1007:
995:
1503:
1252:
1164:
1491:
902:
1152:
851:
749:
470:
882:
1474:
1322:
878:
have fundamentally uniform structures under the X-bar schema, which makes it unnecessary to assume that different phrases have different structures, unlike when one adopts the PSR. (This resolves the second issue above.) In the meanwhile, one needs to be wary of when such empty positions are representationally omitted as in Figure 4.
1348:
870:
1176:
Finally the directionality of the specifier node is in essence unspecified as well, although this is subject to debate: Some argue that the relevant node is necessarily left-branching across languages, the idea of which is (partially) motivated by the fact that both
English and Japanese have subjects
877:
It is important that even if there are no candidates that can fit into the specifier and complement positions, these positions are syntactically present, and thus they are merely empty and unoccupied. (This is a natural consequence of the binarity principle.) This means that all phrasal categories
846:
The specifier, head, and complement are obligatory; hence, a phrasal category XP must contain one specifier, one head, and one complement. On the other hand, the adjunct is optional; hence, a phrasal category contains zero or more adjuncts. Accordingly, when a phrasal category XP does not have an
1481:
It is obvious that this structure fails to capture the NP modification reading because modifies the VP no matter how one tries to illustrate the structure. The X-bar theory, however, successfully captures the ambiguity as demonstrated in the configurations in Figure 14 and 15 below, because it
1259:
As is obvious, the IP hypothesis makes it possible to regard the grammatical unit of sentence as a phrasal category. It is also important that the configuration in Figure 10 is fully compatible with the central assumptions of the X-bar theory, namely the headedness principle and the binarity
1070:
variable aspect of the grammars. One can either set their parameter with the values of "+" or "-": In the case of the head parameter, one configures the parameter of , depending on what language they primarily speak. If this parameter is configured to be , what results is
1419:(BPS): A replacement of the X-bar theory put forth by Chomsky (1995a, 1995b). It dispenses with a "template" structure like the X-bar schema, and yields syntactic structures by (iterative applications of) an operation called
1614:(eement) along the proposal by Pollock (1989). The functional category Agr, however, was rejected by Chomsky (1995) because it presumably made no contributions at LF. For this reason, clauses are generally assumed to be
1240:
of the past tense. This is consistent with the headedness principle, which requires that a phrase have a head, because a sentence (or a clause) necessarily involves an element that determines the inflection of a verb.
986:, which involves two adjuncts, may have either of the structures in Figure 6 or Figure 7. (The figures follow the convention of omitting the inner structures of certain phrasal categories with triangles.)
1381:: A hypothesis on the inner structure of VP proposed by researchers such as Fukui and Speas (1986) and Kitagawa (1986). It assumes that the sentential subject is base-generated in Spec-VP, not in Spec-IP.
1647:(PF) after syntactic formation, and in this case, it serves to move the "sound" of the inflectional suffix /-s/ and adjoin it onto the verb. Chomsky (1981) calls this kind of tense affix movement
1177:
on the left of a VP, whereas others such as Saito and Fukui (1998) argue that the directionality of the node is not fixed and needs to be externally determined, for example by the head parameter.
1039:: One is left-branching, while the other is right-branching. Accordingly, the X-bar theory, more specifically the binarity principle, does not impose a restriction on how a node branches.
909:
Figure 5 suggests that syntactic structures are derived in a bottom-up fashion under the X-bar theory. More specifically, the structures are derived via the following processes.
1423:, which serves to connect two syntactic objects such as words and phrases into one. Some radical versions of it even reject syntactic category labels such as V and A. See also
756:
As in Figure 1, the phrasal category XP is notated by an X with a double overbar. For typewriting reasons, the bar symbol is often substituted by the prime ('), as in
1224:), following the notational convention that phrasal categories are represented in the form of XP, with two letters. The category I includes auxiliary verbs such as
714:: The "X-bar" is a grammatical unit larger than X, thus than a lexeme, and the X-double-bar (=XP) outsizes the X(-single)-bar. X-double-bar categories are equal to
1202:
However, this structure violates the headedness principle because it has an exocentric, headless structure, and would also violate the binarity principle if an
1006:
994:
791:
The X-bar schema consists of a head and its circumstantial components, in accordance with the headedness principle. The relevant components are as follows:
1251:
1393:: An analysis put forth by Larson (1988), which assumes two-layered structures of VP. Later in Chomsky (1995a, 1995b), the higher VP was replaced by
635:
involves the PSR of "VP → V (PP) (PP)". This indicates that it is necessary to posit new PSRs every time when an undefined structure is observed in
1502:
982:, but the X-bar schema does not specify the directionality of branching because the binarity principle does not have a rule on it. For example,
889:
In illustrating syntactic structures this way, at least one X'-level node is present in any circumstance because the complement is obligatory.
