic disease. Amongst Indigenous Australians 1 in 5 mortalities are caused by smoking. If the number of smoking Indigenous Australians is reduced to equal the number of non-smoking non-Indigenous individuals there is a potential decrease of 420 mortalities among Aboriginal and

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initiated the first multi-sector approach in regards to initiating strategies to overcome the large discrepancy between Indigenous and European health statistics. The strategy, named Closing the Gap, was launched in 2008. The plan's success was dependent on the level of collaboration between all

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established the Remote Area Health Corps (RAHC) as a non-profit subsidiary which was funded by the Australian Government through the Indigenous Australians’ Health Programme: Stronger Futures Northern Territory initiative. Its primary objective is to alleviate persistent and chronic shortages in

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than non-Aboriginal children. Today, average rates of tooth decay in Aboriginal children are twice as high as non-Aboriginal children. Between 1991 and 2001, the rate of tooth decay amongst Aboriginal children living in metropolitan areas fell, going against the increase in child tooth decay in

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Male Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander infant mortality in the Northern Territory was about 15 deaths per 1,000 live births, while female Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander infant mortality was 12 deaths per 1,000. For non-Indigenous males the rate was 4.4 deaths per 1,000 births and for

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are much less healthy than other Australians. Various government strategies have been put into place to try to remediate the problem; there has been some improvement in several areas, but statistics between Indigenous Australians and the rest of the Australian population still show unacceptable

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completed the list. A 2014 follow-up report concluded that the "leading causes of disease and injury burden in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population were largely the same as in the non-Indigenous population: mental disorders, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory

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RAHC operates by facilitating short-term placements, ranging from three to 12 weeks, while concurrently augmenting the pool of professionals equipped with the requisite skills and competencies to administer culturally sensitive care within these communities. The initiative particularly targets

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Reasons for the lack of healthcare within these communities can be due to the power imbalance between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people because of colonisation, which has been a long-debated topic within the Australian government and society. However, it is still evident that many of these

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Modern Aboriginal Australians living in rural areas tend to have nutritionally poor diets, where higher food costs drive people to consume cheaper, lower quality foods. The average diet is high in refined carbohydrates and salt, and low in fruit and vegetables. There are several challenges in

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The 2018 UQ study also reported that alcohol and cannabis were the drugs causing most concern in many of the 25 communities studied. "Alcohol was reported as being in regular use in 22 communities, and occasionally present in two others. Cannabis was reported as being in regular use in all 25

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functioning of high-risk-exposed and low-risk-exposed Aboriginal Australians aged 12–17 found that in high-risk youths, personal well-being was protected by a sense of solidarity and common low socioeconomic status. However, in low-risk youths, perceptions of racism caused poor psychosocial

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men was estimated to be 11.5 years less than that of non-Indigenous men – 67.2 years and 78.7 years respectively. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, the 2010 figures show a difference of 9.7 years – 72.9 years for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and 82.6 years for

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Torres Strait Islanders. In 2010 the Australian Government have put in place a 10-year program aimed at improving the health of Indigenous and Torres Strait Island. Specific types of cancer including lung and cervical cancer occurs to 52% of indigenous women due to their smoking habit.

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After the introduction of a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (7vPCV), total IPD rates among Aboriginal children decreased by 46% for those less than 2 years of age and by 40% for those 2–4 years of age. Rates decreased by 64% and 51% in equivalent age groups for non-Aboriginal children.

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The 2019 ABS data showed that about 24% of Indigenous people, including children with 23% of males and 25% of females distribution, experienced mental health issues. The survey indicated that anxiety is the most common condition with females suffering at 21% and males at a lower, 12%.

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The report advocates Indigenous-led national response to the crisis, asserting that suicide prevention programmes have failed this segment of the population. The ex-prisoner population of Australian Aboriginal people is particularly at risk of committing suicide; organisations such as

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and smoking rates were higher among Aboriginal people, which are contributing factors or causes of serious health issues. The study also showed that Aboriginal Australians were more likely to self-report their health as "excellent/very good" in spite of extant severe physical

1416:(MDA) as a method of combating the diseases found commonly among Aboriginal peoples, while also highlighting the importance of "sanitation, access to clean water, good food, integrated vector control and management, childhood immunisations, and personal and family hygiene". 1138:

The researchers (Hill et al.:2022) suggest that working within an Indigenous knowledge paradigm supported by the community, involvement of family, and the recognition of 'self' can be implemented as key reforms to rehabilitate the health outcomes of Aboriginal Australians.

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Islander rate minus the rate for other Australians) almost halved from 18.1 to 9.8 deaths per 1,000 births, which suggests that the gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous infant mortality in the Northern Territory has reduced (ABS 2009b).

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Among the factors that have been at least partially implicated in the inequality in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Australia are cultural differences resulting in poor communication between Indigenous Australians and health workers.

1123:, reported that the number of people sniffing petrol in the 25 communities studied had declined by 95.2%, from 453 to just 22. However volatile substance misuse (VSM) was found to continue to occur in several communities, mostly occasionally and opportunistically. 331:

The 2010–11 age-standardised separation rate for Indigenous people living in the NT was 1,704 per 1,000, 7.9 times the rate for non-Indigenous people. About 80% of the difference between these rates was due to higher separations for Indigenous people admitted for

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communities lack staff, funding, training, communication and technology for their health services. Structural violence and institutionalised racism are examples of contributing factors to the current situations relating to ARF and RHD (Haynes et al.: 2021).

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In 2007/08, the Australian government focused mainly on decreasing "overcrowding" within remote indigenous communities in endeavours to improve health in rural populations. The Implementation of Australian Rural Accommodation (ARIA) Programme was granted

336:. The 2020 AIHW reported that Indigenous children are more likely to get hospitalized and experience tooth decay. Lack of access to the right diet, dental services, and other social disadvantages are reported as contributing factors to such poor health. 1184:(IPD) than the wider Australian population. In Western Australia between 1997 and 2007, the IPD incidence rate was 47 cases per 100,000 population per year among Aboriginal people and 7 cases per 100,000 population per year in non-Aboriginal people. 4637:

Haynes E, Walker R, Mitchell AG, Katzenellenbogen J, D'Antoine H and Bessarab D (May 2021) 'Decolonizing Indigenous health: Generating a productive dialogue to eliminate Rheumatic Heart Disease in Australia', Social Science & Medicine, 277,

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Hill B, Williams M, Woolfenden S, Martin B, Palmer K and Nathan S (2022) 'Healing journeys: experiences of young Aboriginal people in an urban Australian therapeutic community drug and alcohol program', Health Sociology Review, 31(2):193-212,

1439:, a condition that sharply increases the risk of stroke, much earlier than non-Aboriginal Australians on average. The life expectancy for Aboriginal Australians is 10 years lower than non-Aboriginal Australians. Technologies such as the 468:(NHMRC), including expanding renal health units in remote parts so that patients could stay on country with their families. The NHMRC also launched a plan to help direct Indigenous health and research investment for the next ten years. 428:

urban-based professionals who have previously lacked experience in remote healthcare settings. In 2021-2022, RAHC received A$ 6.4 million in funding, spending A$ 5.4 million due to less placements than anticipated during the pandemic.

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distinctions, namely place of articulation distinctions, which people with otitis media-caused hearing loss can perceive more easily. This hypothesis has been challenged on historical, comparative, statistical, and medical grounds.

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Poor access to health services, higher unemployment, poverty, cultural pressures, cultural differences, remote community, inadequate housing and access to infrastructure, economic, societal, and racial disparities, high rates of

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The incidence rate of cancer in Indigenous Australians compared with non-Indigenous Australians has varied between 2009 and 2017 and by state, but mostly showing a higher rate at between 1.1% and 1.4% for all cancers. Lung and

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Additionally, Anderson and Kowal (2012:438) highlight the discrepancy between Aboriginal health and other cultures is higher in 'remote areas' where traditional Indigenous culture, knowledge and communication are prevalent.

