220:. Duty counsel has been found ineffective in multiple ways including significant delays in reaching duty counsel in some jurisdictions, and communication barriers between the accused and duty counsel due to intoxication, mental state, or disability. Further, duty counsel may be under resourced or overburdened, and the combinations of these ineffective factors can be enhanced in the presence of bias or racism. The overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the justice system reproduces false racist narratives of their criminality that inform counsel. Additionally, cultural and language barriers may exist between Indigenous persons and their duty counsel further impeding their access to effective representation.
80:. They make up approximately 30 per cent of all incarcerated individuals in Canada despite being approximately 4 per cent of the total population. Explanations for this overrepresentation include historical injustices – and the contemporary outcomes which are results of that history – faced by Indigenous peoples, as well as structural issues within the current criminal justice system itself. These issues include over-policing, ineffective representation in court, inadequate application of bail, and over-sentencing, which are all indications of
98:, or transgenerational trauma, can occur when an individual or group experiences a significant traumatic event. The larger the group that shares the experience, or length of time the experience is sustained can amplify the trauma experienced. Individual or group trauma becomes intergenerational when the stress response affects how individuals raise their own children including both how they parent, or their ability to parent effectively at all. If trauma is experienced over multiple generations, the effects of intergeneration trauma can accumulate.
24:
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individuals have chosen to self-represent are financial inaccessibility of effective counsel and dissatisfaction with existing counsel. The risk associated with self-representation is that laypersons are not educated in the law or the judicial process and they can become overwhelmed to their own detriment. Self-represented litigants are less likely to achieve fair settlements, have worse outcomes in family and financial matters and their cases take substantially longer to come to conclusion.
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which is a factor in engagements with the criminal justice system. Further, intergenerational trauma and gender inequality has resulted in
Indigenous women experiencing higher rates of post-traumatic stress syndrome and addiction. Mental health and addictions issues are also key factors in engagement
315:
Indigenous women experience higher rates of poverty, precarious employment, and are statistically more likely to be single care givers. Additionally, they are statistically more likely to experience violence. The combination of these factors results in
Indigenous women being significantly more likely
277:
are incentivizing factors to plead guilty. Innocence pleas require trial and bail must be granted to the accused to avoid pre-trial detention. Indigenous people may falsely plead guilty due to poverty, to avoid unreasonable restrictions on their movements or to detention to satisfy employment or care
240:
options to be granted at the discretion of the judge based on the effective arguments of both the defence and the prosecution. Those options include release without conditions, undertaking with conditions, and recognizance. The latter two include a promise to appear in court, posting of a financial
223:
Defence counsel can be prohibitively expensive for individuals experiencing poverty. Accused persons can seek the services of legal aid for defence counsel however, it can be difficult to secure effective counsel. Often legal aid defence lawyers face similar impairments of being under resourced and
211:
is a provincially managed legal aid system that provides free services to accused persons at their first court appearance if they are otherwise unrepresented. Duty counsel is responsible for supporting accused persons in understanding their legal rights, the legal process, and specifics relating to
429:
In 2018, the
Canadian federal government issued a report on the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security's investigation on Indigenous overrepresentation in the criminal justice system and subsequently issued 19 recommendations to improve equity of outcomes for Indigenous peoples.
418:
UNDRIP articles 5 and 40 both advocate for
Indigenous nations to revitalize and employ traditional legal structures for their peoples. Additionally, article 13.2 speaks to effective representation and participation by clarifying the requirement for language accessibility in all legal and official
344:
Additionally, the intergenerational trauma from both the historical legacy and contemporary structural nature of colonialism, negatively impacts
Indigenous parents resulting in Indigenous youth being overrepresented in the foster care system. Indigenous youth represent 52 per cent of all youth in
227:
Increasingly, accused persons are choosing to self-represent as is their right. Approximately 40 per cent of individuals appearing in family court appear in absence of counsel, and the trend of increased persons self-representing in also experienced in civil court proceedings. The primary reasons
144:
The combination of these colonial processes created a complex history of trauma for
Indigenous peoples; however, of all the contributing factors, the residential school system has been identified as of primary significance. This due to both its multigenerational nature and the age at which
296:
both recognized this issue, and mandated justices to allow for provisions in sentencing that considered the historical and socio-economic factors that bring
Indigenous peoples before the court, in order to reduce Indigenous over representation in the carceral system.