2462:
1905:
1748:
497:
574:
566:
387:
952:
It is important that all the processes except for the third are obligatory. This means that one phrasal category necessarily includes X,
942:
An intermediate projection combines with the specifier, forming a complete phrasal category XP (X-double-bar). This category is called
2689:
1490:
1044:
939:(An adjunct, if there is any, combines with an X' to form another X'. If there is more than one adjunct, this process is repeated.)
1473:
881:
585:
approaches, the theory's central assumptions are still valid in different forms and terms in many theories of minimalist syntax.
2745:
2725:
2674:
1540:
1387:: A hypothesis proposed by Abney (1987), according to whom noun phrases are not NPs but DPs headed by the functional category D.
1730:
669:
The X-bar theory is a theory that attempts to resolve these issues by assuming the mold or template phrasal structure of "XP".
347:
125:
930:, X') node, which constitutes a semi-phrasal category (a syntactic category not as big as a phrase). This category is called
407:
352:
1321:
1519:
as well. There is always a unilateral relation from syntax to semantics (never from semantics to syntax) in any version of
558:
had, representative of which is the proliferation of grammatical rules, which is against the thesis of generative grammar.
2730:
2679:
1459:, in which the PP modifies the NP. Under the PSR model, the sentence above is subject to the following two parsing rules.
562:
382:
73:
1206:(auxiliary) occurs, because the S node will then be ternary-branching. Given these, Chomsky (1981) proposed that S is an
327:
193:
1163:
2750:
1836:
Jackendoff, Ray (1977b) Constraints on Phrase
Structure Rules, in P. W. Culicover, T. Wasow & A. Akmajian (eds.),
1357:
447:
153:
1377:
2715:
1632:
1528:
1347:
801:
The node that is in a sister relation with an X' node. This is a term that refers to the syntactic position itself.
570:
784:
The headedness principle resolves the issues 1 and 3 above simultaneously. The binarity principle is important to
2740:
2579:
962:
490:
437:
337:
163:
869:
2669:
2654:
2649:
2594:
2094:
1536:
1151:
820:
561:
X-bar theory was incorporated into both transformational and nontransformational theories of syntax, including
518:
is a model of phrase-structure grammar and a theory of syntactic category formation that was first proposed by
342:
285:
100:
35:
2644:
2526:
1062:
1056:
648:
442:
280:
257:
2411:, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts. Reprinted in Kitagawa (1994), Routledge.
2118:(Kenkyusha's Dictionary of Theoretical Linguistics Enlarged ed.). Tokyo: Kenkyusha. pp. 125–126.
1957:(Kenkyusha's Dictionary of Theoretical Linguistics Enlarged ed.). Tokyo: Kenkyusha. pp. 521–523.
1067:
828:
683:
594:
555:
392:
359:
312:
228:
208:
188:
90:
68:
63:
892:
Next, the X'' and X' inherit the characteristics of the head X. This trait inheritance is referred to as
2659:
1415:
659:
582:
168:
2365:
Chomsky, Noam (1973). Conditions on
Transformations. In: Stephen R. Anderson and Paul Kiparsky (eds.)
2710:
1694:
731:
687:
609:
483:
412:
322:
203:
148:
45:
1087:
and its corresponding
Japanese sentence have the structures in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.
2614:
2453:
Chomsky, Noam (1995). "Bare Phrase
Structure". In Campos, Héctor; Kempchinsky, Paula Marie (eds.).
1420:
253:
183:
158:
130:
469:
2694:
2629:
2624:
2604:
2589:
2301:
2179:
1585:
1559:
1520:
1424:
1269:
805:
777:
738:
617:
578:
551:
531:
473:
452:
422:
377:
332:
300:
290:
178:
173:
2639:
1664:
is also regarded as a complementizer, but many researchers such as
Nakajima (1996) analyze that
644:
901:
2634:
2458:
1901:
1744:
1644:
1273:
1080:
1042:
When it comes to the head and the complement, their relative order is determined based on the
835:
640:
317:
295:
238:
665:
It fails to capture sentence ambiguities because it assumes flat, nonhierarchical structures.