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may be due to the very high presence of otitis media ear infections and resulting hearing loss in their populations. People with hearing loss often have trouble distinguishing different vowels and hearing fricatives and

311:, discrimination, cultural disconnection and lack of employment and educational opportunities. Colonisation has had an ongoing impact. Overcrowding and poor housing contributes to poor health and family dysfunction and 5497: 3956: 1006: 1428:, discrimination and alienation contributed to physiological health risks in ethnic minority families. The study also mentioned the effect of poverty on Aboriginal populations: higher morbidity and mortality rates. 3039:

Chamberlain, C; McLean, A; Oats, J; Oldenburg, B; Eades, S; Sinha, A; Wolfe, R (2014). "Low Rates of Postpartum Glucose Screening Among Indigenous and non-Indigenous Women in Australia with Gestational Diabetes".

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The 2019 report by the Close the Gap campaign reported that the gap in life expectancy was "widening rather than closing". The 2022 AIHW report showed that the cancer death rate rose from 205 to 235 per 100,000.

3152: 217:, it is likely that the health of Indigenous Australians was better than that of the inhabitants of poorer sections of Europe. Colonisation impacted the health of Indigenous Australians via land dispossession, 846:

high incidences of type-2 diabetes has led to high chronic kidney disease rates amongst Aboriginals. The most common cause of hospital admissions for Indigenous Australians in mainland Australia was for

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Most complications up to 10-fold higher. Communicable disease up to 70-fold higher. Relatively high rates of suicide, cancer, various complications especially among indigenous women, high hospitalization

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infections. Because poverty is also prevalent in Aboriginal populations, the need for medical assistance is even greater in many Aboriginal Australian communities. The researchers suggested the use of

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remote areas. A study performed in 2001-2002 showed that Indigenous Australian patients showed a higher ratio of missing or decayed teeth than European patients, but a lower ratio of filled teeth.

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In 2010, the rate of high or very high levels of psychological distress for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults was more than twice that of non-Indigenous Australians. A 2007 study in

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Poor-quality diet among the Indigenous population is a significant risk factor for three of the major causes of premature death in Indigenous Australians – cardiovascular disease, cancer and

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found that, after adjusting for age differences between the two populations, Indigenous adults were more than twice as likely as non-Indigenous adults to be current daily smokers of tobacco.

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in time, or because the cancers that they tend to develop are often more lethal than other cancers. The 2022 AIHW report showed that the cancer death rate rose from 205 to 235 per 100,000.

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Mitchell AG, Belton S, Johnston V, Gondarra W and Ralph AP (2019) '"That Heart Sickness": Young Aboriginal People's Understanding of Rheumatic Fever', Medical Anthropology, 38(1):1-14,

2593: 292:, and this is related to negative health outcomes. It produces feelings of anger and shame, which limits active participation in the mainstream healthcare system and society at large. 1151:

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, particularly males, are far more likely than the rest of the community to experience injury and death from accidents and violence.

5175: 405: 502:, and this agency is now responsible for "lead and coordinat the development and implementation of Australia's Closing the Gap targets in partnership with Indigenous Australians". 1772: 5469: 5424: 5977: 3806:"Alcohol-Related Violence among the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders of the Northern Territory: Prioritizing an Agenda for Prevention-Narrative Review Article" 1621:

Griffiths, Kalinda; Coleman, Clare; Lee, Vanessa; Madden, Richard (March 2016). "How colonisation determines social justice and Indigenous health—a review of the literature".

5439: 4099:"The Changing Epidemiology of Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Western Australians from 1997 through 2007 and Emergence of Nonvaccine Serotypes" 3932: 383:(see below), looked at the difficulties in interpreting the extent of the gap because of differing methods of estimating life expectancy between 2007 and 2012. It concluded: 3960: 1806: 490:

Although there was some improvement in some areas, only two out of its seven targets were met. In July 2019, at the end of the first 10-year phase of Closing the Gap, the

435:, or 3.7% of Australia's total recurrent health expenditure. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population comprised 2.5% of the Australian population at this time. 5527: 915:

found that the four greatest preventable contributions to the Indigenous mental health burden of disease were: alcohol consumption, illicit drugs, child sexual abuse and

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for the is much higher among Indigenous than non-Indigenous Australians, in particular those living in remote areas, who are 70 times more likely to be hospitalised.

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burden of disease experienced by Indigenous Australians. The remaining 63% consists of a range of known and unknown risk factors, yet to be identified or quantified.

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ENGAGING - A Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property

5371: 5193: 2064: 2034: 4932:. 176th Meeting of Acoustical Society of America. 177th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 35. Acoustical Society of America. p. 060004. 3981:

Note: On 1 July 2019 the Indigenous Affairs portfolio was moved through a Machinery of Government change to form the National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA).

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remain major concerns, with the suicide rate being double that of the non-Indigenous population in 2015, and young people experiencing rising mental health rates.

6014: 1822:

Myers, Fred; Peterson, Nicolas (January 2016). "1. The origins and history of outstations as Aboriginal life projects". In Peterson, Nicolas; Myers, Fred (eds.).

4807:"Resilience amongst Australian Aboriginal Youth: An Ecological Analysis of Factors Associated with Psychosocial Functioning in High and Low Family Risk Contexts" 4574: 2307: 5774: 5502: 3543: 3186: 951:

percentage of the population. Moreover, in parts of the country such as Kimberley, WA, suicide rates among Indigenous people are among the highest in the world.

249:, including property rights; the ability to work and receive wages; and access to medical care and educational institutions. Legislation also allowed for the 5944: 5341: 5218: 4145:

Jamieson, LM; Bailie, RS; Beneforti, M; Koster, CR; Spencer, AJ (2006). "Dental self-care and dietary characteristics of remote-living Indigenous children".

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Anderson H and Kowal E (2012) 'Culture, History, and Health in an Australian Aboriginal Community: The Case of Utopia', Medical Anthropology, 31(5):438-457,

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communities, and a serious problem in 20 communities. Ice was reported to be present in 8 of the 25 communities" (although mostly only occasional use).

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Butcher, Andrew R. (2018). "The special nature of Australian phonologies: Why auditory constraints on human language sound systems are not universal".

4652: 364:" campaign, which focused on health equality for Indigenous Australians, including increasing life expectancy, and associated factors such as housing. 5512: 5419: 5155: 4613:

ENDRHD (End Rheumatic Heart Disease Centre of Research Excellence) (2023) RHD in Australia, ENDRHD, Telethon Kids Institute, accessed 17 August 2023.

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Death caused by diabetes, cancer, human T-lymphotropic virus 1, mental health, smoking, substance abuse, pneumococcal disease, and other complications

3711: 2116: 2008: 257:. Indigenous children forcibly removed from their families under Protection legislation in the first half of the 20th century are referred to as the 6019: 5972: 5628: 5137: 1164:

three times as high as the non-Indigenous infant mortality rate (13.6 deaths per 1,000 live births compared with 3.8 deaths per 1,000 live births).

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In central Australia, Indigenous Australians have human T-lymphotropic virus 1 at a rate thousands of times higher than non-Indigenous Australians.

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non-Indigenous women. Indigenous Australians are more likely to die at a younger age than their non-Indigenous counterparts due to being unhealthy.

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Health problems with the highest disparity (compared with the non-Indigenous population) in incidence as of 2003 are outlined in the table below:

6065: 5956: 5912: 5532: 5331: 5198: 3101: 2766: 5749: 5266: 3736: 1120: 491: 5053: 2336: 1567:

Zambas, Shelaine I.; Wright, Jennifer (22 June 2016). "Impact of colonialism on Māori and Aboriginal healthcare access: a discussion paper†".

1080:" within Indigenous communities, prohibition and restriction on point-of-sale access, and community policing and licensing. In the 1980s, the 6111: 5223: 5017: 4522: 3162: 2704: 2554: 2473: 2405: 2089: 1987: 274: 4955: 388:'closing the gap' depends on the availability of comparable estimates, using the same techniques of measurement to assess changes over time. 214: 5764: 5444: 5113: 798:

Each of these indicators is expected to underestimate the true prevalence of disease in the population due to reduced levels of diagnosis.