241:
surety, and have escalating sets of conditions at the discretion of the judge. Breaching either of these may result in forfeiture of the surety and/or additional criminal charges, and breaching recognizance may be accompanied by additional fines.
340:
Due to the colonial legacy of the destruction of the
Indigenous family unit through the residential school system, Indigenous youth are statistically more likely to come from single care giver homes resulting in less support and supervision.
1582:
411:, have recognized the severity of the issue of Indigenous overrepresentation in the criminal justice system. Subsequently, they have called upon the Canadian federal government to, among other interventions, commit to ratifying the
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were created in 1874 for purpose of bringing "British justice" to the
Canadian west. General Order of 1890: no native prisoner allowed outside the guard room w/o a ball and chain represented a shift in attitudes.
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Indigenous peoples often are not granted a bail option as they are perceived as ineligible due to family scenarios, financial positions, or a bias perception that
Indigenous persons are more likely to
87:
Recently, Indigenous and federal governments have come together to address this systemic issue and improve the equity of outcomes for Indigenous peoples within the Canadian criminal justice system.
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overburdened while experiencing cultural and language barriers between themselves and their assigned clients. As with duty counsel, these factors can be aggravated in the presence of bias.
217:
740:"ARCHIVED - An Act for the gradual enfranchisement of Indians, the better management of Indian affairs, and to extend the provisions of the Act 31st Victoria, Chapter 42, S.C. 1869, c. 6"
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legislation was passed that sought to erase Indigenous culture, language, and disrupt gender equality within Indigenous communities. Ultimately, the settler state endeavoured to
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248:. The overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the justice system reproduces false racist narratives of their criminality that inform both judges and the prosecution.
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109:, are the root causes of intergenerational trauma negatively affecting Indigenous peoples today. These include dispossession of Indigenous lands through the
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Indigenous women comprise 42 per cent of women in custody. This is despite the fact that they comprise 4.9 per cent of the female population of Canada.
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Contemporary outcomes stemming from intergenerational trauma experienced by Indigenous peoples are overrepresentation in all negative categories of
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with the criminal justice system. Due to the combination of all these factors Indigenous women are statistically more likely to participate in
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Beaulieu, Alain (2014). "The Acquisition of Aboriginal Land in Canada: The Genealogy of an Ambivalent System". In Belmessous, Saliha (ed.).
2010:
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principles are inconsistently and unreliably used so there has been little positive impact to Indigenous peoples since the ruling in 1999.
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that criminalize Indigenous people. This results in Indigenous people being over charged both in the volume and severity of offences.
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individuals in public. Indigenous peoples are twice as likely to be chosen to be surveilled by, or intervened with, by police due to
1907:
1862:
1119:
Jeffries, Samantha; Stenning, Philip (July 2014). "Sentencing, Aboriginal Offenders: Law, Policy, and Practice in Three Countries".
60:
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1958:
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Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
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Accused persons have access to three types of representation in Canada, duty counsel, defence counsel, and self-representation.
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Once in front of a judge, Indigenous peoples in Canada have historically received more and longer incarceration sentences. The
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Indigenous accused report that the conditions of associated with bail are often unreasonable, specifically for those in small,
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their case, investigation, or engagement with police. Duty counsel is provided to ensure that every accused is afforded their
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including poverty, precarious housing and employment, experience with violence, and disrupted family and support systems.
149:
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Yi, Youngmin; Wildeman, Christopher (Spring 2018). "Can Foster Care Interventions Diminish Justice System Inequality?".
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84:. While these issues affect Indigenous peoples broadly, there are specific implications for Indigenous women and youth.
73:
1260:"Overrepresentation of Indigenous Youth in Canada's Criminal Justice System: Perspectives of Indigenous Young People"
34:
426:, calls to action 50–52 seek for the improvement of equity for Indigenous peoples within the Canadian legal system.
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The Overlap Between the Child Welfare and Youth Criminal Justice Systems: Documenting "Cross-Over Kids" in Manitoba
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Vijaykumar, Malini (2018). "A Crisis of Conscience: Miscarriages of Justice and Indigenous Defendants in Canada".