658:
such as "VP → NP A PP", because as in 1 and 2, the PSR countenances phrases that do not have
2735:
2720:
2609:
2569:
2293:
2171:
1893:
1736:
1572:
979:
727:
715:
655:
543:
535:
417:
248:
243:
218:
213:
198:
2319:
Bresnan, Joan (1970). "On
Complementizers: Toward a Syntactic Theory of Complement Types".
1740:
850:
2664:
1532:
598:
2212:
Pollock, Jean-Yves (1989). "Verb
Movement, Universal Grammar, and the Structure of IP".
2619:
1763:
Chomsky, Noam (1970). Remarks on
Nominalization. In: R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.)
1278:
1203:
1050:
527:
262:
2704:
2305:
1363:
523:
2183:
748:
1408:
519:
305:
95:
17:
1439:
The PSR has the shortcoming of being incapable of capturing sentence ambiguities.
1680:
is not a C: It is subject to debate as to which syntactic category it belongs to.
2564:
1889:
Grammatical theory: From transformational grammar to constraint-based approaches
1689:
1668:
does not occur in the head position of CP, but in the specifier position of CP (
1338:
1330:
816:
fits. The head determines the form and characteristics of the phrase as a whole.
723:
719:
703:
628:
511:
457:
432:
53:
2297:
2584:
2162:
Saito, Mamoru; Naoki, Fukui (1998). "Order in Phrase
Structure and Movement".
1212:
975:
636:
427:
110:
1887:
2684:
2496:
Bowers, John (2001). Predication. In: Mark Baltin and Chris Collins (eds.),
2253:
Eigogaku Yogo Jiten (A Dictionary of Technical Terms of English Linguistics)
2175:
2149:
Eigogaku Yogo Jiten (A Dictionary of Technical Terms of English Linguistics)
2081:
Eigogaku Yogo Jiten (A Dictionary of Technical Terms of English Linguistics)
2044:
Eigogaku Yogo Jiten (A Dictionary of Technical Terms of English Linguistics)
2029:
Eigogaku Yogo Jiten (A Dictionary of Technical Terms of English Linguistics)
699:
402:
397:
233:
223:
115:
105:
1897:
1482:
assumes hierarchical structures in accordance with the binarity principle.
1075:
languages such as English, and if it is configured to be , what results is
639:, which amounts to adding an indiscriminate number of grammatical rules to
534:
put forth in the 1950s by Chomsky. It attempts to capture the structure of
1294:
Under the PSR, complement clauses were assumed to constitute the category
1892:(4th revised and extended ed.). Language Science Press. p. 75.
1673:
1216:(ection), and later in Chomsky (1986a), this category was relabelled as
1524:
711:
707:
613:
2391:
Fukui, Naoki and Speas, Margaret J. (1986) Specifiers and Projection.
2599:
2574:
813:
120:
1470:
The sentence's structure under these PSRs would be as in Figure 13.
1060:
is a shared, invariable rule of grammar across languages, whereas a
2457:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 51–109.
1472:
1407:: A hypothesis proposed by Bowers (1993, 2001), according to whom
1346:
1320:
1250:
926:
The head and the complement are combined to form an X-single-bar (
900:
880:
868:
849:
747:
1244:
Assuming that S constitutes an IP, the structure of the sentence
1113:
1099:
695:
691:
2433:
Larson, Richard K. (1988). On the Double Object Construction.
1515:
Thus, the X-bar theory resolves the fourth issue mentioned in
1531:(LF) at which meanings are computed. This is so under any of
913:
A lexeme is fitted into the head. Heads are sometimes called
741:
have the structure in Figure 1. This structure is called the
1127:
1329:
Moreover, Chomsky (1986a) assumes that the landing site of
612:
such as "S → NP Aux VP". This is contrary to the fact that
2016:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–115.
1355:
In this derivation, the I-to-C movement is an instance of
1031:). What is important is the directionality of the nodes N'
593:
The X-bar theory was developed to resolve the issues that
1597:
Jackendoff (1977a) assumes bar-levels up to X-triple-bar.
1306:
Chomsky (1986a) proposed that this category is in fact a
919:
because they are X-zero-bar-level categories, notated as
643:. This poses serious issues from the perspectives of the
554:
X. It played a significant role in resolving issues that
2380:
Incorporation: A Theory of Grammatical Function Changing
2273:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–99.
530:(1974, 1977a, 1977b), along the lines of the theory of
956:, and XP (=X''). Moreover, nodes bigger than X (thus,
654:
It wrongly rules in structures that are impossible in
1970:
Basic Seisei Bunpo (The Basics of Generative Grammar)
984:
John read a long book of linguistics with a red cover
604:
The PSR approach has the following four main issues.