4681:"Physical Functional Limitations among Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Older Adults: Associations with Socio-Demographic Factors and Health" 4391: 3625:

Najavits, Lisa M.; Weiss, Roger D.; Shaw, Sarah R. (1997). "The Link Between Substance Abuse and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Women".

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of an Aboriginal knowledge and belief paradigm that upholds young Aboriginal peoples' understanding of health, healing and wellbeing.

833: 353: 5878: 5711: 5681: 5276: 4595: 3042: 2906: 2838: 2524: 1867: 1833: 1789: 1451: 1271:. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians are also more likely to smoke, have poor diets and have high levels of obesity. 483: 4326:

Martin-Iverson, N; Phatouros, A; Tennant, M (1999). "A brief review of indigenous Australian health as it impacts on oral health".

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In 2009, 26% of Indigenous Australians living in remote areas experienced 40% of the health gap of Indigenous Australians overall.

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In 2010–2011, Governments funded 91.4% of health expenditure for Indigenous people, compared with 68.1% for non-Indigenous people.

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Circulatory system, kidney failure, communicable, diabetes, cot death, mental health, ophthalmology, neoplasms, respiratory, cancer

3992: 1803: 1216:, reducing access for many Aboriginal communities to fluoridated water. Fluoridated water has been shown to prevent dental decay. 6091: 6048: 5982: 5671: 5561: 5507: 5311: 5256: 1092:

missionaries as an alternative to alcohol, as a safer alternative to alcohol. In 2007, commercial import of kava was banned, but

4983: 3907: 5830: 5739: 5391: 5241: 5185: 5106: 4970: 4539: 2147: 2093: 1435:. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and among Aboriginal Australians. Aboriginal people develop 1246: 1213: 1050: 3399: 2930: 1916: 6058: 6042: 5459: 1474: 1295:

sugar-sweetened beverages has also been reported among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children at the national level.

1107:

at large. In 2005 this problem among remote Indigenous communities was considered so serious that a new, low aromatic petrol

5381: 1891: 1856:

Palmer, Kingsley (January 2016). "10. Homelands as outstations of public policy". In Peterson, Nicolas; Myers, Fred (eds.).

360:

of Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians. This prompted health and human rights activists to establish the "

5769: 5487: 5404: 5351: 5301: 5233: 2802: 1181: 1071:

than non-Indigenous people in 2012–3. Twice as many men as women drink alcohol, and more likely to drink to risky levels.

2963: 2825: 5547: 4103: 4097:

Lehmann, D; Willis, J; Moore, HC; Giele, C; Murphy, D; Keil, AD; Harrison, C; Bayley, K; Watson, M; Richmond, P (2010).

1366:

The following studies are confined to Aboriginal peoples only, although not necessarily only true of those populations:

1355: 1103: 1010: 883: 280:

The displacement of Indigenous Australians to reserves and the isolation from society led to generations suffering from

270: 85: 3682: 2365: 6024: 5863: 5754: 5599: 5537: 5522: 5409: 5294: 5281: 3372: 1374:, as much as three times that of non-Aboriginal Australians, possibly due to higher rates of chronic diseases such as 721:

Over the period 1999–2003, in Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, the national

5434: 3551: 2989: 3516: 3490: 5846: 5482: 5289: 4657: 3993:

Longitudinal research into petrol sniffing and other substance abuse trends in Indigenous communities: final report

2341: 246: 4237:"Severe periodontitis and risk for poor glycemic control in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" 3880: 2741: 2588: 6002: 5997: 5806: 5701: 5414: 4244: 2598: 1720:

Morice, Rodney D. (1976). "Woman Dancing Dreaming: Psychosocial Benefits of the Aboriginal Outstation Movement".

968: 897: 801:

In addition, the following factors have been at least partially implicated in the inequality in life expectancy:

566: 542: 2560: 277:

attributed these rates to "socio-economic disenfranchisement resulting from colonialism", rather than genetics.

5917: 5836: 5542: 4376: 4328: 4291: 4200: 1943: 1413: 1288: 1116: 896:

In 2008, 45% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults were current daily smokers. Smoking is one of the

707: 530: 254: 3472: 4147: 4018:"Research into petrol sniffing and other substance trends use trends in Indigenous communities: final report" 3014: 5951: 5888: 5883: 5721: 5666: 5165: 2260:"Closing the gap: Competing estimates of Indigenous Australian life expectancy in the scientific literature" 1440: 1358:, who have been invited to partner with hospitals in South Australia to offer traditional healing services. 1225: 1072: 614: 372: 201: 98: 2090:"3302.0.55.003 – Experimental Life Tables for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2005–2007" 1674: 1443:

are being developed to screen at-risk individuals, particularly rural Australians, for atrial fibrillation.

5895: 5584: 5145: 5129: 2700:"Burden of disease and injury in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: The Indigenous health gap" 2124: 1432: 345:

and non-indigenous life expectancy, though the ABS does not now consider the 2005 figures to be reliable.

197: 193: 4289:

Martin-Iverson, N (2008). "A brief review of Indigenous Australian health as it impacts on oral health".

4236: 5923: 5858: 5604: 5454: 5170: 5160: 5077: 1857: 1823: 1400: 1242: 839: 4420: 4080: 1511:"Reflections, Memories, and Sources: Healthier Times?: Revisiting Indigenous Australian Health History" 1312: 2948: 5579: 4818: 4692: 4457: 1021:

Many Indigenous communities suffer from a range of health, social and legal problems associated with

618: 550: 222: 4512: 3767: 3712:"National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey, 2004–2005 (ABS Cat. 4715.0), Table 6" 1977: 5429: 5336: 4363:

Australian Dental Association (November 2005), "The Public Health Benefits of Water Fluoridation",

3212: 2931:"The burden of disease and injury in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: Summary report" 2827:

The burden of disease and injury in Queensland's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, 2014

1479: 1446:

According to Australian Journal Indigenous Issues three in four people regardless of ethnicity and

1436: 1425: 1371: 789: 680: 431:

In 2010–2011, health expenditure for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was estimated at

424:

healthcare personnel within remote Aboriginal communities situated in the Northern Territory (NT).

296: 17: 6029: 5939: 5868: 5853: 5676: 5589: 5552: 3778: 3476: 3453: 3428:

Cousins, Sophie (20 January 2017). "Suicide in Indigenous Australians: a 'catastrophic crisis'".

3313: 3128: 3077: 2240: 1753: 1702: 1646: 1600: 1538: 1530: 1484: 1391: 1338:

to different cultural and linguistic beliefs, values, and understanding of health and treatment.

1234: 1112: 1061: 983: 982:

Some mental health problems are attributed to the inter-generational trauma brought about by the

976: 626: 574: 554: 258: 250: 234: 130:

Premature death, high rates of disease, shorter life expectancy, poor dental, oral and eye health

817:

for urbanised Indigenous Australians, cultural pressures which prevent access to health services

404:

Another attempt by the federal government to address health issues was via the creation of the

5691: 5661: 5614: 5449: 5246: 5013: 4911: 4893: 4854: 4836: 4787: 4769: 4728: 4710: 4591: 4518: 4493: 4475: 4345: 4308: 4271: 4217: 4156: 4122: 3835: 3817: 3759: 3749: 3642: 3445: 3381: 3352: 3305: 3262: 3158: 3120: 3069: 2834: 2723: 2550: 2520: 2469: 2401: 2289: 2232: 1983: 1863: 1829: 1785: 1745: 1737: 1694: 1638: 1592: 1584: 1375: 1275: 1251: 1212:

A 1999 study found that the water in rural and remote areas of Australia is less likely to be

1077: 916: 843: 676: 546: 534: 312: 301: 156:

Delayed or inadequate treatment, common treatments, traditional, lack of treatment, low levels

135: 4446:"Optimisation Modelling to Assess Cost of Dietary Improvement in Remote Aboriginal Australia" 2804:

Burden of disease and injury in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: Summary Report

1370:

A 2015 study showed that Aboriginal Australians have disproportionately high rates of severe

6053: 5399: 5361: 5040: 4933: 4901: 4885: 4844: 4826: 4777: 4759: 4718: 4700: 4583: 4483: 4465: 4337: 4300: 4261: 4253: 4235:

Taylor, GW; Burt, BA; Becker, MP; Genco, RJ; Shlossman, M; Knowler, WC; Pettitt, DJ (1996).