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Youth who spend time in care are statistically more likely to have engagements with the criminal justice system
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The National Self-Represented Litigants Project: Identifying and Meeting the Needs of Self-Represented Litigants
500:"The Intergenerational Effects of Indian Residential Schools: Implications for the Concept of Historical Trauma"
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Indigenous youth make up 43 per cent of youth in custody despite being 8 per cent of Canada's youth population.
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Branch, Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications (3 November 2008).
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has formally recognized the prevalence of systemic discrimination within the criminal justice system.
1980:
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2015:
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1443:"Review of Research on Criminal Victimization and First Nations, Métis and Inuit Peoples [
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Review of Research on Criminal Victimization and First Nations, Métis and Inuit Peoples [
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Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Volume 1: Looking Forward, Looking Back
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Liberalism, Surveillance, and Resistance: Indigenous Communities in Western Canada, 1877–1927
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as they may include limitations on who you may or may not have contact with. Additionally,
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2020:
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Bertrand, Lorne D.; Paetsch, Joanne J.; Bala, Nicholas; Birnbaum, Rachel (December 2012).
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81:
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840:"Intersection of Indigenous Peoples and Police: Questions About Contact and Confidence"
626:. The West Unbound: Social and Cultural Studies. Edmonton: Athabasca University Press.
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499:
208:
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815:. Prince George, British Columbia: National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health
787:. Prince George, British Columbia: National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health
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Aboriginal Peoples and Historic Trauma: The Process of Intergenerational Transmission
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are difficult to comply with for individuals, without support, who experience
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These factors all contribute to engagements with the criminal justice system.
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1009:"Self-Represented Litigants in Family Law Disputes: Views of Alberta Lawyers"
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individuals experienced the trauma associated with residential schooling.
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Health Inequalities and Social Determinants of Aboriginal Peoples' Health
2000:
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land and restriction of personal freedoms through the enactment of the
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Ontario Chapter of the Association of Family & Conciliation Courts
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Canada, Government of Canada; Indigenous Services (2 November 2018).
1081:"Table of Contents - Guilty pleas among Indigenous people in Canada"
121:. Additionally, Indigenous family units were disrupted through the
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United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act
1542:
Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security (2020).
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1518:"Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action"
1497:"United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples"
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Cesaroni, Carla; Grol, Chris; Fredericks, Kaitlin (March 2019).
237:
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1441:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (24 October 2006).
919:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (9 November 1999).
1472:"Evidence - SECU (42-1) - No. 85 - House of Commons of Canada"
1167:"Adult and youth correctional statistics in Canada, 2017/2018"
413:
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
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paragraph 10(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
17:
1079:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (5 August 2016).
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Bala, Nicholas; De Filippis, Rebecca; Hunter, Katie (2013).
2083:
National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women
1219:"Aboriginal Women and the Canadian Criminal Justice System"
1191:
Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (25 October 2017).
559:
Empire by Treaty: Negotiating European Expansion, 1600–1900
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Specific issues for Indigenous youth in the justice system
308:
Specific issues for Indigenous women in the justice system
159:
Historical relations between police and Indigenous peoples
1370:. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Manitoba Center for Health Policy.
900:. Legal Aid Research Series. Department of Justice Canada
498:
Bombay, Amy; Matheson, Kimberly; Anisman, Hymie (2014).
561:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 101–132.
372:
1544:"Indigenous People in the Federal Correctional System"
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Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (9 May 2019).
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838:; Angell, G. Brent; McCue, Harvey A. (October 2019).
1301:"Reducing the number of Indigenous children in care"
1217:
Reitmanova, Sylvia; Henderson, Robyn (30 May 2019).
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Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice
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Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice
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Richard Cardinal: Cry from a Diary of a Métis Child
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Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology
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A Review of Brydges Duty Counsel Services in Canada
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Criminal sentencing of Indigenous peoples in Canada
1193:"Aboriginal Peoples Highlight Tables, 2016 Census"
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141:all Indigenous Peoples into the dominant society.
2362:Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians
921:"Charterpedia - Section 10(b) – Right to counsel"
674:. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.
466:Chartrand, Larry; McKay, Celeste (January 2006).