542:, basing itself on the assumption that any phrase in
2284:
Nakajima, Heizo (1996). "Complementizer Selection".
1643:). Affix hopping is an operation that is applied at
1735:(3 ed.). Oxford University Press. 2014-01-01.
1401:(little/small v, traditionally written in italics).
1248:, for example, can be illustrated as in Figure 10.
2478:Bowers, John (1993). "The Syntax of Predication".
1411:are PredPs headed by the functional category Pred.
842:A modifier for the phrase constituted by the head.
763:The X-bar theory embodies two central principles.
2369:, 232–286. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
2134:Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1318:, for example, then has the following structure.
581:has largely abandoned X-bar schemata in favor of
2422:The English Noun Phrase in Its Sentential Aspect
1606:The functional category I was later replaced by
1025:the long book of linguistics is with a red cover
1021:the book of linguistics with a red cover is long
1447:This sentence is ambiguous between the reading
682:The "X" in the X-bar theory is equivalent to a
1523:because syntactic computation starts from the
788:and ambiguity, which will be explained below.
2498:The Handbook of Contemporary Syntactic Theory
2455:Evolution and revolution in linguistic theory
1019:The structure in Figure 6 yields the meaning
847:adjunct, it forms the structure in Figure 2.
491:
8:
2264:
2262:
1732:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics
1527:, then continues into the syntax, then into
2353:Theory of Complementation in English Syntax
2339:Theory of Complementation in English Syntax
2271:Analysing English Sentences: Second Edition
2014:Analysing English Sentences: Second Edition
1781:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
1765:Reading in English Transformational Grammar
1344:, for example, is derived as in Figure 12.
1045:principles-and-parameters model of language
1028:
538:with a single uniform structure called the
2548:Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar
2199:The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory
2007:
2005:
1855:The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory
1246:John studies linguistics at the university
498:
484:
40:
1821:X-bar-Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure
1236:of the third person singular present and
686:in mathematics: It can be substituted by
2521:
2519:
2448:
2446:
2382:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2231:
2229:
2227:
2127:
2125:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
1840:, Academic Press, New York, pp. 249–83.
1722:
1551:
52:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1832:
1830:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1799:. Indiana University Linguistics Club.
1194:(sentence) is illustrated as follows.
2095:"Basic English Syntax with Exercises"
1866:
1864:
1848:
1846:
1790:
1788:
627:, for example, involves the PSR of a
550:(X phrase) that is headed by a given
34:" redirects here. For the sound, see
7:
1797:Introduction to the X-bar Convention
1741:10.1093/acref/9780199675128.001.0001
1635:of the whole sentence is derived by
1618:s headed by the functional category
1397:P headed by the functional category
1083:. For example, the English sentence
1054:(not by the X-bar schema itself). A
577:(HPSG). Although recent work in the
575:head-driven phrase structure grammar
567:generalized phrase structure grammar
388:Conservative and innovative language
1631:In the structure in Figure 10, the
812:The core of a phrase, into which a
522:in 1970 reformulating the ideas of
2690:Principles-and-parameters approach
1996:Lectures on Government and Binding
1622:in contemporary linguistic theory.
1584:Phrasal structures that include a
1571:The parentheses indicate that the
1310:headed by the functional category
1210:headed by the functional category
780:branches into two different nodes.
737:The X-bar theory assumes that all
526:(1951), and further developed by
25:
2393:MIT Working Papers in Linguistics
1779:Methods in Structural Linguistics
1455:modifies the VP, and the reading
1333:is the specifier position of CP (
1282:, and representative of them are
2675:Revised Extended Standard Theory
2409:Subjects in Japanese and English
1676:do. This amounts to saying that
1541:Revised Extended Standard Theory
1501:
1489:
1190:Under the PSR, the structure of
1162:
1150:
1005:
993:
633:John talked to the man in person
468:
2151:. Tokyo: Sanseido. p. 424.
2114:Haraguchi; et al. (2016).
2083:. Tokyo: Sanseido. p. 489.
2046:. Tokyo: Sanseido. p. 249.
2031:. Tokyo: Sanseido. p. 587.
1953:Haraguchi; et al. (2016).
1928:Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
1702:manner, thus via every Spec-CP.
1692:is subject to Chomsky's (1973)
1558:Phrasal structures that lack a
1516:
866:has the structure in Figure 3.
27:Linguistics theory about syntax
2367:A Festschrift for Morris Halle
2255:. Tokyo: Sanseido. p. 16.