4209: 4112: 3825: 3688:(Report). Publications Number: 11814. Australian Government. Department of Health. June 2017 3634: 3437: 3344: 3295: 3252: 3110: 3059: 3051: 2713: 2279: 2271: 2224: 1729: 1686: 1630: 1576: 1522: 1395: 1160: 1089: 1034: 737: 645: 537:

in Queensland were from the joint contribution of 11 risk factors, with the top three being

218: 183:

Overall early death, relatively higher infant mortality, and 9 to 11 shorter life expectancy

3573: 2877: 842:, the prevalence of type 2 diabetes among Indigenous Australians is between 25 and 30%. In 710:

in Indigenous Australians, 3% in non-Indigenous population. 18% of total indigenous deaths

487:

levels of the Australian Government, Indigenous leaders/communities and the health sector.

5779: 5090: 3790: 1810: 1489: 1042: 1030: 1022: 990: 848: 641: 570: 538: 523: 519: 477: 380: 357: 333: 5098: 4874:"Opportunistic screening to detect atrial fibrillation in Aboriginal adults in Australia" 2914: 2646: 266: 4822: 4696: 4461: 1733: 48:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

6034: 5929: 5801: 5706: 4906: 4873: 4849: 4806: 4782: 4747: 4723: 4680: 4614: 4488: 4445: 4341: 4304: 4213: 3830: 3805: 3638: 2576:...licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0). 2394:

National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health 2003–2013

2332: 2284: 2259: 1379: 653: 649: 3441: 3300: 3281: 3257: 3238: 2228: 6080: 5744: 5656: 5321: 5261: 4548: 4198:

Brennan, DS (2008). "Oral health of Indigenous public dental patients in Australia".

3370:

Hunter, E (2014). "Mental health in Indigenous settings. Challenges for clinicians".

3348: 3115: 3096: 2870:"The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples" 1706: 1650: 1542: 1409: 1291:. Much of this burden of disease is due to extremely poor nutrition throughout life. 1026: 922: 862: 741: 622: 420: 361: 316: 315:. High rates of incarceration of adults and youth contribute to early death and poor 230: 5095:

Contribution to the discussion about the next phase of the Closing the Gap Strategy.

4997:"Traditional Aboriginal healers should work alongside doctors to help close the gap" 4653:"Traditional Aboriginal healers should work alongside doctors to help close the gap" 3317: 3132: 3081: 2244: 1859:

Experiments in self-determination: Histories of the outstation movement in Australia

1825:

Experiments in self-determination: Histories of the outstation movement in Australia

1757: 1604: 1267:

In particular, crowded housing has been identified as contributing to the spread of

5934: 5841: 5796: 5791: 5696: 5571: 5271: 4960: 4514:

The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

3457: 2934: 1420: 1274:

A 2007 study found that the 11 largest preventable contributions to the indigenous

1229: 1081: 870: 668: 562: 558: 379:

A 2013 study, referring to the national Indigenous reform policy launched in 2008,

285: 226: 4639: 1580: 5028:"Close the Gap report calls for government to listen to Indigenous-led solutions" 4831: 4764: 4705: 4470: 4257: 1690: 1237:

suffer from significant hearing loss. Andrew Butcher speculates that the lack of

5651: 5326: 4889: 4626: 4065: 2672: 1108: 1068: 957: 866: 684: 672: 238: 125: 4582:. Australian National University, North Australia Research Unit. pp. 7–9. 4547:. Australian Government: Indigenous Culture Support. p. 12. Archived from 518:

The most common cause of hospital admissions for Indigenous Australians is for

5759: 5646: 5641: 5316: 5306: 5251: 3286: 3243: 3055: 2466:

Expenditure on health for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people 2010-11

2215: 1634: 938: 911: 692: 522:

treatment, as of 2014. End-stage kidney (or renal) disease (ESKD or ESRD) and

281: 4897: 4840: 4773: 4714: 4479: 3821: 3763: 3646: 2824:

Begg, Stephen; Stanley, Lucy; Suleman, Abdulla; et al. (November 2014).

2337:"We just Black matter: Australia's indifference to Aboriginal lives and land" 2213:

Cheng, M (2007). "Aboriginal workers key to indigenous health in Australia".

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that are prominent within Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

5905: 5636: 3332: 2275: 1390:

One study reports that Aboriginal Australians are significantly affected by

1268: 1238: 1197: 1017:

was introduced as a safer alternative to alcohol, but was withdrawn in 2007.

930: 774: 756: 722: 499: 457: 453: 161: 4971:"Closing the gap that scars Australia: stop our mob from dying prematurely" 4915: 4858: 4791: 4732: 4497: 4377:

Damien Howard & Dianne Hampton, "Ear disease and Aboriginal families,"

4349: 4312: 4221: 4160: 4126: 3839: 3449: 3385: 3356: 3309: 3266: 3187:"'People are scared': the fight against a deadly virus no one has heard of" 3124: 3073: 2727: 2540:

Commonwealth of Australia. Dept. of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2019).

2293: 2236: 1596: 307:

Health issues cannot be separated from social and cultural factors such as

245:

The Australian government proceeded to deny the Indigenous people of their

93:

Aboriginal mural and handprints at the North Yarra Community Health opening

4275: 4266: 1944:"Guardian (Sydney) - Risk of death high after release from prison (APAFT)" 1749: 1526: 5376: 5366: 2718: 2699: 1038: 770: 688: 578: 5054:"Say hello to Black excellence: meet the people who are closing the gap" 1534: 1510: 3661:"National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey, 2018-19" 3217:

Of Substance: The National Magazine on Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drugs

3064: 2602: 1781: 1447: 1405: 1383: 1097: 964: 943: 926: 4938: 4805:

Hopkins, Katrina D.; Zubrick, Stephen R.; et al. (28 July 2014).

4587: 4444:

Brimblecombe, Julie; Ferguson, Megan; et al. (31 December 2013).

3853: 1330:

likely to develop the diseases than other demographics (ENDRHD:2023).

533:

found that the 11 largest preventable contributions to the Indigenous

2625:"Prime Minister announces new National Indigenous Australians Agency" 2491:"Funding boost to tackle challenges of dialysis in Central Australia" 1351: 1196:

Until the 1980s Aboriginal children were recognised as having better

308: 289: 4081:

https://doi-org.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/10.1080/01459740.2011.636411

3959:. Department of Health and Ageing. 10 February 2006b. Archived from 865:

cancers were the most common in the Indigenous population, and both

4422:

Lend Me Your Ears: Otitis Media and Aboriginal Australian languages

4117: 4098: 3154:

Summary of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health status 2018

3097:"Type 2 diabetes in Indigenous Australian children and adolescents" 2933:. Brisbane: School of Population Health. p. 14. Archived from 2852:

licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia licence

1111:

was distributed across the Northern Territory to combat it. A 2018

979:, with this resulting in unstable parenting and family situations. 196:

compared with the rest of the population. Statistics indicate that

5716: 5686: 4075: 4073: 3804:

Ramamoorthi, Ramya; Jayaraj, Rama; et al. (5 December 2016).

1004: 416:

over four years to induce a significant level of housing reform.

253:, with guardianship being awarded to government officials called 5346: 4872:

Gwynne, Kylie; Flaskas, Yvonne; et al. (15 November 2016).

3908:"What is kava and why did Australia just relax decades of bans?" 1093: 1085: 1014: 972: 5102: 5010:

Indigenous Australians and health : the wombat in the room

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2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey: detailed findings

1005: 4748:"Aboriginal Populations and Their Neglected Tropical Diseases" 4679:

Gubhaju, Lina; Banks, Emily; et al. (30 September 2015).

4183:

Australian Research Centre for Population Oral Health (2003).

4178: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4170: 1025:

of both legal and illegal drugs, including but not limited to

946:

rate among Indigenous Australians as a "catastrophic crisis":

629:

disorders. Circulatory system diseases account for 24% deaths

401:

In 1989, the National Aboriginal Health Strategy was created.