1341:"Crossover Youth: Improving Ontario's Responses"
1523:. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
891:Verdun-Jones, Simon; Tijerino, Adamira (2015).
1576:
1514:Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
988:. National Self-Represented Litigants Project
663:Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
424:Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
113:in which Indigenous peoples received limited
45:Please help adding a more precise page range.
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2454:Violence against Indigenous people in Canada
1324:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
763:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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172:Issues within the criminal justice system
76:are significantly overrepresented in the
61:Learn how and when to remove this message
1930:Violence against Wetʼsuwetʼen protesters
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806:Reading, Charlotte; Wien, Fred (2009).
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711:Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
329:, an activity criminalized in Canada.
105:enacted on Indigenous peoples, by the
1361:Brownell, Marni; et al. (2020).
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403:Indigenous leadership, including the
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2011:Justice for our Stolen Children Camp
1591:Violence and discrimination against
2071:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
1679:First Nations nutrition experiments
232:Inadequate application of bail
31:This article cites its sources but
2401:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2339:The Unnatural and Accidental Women
150:social determinants of poor health
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2100:An Act to amend the Criminal Code
201:Ineffective representation
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1959:Death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet
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2154:British Columbia Treaty Process
1054:"How does BAIL work in Canada?"
479:. Department of Justice Canada
393:Canadian Department of Justice
1:
2444:Indigenous peoples in Canada
1593:Indigenous peoples in Canada
74:Indigenous peoples in Canada
2214:Old-growth logging protests
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1981:Judge David William Ramsay
979:MacFarlane, Julie (2013).
236:In Canada there are three
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2102:for trafficking of minors
1969:Saskatoon freezing deaths
1653:Residential school system
598:(motion picture). Toronto
405:Assembly of First Nations
165:North-West Mounted Police
123:residential school system
2043:Walking With Our Sisters
1964:Killing of Chantel Moore
1858:Winnipeg serial killings
1617:Gradual Civilization Act
1277:10.1177/0004865818778746
617:Smith, Kevin D. (2009).
517:10.1177/1363461513503380
504:Transcultural Psychiatry
96:Intergenerational trauma
2219:Trans Mountain pipeline
1942:Gustafsen Lake standoff
1502:. United Nations. 2007.
1236:10.22329/csw.v17i2.5899
859:10.3138/cjccj.2018-0064
590:Williams, Alex (2015).
288:Supreme Court of Canada
78:Canadian justice system
2194:Caledonia land dispute
2048:Women's Memorial March
1808:Healthcare inequality
1696:High Arctic relocation
1400:The Future of Children
1133:10.3138/cjccj.2014.S03
1034:Cite journal requires
409:Métis National Council
1893:Jean Virginia Sampare
1878:Tammy Lamondin-Gagnon
1412:10.1353/foc.2018.0002
744:www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca
300:Despite this ruling,
271:precarious employment
257:abstinence conditions
2274:Missing and Murdered
1834:Missing and Murdered
1674:Forced sterilization
1551:Government of Canada
1223:Critical Social Work
1171:www150.statcan.gc.ca
1018:10.11575/PRISM/32514
278:giving obligations.
253:isolated communities
191:intervention against
183:discretionary powers
129:. Further, specific
37:ranges are too broad
2189:Burnt Church Crisis
2016:Moose Hide campaign
1888:Helen Betty Osborne
1787:Criminal sentencing
1761:Structural violence
1608:Settler colonialism
1447:] 1990 to 2001"
1197:www12.statcan.gc.ca
473:], 1990 to 2001
2199:Clayoquot protests
1792:Mass incarceration
1765:and discrimination
834:Alberton, Amy M.;
371:. You can help by
318:precarious housing
273:, and acting as a
216:as articulated in
195:racist stereotypes
103:colonial processes
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2204:Keystone Pipeline
2159:Yukon Land Claims
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2038:Sisters in Spirit
1989:
1988:
1873:Pamela Holopainen
1747:
1746:
1701:RCMP dog killings
1623:Numbered Treaties
1476:www.ourcommons.ca
1451:www.justice.gc.ca
1377:978-1-896489-99-5
1305:www.sac-isc.gc.ca
1085:www.justice.gc.ca
925:www.justice.gc.ca
681:978-0-660-02078-5
633:978-1-897425-40-4
576:978-0-19-939178-3
389:
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327:survival sex work
181:Police have wide
111:Numbered Treaties
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1947:Ipperwash Crisis
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1918:Police brutality
1908:Lisa Marie Young
1898:Loretta Saunders
1863:Immaculate Basil
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261:substance abuse
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82:systemic racism
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35:page references
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1058:Avant Law, PC
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419:proceedings.