1457:I saw a man who had binoculars
1378:VP-internal subject hypothesis
1:
2680:Government and binding theory
2513:. Doctoral dissertation, MIT.
2424:. Doctoral dissertation, MIT.
2341:, Doctoral dissertation, MIT.
1711:See Baker (1988) for details.
1449:I saw a man, using binoculars
974:Figures 1–5 are based on the
563:government and binding theory
2407:Kitagawa, Yoshihisa (1986).
2116:Zouhoban Chomsky Riron Jiten
1955:Zouhoban Chomsky Riron Jiten
1443:I saw a man with binoculars.
328:Functional discourse grammar
194:Ethnography of communication
2511:Origins of Phrase Structure
2068:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1998:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1930:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1857:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1823:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1358:subject-auxiliary inversion
1316:I think that John is honest
1139:John-NOM apple-ACC eat-PAST
1122:
1108:
1094:
1048:, more specifically by the
970:Directionality of branching
448:Second-language acquisition
2767:
2298:10.1515/tlir.1996.13.2.143
2251:Araki, Kazuo, ed. (1999).
2240:. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
2147:Araki, Kazuo, ed. (1999).
2079:Araki, Kazuo, ed. (1999).
2042:Araki, Kazuo, ed. (1999).
2027:Araki, Kazuo, ed. (1999).
1968:Kishimoto, Hideki (2009).
1361:(SAI), or more generally,
1023:, and the one in Figure 7
770:: Every phrase has a head.
571:lexical-functional grammar
126:Syntax–semantics interface
29:
2580:Constituent (linguistics)
2509:Stowell, Timothy (1981).
2420:Abney, Steven P. (1987).
2201:. New York: Plenum Press.
1819:Jackendoff, Ray (1977a).
1767:, 184–221. Waltham: Ginn.
960:and XP nodes) are called
438:Philosophy of linguistics
338:Interactional linguistics
2670:Extended Standard Theory
2655:Phrase structure grammar
2650:Transformational grammar
2595:Complement (linguistics)
2269:Radford, Andrew (2016).
2012:Radford, Andrew (2016).
1795:Jackendoff, Ray (1974).
1537:Extended Standard Theory
1371:Other phrasal structures
864:John studies linguistics
36:velar ejective fricative
2746:Linguistics terminology
2726:Syntactic relationships
2645:Poverty of the stimulus
2378:Baker, Mark C. (1988).
2321:Foundations of Language
2176:10.1162/002438998553815
2132:Chomsky, Noam (1986b).
2064:Chomsky, Noam (1986a).
1972:. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo.
1886:Müller, Stefan (2020).
1777:Harris, Zellig (1951).
1136:John-ga ringo-o tabe-ta
1029:#Hierarchical structure
933:intermediate projection
706:. These categories are
649:poverty of the stimulus
2546:Chomsky, Noam (1972).
2351:Bresnan, Joan (1979).
2238:The Minimalist Program
2236:Chomsky, Noam (1995).
2197:Chomsky, Noam (1981).
1994:Chomsky, Noam (1981).
1926:Chomsky, Noam (1965).
1898:10.5281/zenodo.3992307
1871:Chomsky, Noam (1957).
1853:Chomsky, Noam (1955).
1698:, and is applied in a
1478:
1435:Hierarchical structure
1352:
1326:
1256:
1220:(hence constitutes an
1119:
1105:
1091:
916:zero-level projections
906:
886:
874:
855:
753:
660:endocentric structures
625:John talked to the man
595:phrase structure rules
556:phrase structure rules
275:Theoretical frameworks
229:Philosophy of language
209:History of linguistics
2660:Phrase structure rule
2500:, 299–333, Blackwell.
2337:Bresnan, Joan (1972)
2286:The Linguistic Review
1539:(Chomsky, 1972), and
1476:
1416:Bare Phrase Structure
1350:
1324:
1268:Words that introduce
1254:
1181:Structure of sentence
904:
884:
872:
853:
831:required by the head.
751:
620:in all circumstances.
610:exocentric structures
583:bare phrase structure
169:Conversation analysis
2731:Syntactic categories
2550:. The Hague: Mouton.
2355:. New York: Garland.
2136:. New York: Praeger.
1875:. The Hague: Mouton.
1873:Syntactic Structures
1695:subjacency condition
1575:in them is optional.