28: 4984:"Indigenous Australians offer a broader concept of wellbeing" 4609: 4607: 4576:

Cross cultural communication problems in Aboriginal Australia

3938:. Northern Territory Government. October 2004. Archived from 3239:"Indigenous health in Australia—moves in the right direction" 442:

per Indigenous person, which was 1.47 times greater than the

4956:"Close the Gap and Closing the Gap – what's the difference?" 4185:

Oral Health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Persons

1463:

Animal Management in Rural and Remote Indigenous Communities

1424:

functioning. The researchers suggested that factors such as

237:. The process of colonisation began with the arrival of the 4392:

Farah Farouque, "Hearing loss hits NT indigenous inmates,"

3998:(Report). School of Public Health, University of Queensland 4187:. DSRU Research Report No. 14. The University of Adelaide. 3991:

d'Abbs, Peter; Gillick, Vicki; et al. (1 July 2019).

3933:"Petrol Sniffing in Remote Northern Territory Communities" 3282:"Mental health and disadvantage in Indigenous Australians" 2801:

Vos, T; Barker, B; Begg, S; Stanley, L; Lopez, AD (2007).

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Vos, T; Barker, B; Begg, S; Stanley, L; Lopez, AD (2009).

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Indigenous Health and Wellbeing: The Importance of Country

2308:"Close the Gap report – "Our Choices, Our Voices" (2019)" 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 3574:"Mental health, substance misuse & brain chemistry" 3957:"Roll out of OPAL fuel to help combat petrol sniffing" 2951:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 October 2013. 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2519:(3rd ed.). Aboriginal Studies Press. p. 38. 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1394:, particularly in rural areas. These diseases include 814:

for remote communities, poor access to health services

446:

spent per non-Indigenous Australian in the same year.

408:(OATSIH) in 1994, but this is no longer in existence. 406:

Office of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health

3600:"Substance abuse and mental illness – dual diagnosis" 2258:

Rosenstock, A; Mukandi, B; Zwi, AB; Hill, PS (2013).

1264:

and access to infrastructure than other Australians.

464:

in funding for 28 new health initiatives through the

4615:

https://endrhd.telethonkids.org.au/rhd-in-australia/

2929:

Vos, T.; Barker, B.; Stanley, L.; Lopez, A. (2007).

2464:

Australian Institute for Health and Welfare (2013).

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cultural differences resulting in poor communication

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Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health

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COVID-19 pandemic: impact on Indigenous Australians