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367:This section
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177:Over-policing
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127:Sixties Scoop
124:
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107:settler state
104:
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2260:Foster Child
2258:
2253:Finding Dawn
2251:
2111:
2099:
2006:History wars
1883:Serena McKay
1791:
1772:Birth alerts
1729:Potlatch ban
1665: /
1627:
1615:
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1537:
1525:. Retrieved
1508:
1491:
1479:. Retrieved
1475:
1466:
1454:. Retrieved
1450:
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1406:(1): 37–58.
1403:
1399:
1393:
1381:. Retrieved
1363:
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1334:
1308:. Retrieved
1304:
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1200:. Retrieved
1196:
1186:
1174:. Retrieved
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1114:
1106:"R v Gladue"
1100:
1088:. Retrieved
1084:
1074:
1062:. Retrieved
1057:
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1027:cite journal
1002:
990:. Retrieved
981:
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924:
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715:
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686:the original
667:
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619:
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373:adding to it
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291:
290:decision in
285:
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187:surveillance
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2318:Secret Path
2141:land claims
2057:Commissions
1804:Foster care
1724:Pass system
1719:Stereotypes
1229:(2): 2–19.
446:R v Ipeelee
139:enfranchise
119:pass system
2423:Categories
2325:This River
2209:Oka Crisis
2137:Indigenous
1658:gravesites
1629:Indian Act
1600:Background
1481:2 November
1456:2 November
1310:2 November
1202:2 November
1176:2 November
1090:3 November
1064:3 November
930:3 November
749:2 November
453:References
415:(UNDRIP).
380:April 2021
293:R v Gladue
135:assimilate
131:Indian Act
91:Background
2164:Land Back
1994:Responses
1420:1550-1558
1286:0004-8658
1245:1543-9372
1149:144546760
1141:1707-7753
966:0068-1849
875:213360583
867:1707-7753
713:(2013) .
642:1915-819X
526:1363-4615
399:Responses
246:re-offend
101:Multiple
51:July 2021
41:incorrect
2288:Pig Girl
1752:Specific
1645:Genocide
1516:(2015).
1428:51961754
1320:cite web
759:cite web
665:(2015).
544:24065606
434:See also
407:and the
263:issues.
125:and the
2375:Portals
2127:Related
2076:Holiday
2001:AmINext
1952:Inquiry
1527:19 July
1383:18 July
1108:. 1999.
992:18 July
904:18 July
819:18 July
791:18 July
723:19 July
695:19 July
647:18 July
602:18 July
535:4232330
483:19 July
267:Poverty
189:of and
115:reserve
2389:Canada
2129:topics
1754:issues
1711:Racism
1426:
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345:care.
302:Gladue
2332:Taken
2233:Media
2178:
2139:
2092:Legal
2066:IRSSA
1920:
1836:
1763:
1547:(PDF)
1521:(PDF)
1500:(PDF)
1424:S2CID
1368:(PDF)
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898:(PDF)
871:S2CID
843:(PDF)
813:(PDF)
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689:(PDF)
672:(PDF)
624:(PDF)
477:(PDF)
185:over
2245:list
1935:2020
1663:list
1529:2021
1483:2020
1458:2020
1416:ISSN
1385:2021
1372:ISBN
1326:link
1312:2020
1282:ISSN
1241:ISSN
1204:2020
1178:2020
1137:ISSN
1092:2020
1066:2020
1040:help
994:2021
962:ISSN
932:2020
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863:ISSN
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793:2021
765:link
751:2020
725:2021
697:2021
676:ISBN
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638:ISSN
628:ISBN
604:2021
571:ISBN
540:PMID
522:ISSN
485:2021
391:The
238:bail
163:The
137:and
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2176:and
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