1337:). Accordingly, the
858:For example, the NP
768:Headedness principle
688:syntactic categories
413:Internet linguistics
323:Construction grammar
2615:Functional category
1142:'John ate an apple'
623:While the sentence
348:Systemic functional
143:Applied linguistics
85:General linguistics
18:Inflectional phrase
2751:Syntactic theories
2695:Minimalist Program
2630:Generative grammar
2625:Node (linguistics)
2605:Syntactic category
2590:Head (linguistics)
2480:Linguistic Inquiry
2435:Linguistic Inquiry
2214:Linguistic Inquiry
2164:Linguistic Inquiry
1521:generative grammar
1479:
1425:Minimalist Program
1353:
1342:What did John eat?
1327:
1274:complement clauses
1257:
1232:, clitics such as
1079:languages such as
945:maximal projection
907:
887:
875:
856:
774:Binarity principle
754:
739:phrasal categories
716:phrasal categories
579:minimalist program
552:syntactic category
536:phrasal categories
532:generative grammar
453:Theory of language
423:Origin of language
378:Autonomy of syntax
333:Grammaticalization
179:Discourse analysis
174:Corpus linguistics
2716:Generative syntax
2635:Universal Grammar
2464:978-0-87840-248-9
1907:978-3-96110-273-0
1750:978-0-19-967512-8
1700:successive cyclic
1645:phonological form
1543:(Chomsky, 1981).
1535:(Chomsky, 1965),
1517:§ Background
1085:John ate an apple
641:Universal Grammar
508:
507:
296:Distributionalism
239:Psycholinguistics
16:(Redirected from
2758:
2741:Linguistic units
2610:Lexical category
2570:Natural language
2552:
2551:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2523:
2514:
2507:
2501:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2450:
2441:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2405:
2399:
2389:
2383:
2376:
2370:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2342:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2233:
2222:
2221:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2101:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2061:
2048:
2047:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2000:
1999:
1991:
1974:
1973:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1950:
1933:
1931:
1923:
1912:
1911:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1850:
1841:
1834:
1825:
1824:
1816:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1783:
1782:
1774:
1768:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1727:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1687:
1681:
1658:
1652:
1629:
1623:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1589:
1582:
1576:
1573:phrasal category
1569:
1563:
1556:
1505:
1493:
1405:PredP Hypothesis
1166:
1154:
1129:
1115:
1101:
1009:
997:
959:
955:
929:
862:in the sentence
678:Basic principles
656:natural language
597:(PSR) under the
544:natural language
500:
493:
486:
472:
418:LGBT linguistics
408:Internationalism
383:Compositionality
244:Sociolinguistics
219:Neurolinguistics
214:Interlinguistics
199:Ethnomethodology
41:
33:
21:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2665:Standard Theory
2640:Plato's problem
2560:
2555:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2524:
2517:
2508:
2504:
2495:
2491:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2452:
2451:
2444:
2432:
2428:
2419:
2415:
2406:
2402:
2390:
2386:
2377:
2373:
2364:
2360:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2336:
2332:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2268:
2267:
2260:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2235:
2234:
2225:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2130:
2123:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2063:
2062:
2051:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2010:
2003:
1993:
1992:
1977:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1951:
1936:
1925:
1924:
1915:
1908:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1852:
1851:
1844:
1835:
1828:
1818:
1817:
1804:
1794:
1793:
1786:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1688:
1684:
1659:
1655:
1639:(also known as
1630:
1626:
1605:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1583:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1533:Standard Theory
1513:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1453:with binoculars
1437:
1431:
1373:
1314:. The sentence
1279:complementizers
1266:
1264:Structure of S'
1198:S → NP (Aux) VP
1188:
1183:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1144:
1131:
1117:
1103:
1038:
1034:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1010:
1002:
1001:
998:
972:
957:
953:
927:
680:
675:
645:Plato's problem
631:"VP → V (PP)",
599:Standard Theory
591:
504:
463:
462:
373:
365:
364:
276:
268:
267:
263:Writing systems
154:Anthropological
144:
136:
135:
86:
78:
39:
31:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2764:
2762:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2620:Part of speech
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2538:
2515:
2502:
2489:
2470:
2463:
2442:
2426:
2413:
2400:
2384:
2371:
2358:
2343:
2330:
2311:
2292:(2): 143–164.
2276:
2258:
2243:
2223:
2204:
2189:
2170:(3): 439–474.