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Australian Bureau of Statistics. 9 January 2013 1675:"Decolonizing Indigenous disability in Australia" 1431:Aboriginal Australians suffer from high rates of 1320:Acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease 1205:2 diabetes has been related to poor oral health. 1168:females it was 3.3 deaths per 1,000 (ABS 2009b). 823:between Indigenous Australians and health workers 460:, then Minister for Indigenous Health, announced 3146: 3144: 3142: 2990:"Diabetes drug breakthrough hope for Indigenous" 2355:Note: Closed before Closing the Gap, or earlier? 1450:hold a negative view of Indigenous Australians. 1067:Indigenous Australians were 1.6 times as likely 989:There are known links between mental health and 4640:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113829 2468:. Australian Institute for Health and Welfare. 948: 385: 371:As of 2010, life expectancy for Aboriginal and 6015:Northern Territory National Emergency Response 5518:National Congress of Australia's First Peoples 5067:"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health" 4517:. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 4092: 4090: 4088: 3473:"Risk of death high after release from prison" 3157:. Perth: Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet. 3095:Maple-Brown, LJ; Sinha, AK; Davis, EA (2010). 2810:. The University of Queensland. pp. 9–10. 2366:"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health" 1982:. 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Department of Health 2065:"Close the Gap: Indigenous Health Campaign" 1100:have asked the government to lift the ban. 838:In some areas of Australia, particular the 5610:South West Aboriginal Land and Sea Council 5595:Metropolitan Local Aboriginal Land Council 5567: 5121: 5107: 5099: 4059: 4057: 4055: 3746:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 3423: 3421: 2964:"Doctor wins medal for diabetes treatment" 2949:"Petrol Sniffing – Health & Wellbeing" 2911:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2874:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2767:"End-stage kidney disease - Kidney Health" 2013:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1362:Studies relating to Aboriginal people only 1159:The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 725:rate for infants was three times the rate 356:reported a seventeen-year gap between the 84: 67: 4937: 4905: 4848: 4830: 4781: 4763: 4722: 4704: 4487: 4469: 4265: 4116: 3829: 3705: 3703: 3299: 3256: 3114: 3063: 2819: 2817: 2717: 2283: 1862:. Monographs in Anthropology. ANU Press. 2864: 2862: 2860: 2192:"Measures of Australia's Progress, 2010" 2035:"Social Justice Report 2005 : Home" 1228:largely due to the massive incidence of 1049:Islander Health Survey (NATSIHS) by the 592: 494:was established in July 2019, under the 5332:National Indigenous Human Rights Awards 5204:People from politics and public service 4406: 3102:Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 2391:Department of Health and Aging (2007). 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 1501: 1224:Aboriginals experience a high level of 740:, 2-fold increase in disorders such as 640:2 to 3-fold increase in listing on the 5130:Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders 5086: 5075: 4982:Grieves, Victoria (20 November 2014). 3786: 3776: 3400:"Indigenous disadvantage in Australia" 2677:National Indigenous Australians Agency 2651:National Indigenous Australians Agency 2117:"Life gap figures not black and white" 1979:Australian hospital statistics 2010-11 1917:"Indigenous disadvantage in Australia" 1121:National Indigenous Australians Agency 960:have been set up to offer assistance. 788:3 to 4-fold increased death rate from 652:, 8-fold increase in death rates from 492:National Indigenous Australians Agency 3887:. 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Department of Health and Aging. 2312:Australian Human Rights Commission 2115:Lunn, Stephen (26 November 2008). 2069:Australian Human Rights Commission 2039:Australian Human Rights Commission 1060:A 2016 study reported that in the 834:Diabetes in Indigenous Australians 792:accounting for 8% of total deaths 563:low intake of fruit and vegetables 354:Australian Human Rights Commission 79:Wellbeing of Australian Indigenous 25: 6087:History of Indigenous Australians 4995:Grieves, Victoria (4 June 2018). 3717:. Australian Bureau of Statistics 3043:Maternal and Child Health Journal 2009:"Indigenous health and wellbeing" 1673:Hollinsworth, David (July 2013). 484:Council of Australian Governments 251:separation of Indigenous families 148:Limited programs to close the gap 140:Low levels, low rate of screening 5026:Jenkins, Keira (20 March 2020). 4752:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3810:Iranian Journal of Public Health 3710:Trewin, Dennis (11 April 2006). 3683:National Drug Strategy 2017–2026 3542:Morrow, Nathan (29 March 2019). 3349:10.1046/j.1440-0979.2001.00189.x 3116:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2010.01844.x 2589:"Prime Minister's Media Release" 2517:The Little Red Yellow Black Book 1892:"No movement on the outstations" 1033:, the use illegal drugs such as 777:accounted for 17% of all deaths 736:5-fold increase in drug-induced 625:, 3-fold increase in death from 33: 5831:Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 4381:, July-August 2006, 30 (4) p.9. 4024:. 2 August 2019. Archived from 3185:Allam, Lorena (24 April 2018). 2094:Australian Bureau of Statistics 1311:According to Michael Walsh and 1303:Cross-cultural miscommunication 1069:abstain completely from alcohol 6097:Children's health in Australia 6043:Uluru Statement from the Heart 5460:Torres Strait Island languages 5052:Nimmo, Julie (21 March 2019). 2631:. 12 June 2019. Archived from 2489:Liddle, Ryan (1 August 2018). 1784:. Native Title Research Unit. 1623:Journal of Population Research 1088:was introduced into the NT by 769:60% increased death rate from 452:In July 2018, Health Minister 190:Indigenous health in Australia 71:Indigenous health in Australia 1: 5508:Australian Aborigines' League 5488:Aborigines Advancement League 5405:Australian Aboriginal English 3906:Fox, Liam (17 October 2019). 3442:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30137-X 3301:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62139-4 3258:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61654-2 3213:"Tackling Indigenous Smoking" 2601:. 26 May 2019. Archived from 2229:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61648-1 1581:10.1080/10376178.2016.1195238 1182:Invasive pneumococcal disease 963:There are high incidences of 6112:Aboriginal Australian health 5548:National Reconciliation Week 5039:Korff, Jens (26 July 2019). 4832:10.1371/journal.pone.0102820 4765:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002286 4706:10.1371/journal.pone.0139364 4471:10.1371/journal.pone.0083587 4258:10.1902/jop.1996.67.10s.1085 4104:Clinical Infectious Diseases 2833:. University of Queensland. 1722:Medical Journal of Australia 1691:10.1080/09687599.2012.717879 1356:Western Desert cultural bloc 884:Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 878:Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 547:inadequate physical activity 5600:NSW Aboriginal Land Council 5538:Registered Aboriginal Party 5523:National Indigenous Council 5410:Macro-Gunwinyguan languages 5012:, Oxford University Press, 4890:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013576 3858:Alcohol and Drug Foundation 3578:Alcohol and Drug Foundation 3373:Australian Family Physician 3337:Aust N Z J Ment Health Nurs 2543:Closing the Gap Report 2019 1890:Altman, Jon (25 May 2009). 766:60% increase in death rate 621:, 2-fold increase in other 599:Comparative incidence rate 350:Social Justice Report: 2005 6128: 6107:Health policy in Australia 6102:Mental health in Australia 5978:Constitutional recognition 5847:Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars 5483:Aboriginal Medical Service 4658:The Conversation Australia 2988:Liston, G (1 March 2012). 2342:The Conversation Australia 881: 831: 475: 5372:Traditional custodianship 4329:Australian Dental Journal 4292:Australian Dental Journal 4245:Journal of Periodontology 4201:Australian Dental Journal 3056:10.1007/s10995-014-1555-3 2599:Commonwealth of Australia 2549:. Australian Government. 2152:The Sydney Morning Herald 2146:Joel, G (10 April 2009). 1896:The Sydney Morning Herald 1728:(25–26). AMPCo: 939–942. 1635:10.1007/s12546-016-9164-1 1354:Aboriginal people of the 917:intimate partner violence 613:5 to 10-fold increase in 567:intimate partner violence 92: 83: 42:This article needs to be 5837:Australian Frontier Wars 5543:Reconciliation Australia 4419:Fergus, Anelisa (2019). 3517:"The Stolen Generations" 3491:"The Stolen Generations" 1679:Disability & Society 1414:mass drug administration 1209:Indigenous Australians. 1117:University of Queensland 975:and suicide amongst the 749:Optometry/Ophthalmology 531:University of Queensland 255:Protectors of Aborigines 6092:Healthcare in Australia 5889:Australian history wars 5750:Contemporary visual art 5166:Torres Strait Islanders 4148:Rural and Remote Health 2276:10.1111/1753-6405.12084 1441:Wireless ambulatory ECG 1382:. The study found that 1226:conductive hearing loss 1073:Foetal alcohol syndrome 656:, 2.5% of total deaths 615:rheumatic heart disease 438:Expenditure equated to 202:Torres Strait Islanders 5585:Kimberley Land Council 5435:Pama–Nyungan languages 5425:Loanwords into English 5342:Religion and mythology 5295:Torres Strait Islander 5146:Aboriginal Australians 5085:Cite journal requires 4975:The Guardian (Opinion) 4365:National Dental Update 2876:. 2003. Archived from 1419:A study examining the 1147:Violence and accidents 1119:, commissioned by the 1018: 953: 808:insufficient education 691:, 70-fold increase in 683:, 40-fold increase in 679:, 20-fold increase in 397:Government initiatives 390: 373:Torres Strait Islander 219:social marginalisation 205:levels of difference. 198:Aboriginal Australians 194:Indigenous Australians 5924:Native Title Act 1993 5859:Cummeragunja walk-off 5605:Northern Land Council 5455:Torres Strait English 5382:Torres Strait Islands 4252:(10 Suppl): 1085–93. 3633:(4). Wiley: 273–283. 3604:Better Health Channel 2962:Day, L (9 May 2012). 1527:10.1353/hah.2009.0037 1509:Blyton, Greg (2009). 1401:Ancylostoma duodenale 1398:, hookworm caused by 1008: 840:Torres Strait Islands 755:A 2-fold increase in 215:European colonisation 5580:Central Land Council 3521:Australians Together 3495:Australians Together 3404:Australians Together 2917:on 21 February 2011. 1921:Australians Together 1247:Australian languages 1176:Pneumococcal disease 667:10-fold increase in 619:hypertensive disease 596:Health complication 586:Summary table (2003) 529:A 2007 study by the 323:Hospitalisation rate 223:political oppression 5337:Outstation movement 5176:Western Australians 5041:"Aboriginal health" 4823:2014PLoSO...9j2820H 4697:2015PLoSO..1039364G 4651:Grieves, Victoria. 4462:2013PLoSO...883587B 3280:The Lancet (2012). 3237:The Lancet (2013). 2880:on 26 February 2011 2566:on 26 December 2019 2515:Pascoe, B. (2012). 2223:(9598): 1533–1536. 1480:Health in Australia 1471:- internet resource 1437:atrial fibrillation 1392:infectious diseases 1372:physical disability 1269:infectious diseases 1009:A signpost outside 790:respiratory disease 607:Circulatory system 559:high blood pressure 297:outstation movement 111:Historical, ongoing 6030:Stolen Generations 6020:Self-determination 5940:Stolen Generations 5874:Historical figures 5854:Caledon Bay crisis 5677:Fire-stick farming 5590:Maralinga Tjarutja 5209:Performing artists 4047:d'Abbs et al. 2019 4028:on 15 January 2020 3580:. 14 December 2018 3554:on 16 January 2020 3477:Guardian Australia 2719:10.1093/ije/dyn240 2679:. 29 February 2016 2653:. 12 February 2016 2372:. 20 November 2017 1809:4 May 2020 at the 1569:Contemporary Nurse 1515:Health and History 1485:New World syndrome 1313:Ghil'ad Zuckermann 1235:Northern Territory 1230:middle ear disease 1113:longitudinal study 1062:Northern Territory 1019: 984:Stolen Generations 977:Stolen Generations 936:A 2017 article in 627:circulatory system 575:child sexual abuse 259:Stolen Generations 235:population decline 6074: 6073: 5957:Western Australia 5692:Possum-skin cloak 5623: 5622: 5615:Tiwi Land Council 5450:Taboo on the dead 5415:Australian Creole 5156:Aboriginal groups 5019:978-0-19-558822-4 4939:10.1121/2.0001004 4573:Walsh, M (1997). 4524:978-1-74249-683-2 4111:(11): 1477–1486. 4006:– via NIAA. 3945:on 14 April 2011. 3748:. December 2008. 3606:. 31 January 2015 3475:. No. 1719. 3406:. 16 January 2014 3331:Brown, R (2001). 3211:Calma, T (2011). 3164:978-0-6485071-2-3 3015:"Hospitalisation" 2937:on 10 March 2010. 2647:"Closing the Gap" 2556:978-1-925363-84-5 2475:978-1-74249-415-9 2438:. 31 January 2024 2436:www.health.gov.au 2407:978-1-74186-312-3 1989:978-1-74249-294-0 1948:Guardian (Sydney) 1923:. 16 January 2014 1283:Contemporary diet 1276:burden of disease 844:Central Australia 796: 795: 706:11% incidence of 677:hepatitis C virus 535:burden of disease 302:Howard government 187: 186: 136:Diagnostic method 65:Medical condition 63: 62: 16:(Redirected from 6119: 5568: 5400:Avoidance speech 5362:Smoking ceremony 5123: 5116: 5109: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5083: 5081: 5073: 5071: 5061: 5048: 5045:Creative Spirits 5035: 5022: 5004: 5001:The Conversation 4991: 4988:The Conversation 4978: 4965: 4943: 4941: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4852: 4834: 4802: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4767: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4726: 4708: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4648: 4642: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4602: 4601: 4581: 4570: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4554:on 30 March 2016 4553: 4546: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4491: 4473: 4441: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4389: 4383: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4269: 4241: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4195: 4189: 4188: 4180: 4165: 4164: 4142: 4131: 4130: 4120: 4094: 4083: 4077: 4068: 4061: 4050: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4014: 4008: 4007: 4005: 4003: 3997: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3937: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3903: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3892: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3860:. 15 August 2019 3850: 3844: 3843: 3833: 3801: 3795: 3794: 3788: 3784: 3782: 3774: 3773:on 14 July 2010. 3772: 3766:. Archived from 3743: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3716: 3707: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3687: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3587: 3585: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3550:. Archived from 3539: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3425: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3328: 3322: 3321: 3303: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3260: 3234: 3225: 3224: 3208: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3148: 3137: 3136: 3118: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3067: 3036: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3011: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2925: 2919: 2918: 2913:. Archived from 2903: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2866: 2855: 2854: 2849: 2847: 2832: 2821: 2812: 2811: 2809: 2798: 2783: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2738: 2732: 2731: 2721: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2643: 2637: 2636: 2635:on 17 June 2019. 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2585: 2579: 2578: 2573: 2571: 2565: 2559:. Archived from 2548: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2512: 2506: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2486: 2480: 2479: 2461: 2448: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2428: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2399: 2388: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2304: 2298: 2297: 2287: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2188: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2123:. Archived from 2112: 2106: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2086: 2080: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2031: 2025: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2005: 1994: 1993: 1973: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1939: 1933: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1913: 1907: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1819: 1813: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1779: 1768: 1762: 1761: 1717: 1711: 1710: 1670: 1655: 1654: 1618: 1609: 1608: 1564: 1547: 1546: 1506: 1396:strongyloidiasis 1241:and the unusual 1161:infant mortality 1155:Infant mortality 1090:Pacific Islander 1035:methamphetamines 773:. In 1999–2003, 738:mental disorders 593: 551:high cholesterol 463: 445: 441: 434: 415: 414:A$ 293.6 million 88: 68: 58: 55: 49: 37: 36: 29: 21: 6127: 6126: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6117: 6116: 6077: 6076: 6075: 6070: 6010:Media portrayal 5973:1967 Referendum 5961: 5869:Gurindji Strike 5864:Day of Mourning 5816: 5726: 5619: 5566: 5464: 5420:Language groups 5386: 5228: 5180: 5132: 5127: 5084: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5051: 5038: 5025: 5020: 5007: 4994: 4981: 4968: 4953: 4950: 4948:Further reading 4927: 4924: 4923: 4884:(11): e013576. 4871: 4870: 4866: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4691:(9): e0139364. 4678: 4677: 4673: 4663: 4661: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4636: 4632: 4624: 4620: 4612: 4605: 4598: 4579: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4557: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4443: 4442: 4433: 4425: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4390: 4386: 4375: 4371: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4239: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4197: 4196: 4192: 4182: 4181: 4168: 4144: 4143: 4134: 4096: 4095: 4086: 4078: 4071: 4062: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4031: 4029: 4016: 4015: 4011: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3990: 3989: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3966: 3964: 3963:on 3 April 2013 3955: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3926: 3916: 3914: 3905: 3904: 3900: 3890: 3888: 3878: 3877: 3873: 3863: 3861: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3803: 3802: 3798: 3785: 3775: 3770: 3756: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3709: 3708: 3701: 3691: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3666: 3664: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3624: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3607: 3598: 3597: 3593: 3583: 3581: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3557: 3555: 3541: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3515: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3427: 3426: 3419: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3330: 3329: 3325: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3236: 3235: 3228: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3150: 3149: 3140: 3094: 3093: 3089: 3038: 3037: 3033: 3023: 3021: 3013: 3012: 3008: 2998: 2996: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2972: 2970: 2961: 2960: 2956: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2928: 2926: 2922: 2905: 2904: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2868: 2867: 2858: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2830: 2823: 2822: 2815: 2807: 2800: 2799: 2786: 2776: 2774: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2748: 2742:"Kidney Health" 2740: 2739: 2735: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2682: 2680: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2656: 2654: 2645: 2644: 2640: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2557: 2546: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2527: 2514: 2513: 2509: 2499: 2497: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2476: 2463: 2462: 2451: 2441: 2439: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2397: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2316: 2314: 2306: 2305: 2301: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2212: 2211: 2207: 2197: 2195: 2190: 2189: 2166: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2099: 2097: 2088: 2087: 2083: 2073: 2071: 2063: 2062: 2058: 2043: 2041: 2033: 2032: 2028: 2018: 2016: 2007: 2006: 1997: 1990: 1975: 1974: 1963: 1953: 1951: 1941: 1940: 1936: 1926: 1924: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1900: 1898: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1855: 1854: 1850: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1811:Wayback Machine 1804:AIATSIS summary 1796: 1794: 1792: 1777: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1672: 1671: 1658: 1620: 1619: 1612: 1566: 1565: 1550: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1490:Race and health 1459: 1364: 1348: 1322: 1305: 1289:type 