2154:
2139:
2121:
2106:
2086:
2071:
2049:
2034:
2019:
2001:
1975:
1960:
1934:
1913:
1906:
1878:
1860:
1842:
1826:
1802:
1784:
1769:
1756:
1749:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1704:
1682:
1653:
1641:affix movement
1624:
1599:
1590:
1577:
1564:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1507:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1468:
1467:
1464:
1445:
1444:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1412:
1402:
1388:
1382:
1372:
1369:
1304:
1303:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1200:
1199:
1187:
1186:Structure of S
1184:
1182:
1179:
1168:
1161:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1118:
1104:
1090:
1089:
1051:head parameter
1036:
1032:
1011:
1004:
1003:
999:
992:
991:
990:
989:
988:
971:
968:
950:
949:
940:
937:
924:
844:
843:
832:
817:
802:
782:
781:
771:
679:
676:
674:
671:
667:
666:
663:
652:
621:
590:
587:
528:Ray Jackendoff
506:
505:
503:
502:
495:
488:
480:
477:
476:
465:
464:
461:
460:
455:
450:
445:
443:Prescriptivism
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
363:
362:
357:
356:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
310:
309:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
277:
274:
273:
270:
269:
266:
265:
260:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
145:
142:
141:
138:
137:
134:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
87:
84:
83:
80:
79:
77:
76:
71:
66:
60:
57:
56:
50:
49:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2763:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2549:
2542:
2539:
2528:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2440:(3): 335–391.
2439:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2375:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2359:
2354:
2347:
2344:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2272:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2239:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2224:
2220:(3): 365–424.
2219:
2215:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2143:
2140:
2135:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2110:
2107:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1964:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1882:
1879:
1874:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1838:Formal Syntax
1833:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1798:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1733:
1726:
1723:
1717:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1637:affix hopping
1634:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1504:
1492:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1409:small clauses
1406:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1385:DP Hypothesis
1383:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1364:head movement
1360:
1359:
1349:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1323:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1165:
1153:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1133:ジョンが リンゴを 食べた
1130:
1124:
1121:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1096:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1068:typologically
1065:
1064:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1046:
1040:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1008:
996:
987:
985:
981:
977:
969:
967:
965:
964:
947:
946:
941:
938:
935:
934:
925:
922:
918:
917:
912:
911:
910:
903:
899:
897:
896:
890:
883:
879:
871:
867:
865:
861:
852:
848:
841:
838:
837:
833:
830:
826:
823:
822:
818:
815:
811:
808:
807:
803:
800:
797:
794:
793:
792:
789:
787:
779:
775:
772:
769:
766:
765:
764:
761:
759:
750:
746:
744:
740:
735:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
677:
672:
670:
664:
661:
657:
653:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
619:
615:
611:
607:
606:
605:
602:
600:
596:
588:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
524:Zellig Harris
521:
517:
513:
501:
496:
494:
489:
487:
482:
481:
479:
478:
475:
471:
467:
466:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
393:Descriptivism
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
375:
369:
368:
361:
360:Structuralism
358:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
343:Prague circle
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
314:
311:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
283:
282:
279:
278:
272:
271:
264:
261:
259:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
189:Documentation
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
164:Computational
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
140:
139:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
88:
82:
81:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
59:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:
37:
19:
2547:
2541:
2530:. Retrieved
2510:
2505:
2497:
2492:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2454:
2437:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2416:
2408:
2403:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2379:
2374:
2366:
2361:
2352:
2346:
2338:
2333:
2324:
2320:
2314:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2270:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2217:
2213:
2207:
2198:
2192:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2148:
2142:
2133:
2115:
2109:
2098:. Retrieved
2089:
2080:
2074:
2065:
2043:
2037:
2028:
2022:
2013:
1995:
1969:
1963:
1954:
1927:
1888:
1881:
1872:
1854:
1837:
1820:
1796:
1778:
1772:
1764:
1759:
1731:
1725:
1707:
1699:
1693:
1685:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1633:linear order
1627:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1593:
1580:
1567:
1554:
1529:Logical Form
1514:
1480:
1469:
1466:VP → V NP PP
1456:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1438:
1430:
1414:
1404:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1376:
1362:
1356:
1354:
1341:
1334:
1328:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1267:
1258:
1245:
1243:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1201:
1191:
1189:
1175:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1125:
1111:
1097:
1084:
1076:
1073:head-initial
1072:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1041:
1024:
1020:
1018:
983:
973:
963:constituents
961:
951:
944:
943:
932:
931:
920:
915:
914:
908:
894:
893:
891:
888:
876:
863:
859:
857:
845:
840:
834:
825:
819:
810:
804:
799:
795:
790:
785:
783:
773:
767:
762:
757:
755:
743:X-bar schema
742:
736:
681:
673:X-bar schema
668:
632:
624:
603:
592:
560:
547:
540:X-bar schema
539:
520:Noam Chomsky
516:X-bar theory
515:
509:
306:Glossematics
286:Constituency
258:interpreting
96:Lexicography
2711:Linguistics
2565:Linguistics
1690:Wh-movement
1672:), just as
1660:Sometimes,
1610:(ense) and
1451:, in which
1339:wh-question
1331:wh-movement
1302:S' → COMP S
1276:are called
1270:subordinate
1260:principle.
860:linguistics
629:verb phrase
608:It assumes
573:(LFG), and
512:linguistics
458:Terminology
433:Orthography
353:Usage-based
254:Translating
149:Acquisition
54:Linguistics
2705:Categories
2585:Parse tree
2532:2021-10-23
2527:"Syntax I"
2486:: 591–656.
2398:: 128–172.
2327:: 297–321.
2100:2021-10-22
1718:References
1077:head-final
1027:(see also
976:word order
895:projection
821:Complement
786:projection
637:E-language
589:Background
428:Orismology
313:Functional
301:Generative
291:Dependency
111:Pragmatics
101:Morphology
91:Diachronic
2685:C-command
2306:201091227
1547:Footnotes
1477:Figure 13
1463:S → NP VP
1351:Figure 12
1325:Figure 11
1255:Figure 10
1063:parameter
1057:principle
796:Specifier
403:Iconicity
398:Etymology
318:Cognitive
281:Formalist
234:Phonetics
224:Philology
116:Semantics
106:Phonology
2558:See also
2184:57572491
2066:Barriers
1674:wh-words
1508:Figure15
1496:Figure14
1391:VP shell
1169:Figure 9
1157:Figure 8
1081:Japanese
1012:Figure 7
1000:Figure 6
905:Figure 5
885:Figure 4
873:Figure 3
854:Figure 2
829:argument
776:: Every
752:Figure 1
718:such as
710:and not
690:such as
684:variable
647:and the
569:(GPSG),
204:Forensic
184:Distance
131:Typology
46:a series
44:Part of
2736:Phrases
2721:Grammar
1678:whether
1670:Spec-CP
1666:whether
1662:whether
1525:lexicon
1335:Spec-CP
1123:tabe-ta
1109:ringo-o
1095:John-ga
980:English
836:Adjunct
712:phrases
708:lexemes
614:phrases
159:Applied
69:History
64:Outline
2600:Phrase
2575:Syntax
2461:
2304:
2182:
1904:
1747:
1649:Rule R
1290:, and
1112:apple-
1035:and N'
814:lexeme
730:, and
702:, and
565:(GB),
546:is an
474:Portal
372:Topics
121:Syntax
2302:S2CID
2180:S2CID
1421:Merge
1208:InflP
1098:John-
1066:is a
618:heads
616:have
601:had.
74:Index
2459:ISBN
1902:ISBN
1745:ISBN
1586:head
1560:head
1292:for.
1284:that
1228:and
1226:will
1213:Infl
1128:PAST
1126:eat-
1106:リンゴを
1092:ジョンが
806:Head
778:node
256:and
249:Text
2294:doi
2172:doi
1894:doi
1737:doi
1612:Agr
1272:or
1238:-ed
1230:can
1204:Aux
1120:食べた
1114:ACC
1100:NOM
978:of
827:An
510:In
2707::
2518:^
2484:24
2482:.
2445:^
2438:19
2323:.
2300:.
2290:13
2288:.
2261:^
2226:^
2218:20
2216:.
2178:.
2168:29
2166:.
2124:^
2052:^
2004:^
1978:^
1937:^
1916:^
1900:.
1863:^
1845:^
1829:^
1805:^
1787:^
1743:.
1616:TP
1367:.
1308:CP
1298:.
1296:S'
1288:if
1286:,
1234:-s
1222:IP
966:.
898:.
839::
824::
809::
798::
760:.
758:X'
745:.
734:.
732:PP
728:AP
726:,
724:VP
722:,
720:NP
698:,
694:,
548:XP
514:,
48:on
32:X'
2535:.
2467:.
2396:8
2325:6
2308:.
2296::
2186:.
2174::
2103:.
1932:.
1910:.
1896::
1753:.
1739::
1651:.
1620:T
1608:T
1588:.
1562:.
1427:.
1399:v
1395:v
1312:C
1218:I
1192:S
1037:3
1033:2
958:X
954:X
948:.
936:.
928:X
923:.
921:X
704:P
700:A
696:V
692:N
662:.
651:.
499:e
492:t
485:v
38:.
30:"
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.