2 diabetes 1285: 1261: 1259:Health dynamics 1245:inventories of 1222: 1194: 1178: 1157: 1149: 1104:Petrol sniffing 1043:smoking tobacco 1031:petrol sniffing 1023:substance abuse 1003: 1001:Substance abuse 991:substance abuse 907: 894: 886: 880: 858: 852:a younger age. 836: 830: 811:substance abuse 708:type 2 diabetes 634:Kidney failure 588: 524:hospitalisation 520:kidney dialysis 513: 508: 480: 478:Closing the gap 474: 472:Closing the Gap 462:A$ 23.2 million 461: 443: 439: 432: 413: 399: 381:Closing the Gap 358:life expectancy 342: 340:Life expectancy 325: 300:the era of the 211: 66: 59: 53: 50: 47: 38: 34: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6125: 6123: 6115: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6079: 6078: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6068: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6039: 6038: 6037: 6035:Half-Caste Act 6027: 6025:Reconciliation 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6003:Protected Area 6000: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5969: 5967: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5948: 5947: 5937: 5932: 5930:Pilbara strike 5927: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5909: 5908: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5834: 5826: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5783: 5782: 5777: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5736: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5707:Spinifex resin 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5633: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5474: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5445:Sign languages 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5394: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5292: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5238: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5219:Visual artists 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5190: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5142: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5128: 5126: 5125: 5118: 5111: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5087:|journal= 5065:RACGP (2018). 5062: 5049: 5036: 5023: 5018: 5005: 4992: 4979: 4966: 4949: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4922: 4921: 4864: 4817:(7): e102820. 4797: 4738: 4671: 4643: 4630: 4618: 4603: 4596: 4565: 4530: 4523: 4503: 4456:(12): e83587. 4431: 4411: 4399: 4396:, 5 March 2012 4384: 4369: 4355: 4318: 4281: 4267:2027.42/141809 4227: 4190: 4166: 4132: 4118:10.1086/652440 4084: 4069: 4051: 4039: 4009: 3983: 3974: 3948: 3924: 3898: 3871: 3845: 3816:(5): 539–544. 3796: 3787:|journal= 3755:978-1740248709 3754: 3728: 3699: 3674: 3652: 3617: 3591: 3565: 3548:SANE Australia 3534: 3508: 3482: 3463: 3436:(10066): 242. 3417: 3391: 3362: 3323: 3294:(9858): 1968. 3272: 3226: 3203: 3177: 3163: 3138: 3109:(9): 487–490. 3087: 3050:(3): 651–663. 3031: 3006: 2980: 2954: 2940: 2920: 2891: 2856: 2839: 2813: 2784: 2773:. 26 July 2017 2758: 2733: 2712:(2): 470–477. 2690: 2664: 2638: 2616: 2605:on 27 May 2019 2580: 2555: 2532: 2525: 2507: 2481: 2474: 2449: 2420: 2406: 2383: 2357: 2348: 2324: 2299: 2250: 2205: 2164: 2138: 2127:on 5 July 2009 2121:The Australian 2107: 2081: 2056: 2026: 1995: 1988: 1961: 1934: 1908: 1882: 1868: 1848: 1834: 1814: 1790: 1763: 1712: 1685:(5): 601–615. 1656: 1610: 1575:(4): 398–409. 1548: 1521:(2): 116–135. 1500: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1466: 1458: 1455: 1454: 1453: 1444: 1429: 1417: 1388: 1380:kidney disease 1363: 1360: 1347: 1344: 1318: 1304: 1301: 1284: 1281: 1260: 1257: 1221: 1218: 1193: 1190: 1177: 1174: 1156: 1153: 1148: 1145: 1002: 999: 942:described the 906: 903: 893: 890: 882:Main article: 879: 876: 857: 854: 829: 826: 825: 824: 818: 815: 812: 809: 806: 794: 793: 786: 783: 779: 778: 767: 764: 760: 759: 753: 750: 746: 745: 734: 731: 730:Mental health 727: 726: 719: 716: 712: 711: 704: 701: 697: 696: 665: 664:10 to 70-fold 662: 658: 657: 654:kidney failure 650:kidney disease 638: 635: 631: 630: 611: 608: 604: 603: 600: 597: 587: 584: 539:high body mass 512: 509: 507: 504: 476:Main article: 473: 470: 433:A$ 4.6 billion 398: 395: 341: 338: 324: 321: 210: 207: 185: 184: 181: 177: 176: 172: 168: 167: 164: 158: 157: 154: 150: 149: 146: 142: 141: 138: 132: 131: 128: 122: 121: 117: 113: 112: 109: 105: 104: 101: 95: 94: 90: 89: 81: 80: 77: 73: 72: 64: 61: 60: 41: 39: 32: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6124: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6067: 6066:Voting rights 6064: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5970: 5968: 5964: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5921: 5919: 5918:Native police 5916: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5745:Bark painting 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5657:Bush medicine 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5634: 5632: 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2193: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2139: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2111: 2108: 2096:. 25 May 2009 2095: 2091: 2085: 2082: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2057: 2053: 2040: 2036: 2030: 2027: 2015:. 7 July 2022 2014: 2010: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1985: 1981: 1980: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1949: 1945: 1938: 1935: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1871: 1869:9781925022902 1865: 1861: 1860: 1852: 1849: 1837: 1835:9781925022902 1831: 1827: 1826: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1808: 1805: 1793: 1791:9780855756697 1787: 1783: 1776: 1775: 1767: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1716: 1713: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1505: 1502: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1433:heart disease 1430: 1427: 1422: 1418: 1415: 1411: 1410:streptococcal 1407: 1404: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1309: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1272: 1270: 1265: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1227: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1183: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1154: 1152: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1052: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1027:alcohol abuse 1024: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1000: 998: 994: 992: 987: 985: 980: 978: 974: 970: 966: 961: 959: 952: 947: 945: 941: 940: 934: 932: 928: 924: 923:Mental health 920: 918: 914: 913: 905:Mental health 904: 902: 899: 891: 889: 885: 877: 875: 872: 871:liver cancers 868: 864: 855: 853: 850: 845: 841: 835: 827: 822: 819: 816: 813: 810: 807: 804: 803: 802: 799: 791: 787: 784: 781: 780: 776: 772: 768: 765: 762: 761: 758: 754: 751: 748: 747: 743: 742:schizophrenia 739: 735: 732: 729: 728: 724: 720: 717: 714: 713: 709: 705: 702: 699: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 663: 661:Communicable 660: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 636: 633: 632: 628: 624: 623:heart disease 620: 616: 612: 610:2 to 10-fold 609: 606: 605: 601: 598: 595: 594: 591: 585: 583: 580: 576: 572: 571:illicit drugs 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 545:(11.6%), and 544: 540: 536: 532: 527: 525: 521: 516: 510: 506:Health status 505: 503: 501: 497: 493: 488: 485: 479: 471: 469: 467: 459: 455: 450: 447: 436: 429: 425: 422: 421:Aspen Medical 417: 409: 407: 402: 396: 394: 389: 384: 382: 377: 374: 369: 365: 363: 362:Close the Gap 359: 355: 351: 346: 339: 337: 335: 329: 322: 320: 318: 317:mental health 314: 310: 305: 303: 298: 293: 291: 287: 283: 278: 276: 275:United States 272: 268: 262: 260: 256: 252: 248: 243: 240: 236: 232: 231:acculturation 228: 227:incarceration 224: 220: 216: 208: 206: 203: 199: 195: 191: 182: 178: 173: 169: 165: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 137: 133: 129: 127: 123: 120:incarceration 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 100: 99:Complications 96: 91: 87: 82: 78: 74: 69: 57: 45: 40: 31: 30: 27: 19: 6041: 5998:Native title 5987: 5952:Tent embassy 5935:Pintupi Nine 5922: 5842:Bathurst War 5829: 5812:Yininmadyemi 5797:Sandpainting 5792:Papunya Tula 5787:NATSIA Award 5775:Music groups 5697:Scarred tree 5667:Dugout canoe 5357:Sacred sites 5272:The Dreaming 5214:Sportspeople 5078:cite journal 5057: 5044: 5031: 5009: 5000: 4987: 4974: 4961:The Guardian 4959: 4929: 4881: 4877: 4867: 4814: 4810: 4800: 4758:(1): e2286. 4755: 4751: 4741: 4688: 4684: 4674: 4662:. 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5277:Enumeration 5186:Individuals 5151:Communities 3380:(1): 26–8. 3223:(2): 28–29. 3065:11343/55744 2500:10 November 2019:31 December 1629:(1): 9–30. 1198:oral health 1192:Oral health 958:Ngalla Maya 695:infections 685:shigellosis 673:hepatitis B 267:New Zealand 239:First Fleet 76:Other names 6081:Categories 5884:Prehistory 5807:Visual art 5760:Didgeridoo 5672:Fibrecraft 5647:Bush bread 5513:Mass media 5440:Placenames 5317:Marn Grook 5307:Kurdaitcha 5290:Aboriginal 5252:Corroboree 5171:Victorians 5161:Tasmanians 4588:1885/47329 4155:(2): 503. 4032:16 January 4002:15 January 3917:16 January 3891:16 January 3864:16 January 3692:16 January 3667:18 January 3610:17 January 3584:17 January 3558:17 January 3527:17 January 3501:16 January 3430:The Lancet 3410:16 January 3287:The Lancet 3244:The Lancet 3170:16 January 2884:9 December 2683:10 January 2657:10 January 2570:10 January 2376:15 January 2317:15 January 2216:The Lancet 2074:15 January 2044:15 January 1954:17 January 1950:(1719): 12 1927:17 January 1496:References 1239:fricatives 969:depression 939:The Lancet 912:The Lancet 832:See also: 763:Neoplasms 715:Cot death 693:gonococcal 646:transplant 579:unsafe sex 282:starvation 145:Prevention 5906:Black War 5901:Massacres 5740:Artefacts 5637:Boomerang 5629:Bushcraft 5553:Sorry Day 5367:Songlines 5242:Astronomy 5199:Musicians 5194:Activists 4898:2044-6055 4841:1932-6203 4774:1935-2735 4715:1932-6203 4480:1932-6203 3822:2251-6085 3789:ignored ( 3779:cite book 3764:1442-7230 3647:1055-0496 1901:16 August 1875:17 August 1841:17 August 1797:17 August 1742:0025-729X 1707:143769205 1699:0968-7599 1651:156652065 1643:1443-2447 1589:1037-6178 1543:245665993 1243:segmental 1078:dry zones 931:self-harm 775:neoplasms 771:neoplasms 757:cataracts 723:cot death 700:Diabetes 681:chlamydia 541:(12.1%), 500:Ken Wyatt 458:Ken Wyatt 454:Greg Hunt 419:In 2008, 213:Prior to 171:Frequency 162:Prognosis 153:Treatment 5913:Missions 5765:Dreaming 5662:Coolamon 5533:Politics 5377:Tjurunga 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