110:, which reported back on September 5, 1787, with a proposal containing the current language of the clause. No record exists to explain the exact choice of words selected by the Committee on Detail, whose task was essentially no more than creating a draft Constitution by arranging the proposals that had been made into the most appropriate language. On September 17, 1787, the members of the Convention unanimously agreed to the proposed language, without debate, and this language was incorporated into the Constitution.
124:
102:
which had encouraged the individual states to adopt copyright legislation. Madison proposed that the
Constitution permit Congress "to secure to literary authors their copyrights for a limited time", or, in the alternative, "to encourage, by proper premiums & Provisions, the advancement of useful
206:
Furthermore, the clause only permits protection of the writings of authors and the discoveries of inventors. Hence, writings may only be protected to the extent that they are original, and "inventions" must be truly inventive and not merely obvious improvements on existing knowledge. The term
5063:
4326:
2849:
2881:
6205:
4302:
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2311:
6047:
6392:
4499:
1149:
967:
4903:
904:
1005:
4855:
3605:
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1374:
220:, also known pejoratively as the "Mickey Mouse Protection Act." Petitioners in that case argued that successive retroactive extensions of copyright were functionally unlimited and hence violated the
4366:
4236:
1144:
228:, writing for the Court, rejected this argument, reasoning that the terms provided by the Act were limited in duration and noted that Congress had a long history of granting retroactive extensions.
6480:
6263:
2091:
5979:
5215:
5183:
2106:
4863:
207:"writings of authors" appears to exclude non-human authorship such as painting by chimpanzees and computer code written by programmed computers, but the issue has not been tested in litigation.
977:
861:
661:
593:
847:
1625:
832:
822:
3020:
192:. Some terms in the clause are used in archaic meanings, potentially confusing modern readers. For example, "useful Arts" does not refer to artistic endeavors, but rather to the work of
6790:
6376:
4871:
4467:
842:
837:
827:
817:
3300:
2582:
797:
6579:
6287:
6240:
6200:
5292:
4624:
4334:
3535:
807:
802:
771:
766:
4943:
2649:
6603:
6531:
6456:
6368:
4587:
4427:
2753:
812:
792:
776:
6611:
5167:
4753:
4294:
3589:
3503:
3228:
3124:
2913:
1369:
743:
258:
5079:
4790:
1620:
748:
712:
464:
See U.S. Copyright Office, Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office
Practices § 313.2 (3d ed. 2017) ("The Office will not register works produced by nature, animals, or plants.").
216:(2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute a perpetual copyright. In that case, the United States Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the
73:
To promote the
Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.
6931:
6595:
4799:
4649:
2809:
2024:
717:
697:
687:
6635:
5788:
5459:
5103:
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4342:
1464:
1429:
1159:
727:
722:
707:
702:
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682:
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5271:
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2457:
437:
4839:
6539:
6440:
5239:
5015:
4571:
4265:
3980:
3895:
3044:
1550:
1272:
651:
631:
586:
82:
On August 18, 1787, the
Constitutional Convention was in the midst of a weeks-long stretch of proposals to establish what would become the enumerated powers of the
6798:
6352:
5247:
4951:
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4657:
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1474:
641:
636:
6015:
5863:
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5496:
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5143:
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3333:
3172:
2490:
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2218:
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2165:
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1459:
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1404:
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55:
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1842:
894:
6715:
6448:
6132:
5965:
4769:
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4451:
4419:
4110:
3485:
3092:
1555:
1354:
176:
The clause was interpreted as two distinct powers: the power to secure for limited times to authors the exclusive right to their writings is the basis for
3204:
6731:
6587:
5087:
3036:
2889:
1090:
616:
579:
283:
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4214:
2857:
2526:
6699:
4847:
4745:
3988:
3972:
3964:
1329:
1299:
1085:
1050:
1030:
5159:
4879:
4633:
4025:
3871:
3863:
2785:
1334:
6320:
6189:
5175:
4166:
3791:
2921:
2841:
2534:
1545:
6432:
4555:
3076:
418:
6854:
6619:
6523:
6507:
6416:
6223:
5127:
4777:
4206:
3084:
2665:
1635:
1304:
1182:
6822:
6627:
5932:
5692:
5263:
5231:
5031:
5023:
4815:
4595:
4563:
4443:
4398:
4318:
3108:
3004:
2633:
1857:
947:
942:
869:
525:
Hatch, Orrin G.; Lee, Thomas R. (2002). "To
Promote the Progress Of Science: The Copyright Clause and Congress' Power to Extend Copyrights".
3911:
6838:
6814:
6691:
6464:
4697:
4611:
4310:
4244:
4033:
3887:
3879:
3252:
2964:
2793:
2745:
2139:
2070:
1590:
1384:
480:
210:
Although perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited—the language specifies "limited times"—the
Supreme Court has ruled in
196:, people skilled in a manufacturing craft; "Sciences" refers not only to fields of modern scientific inquiry but rather to all knowledge.
6846:
6747:
6408:
6090:
6021:
5309:
5255:
4531:
4358:
4065:
4008:
3440:
2769:
1966:
1585:
1177:
6941:
6936:
6806:
6651:
6563:
6472:
6384:
6154:
5999:
5988:
5119:
4603:
4483:
4374:
3212:
3196:
2801:
2761:
2713:
2303:
2242:
2189:
2148:
1222:
62:
5772:
322:
6707:
6499:
5095:
4967:
4807:
4158:
4142:
3996:
3148:
3100:
2988:
2865:
1565:
927:
602:
371:
163:
141:
6194:
5940:
5135:
5047:
4823:
4673:
2737:
2721:
2697:
2065:
1409:
6896:
6763:
5553:
4681:
4539:
4273:
2689:
2657:
2364:
1414:
1399:
66:
3527:
6009:
5764:
3730:
3308:
2673:
2542:
1821:
145:
3140:
6755:
6723:
6659:
6160:
5756:
5668:
4256:
4049:
3955:
3428:
2905:
2417:
1535:
1124:
6862:
6830:
6183:
6171:
5842:
4515:
3519:
3156:
2705:
2085:
1883:
1314:
1187:
992:
874:
674:
217:
6344:
5342:
5111:
4435:
3919:
3060:
2833:
2465:
2099:
2003:
1961:
1956:
1359:
1045:
1010:
247:
200:
177:
91:
6909:
180:, and the power to secure for limited times to inventors the exclusive rights to their discoveries is the basis for
6643:
5740:
5395:
4887:
3276:
2825:
2729:
2641:
2486:
2053:
1500:
1469:
1319:
1192:
957:
952:
566:
237:
51:
134:
6891:
6739:
6148:
5884:
5876:
5387:
4729:
4134:
4081:
3284:
3236:
3132:
3068:
2518:
1801:
1681:
1480:
1212:
1035:
912:
758:
99:
5748:
6165:
5676:
5569:
5521:
5279:
4911:
4705:
4475:
4057:
4017:
3935:
2409:
2132:
1770:
1640:
1504:
1364:
1129:
1119:
987:
451:
396:"Center for the Study of the Public Domain, Casebook Chapter Two: Intellectual Property & the Constitution"
252:
181:
296:
5780:
6246:
6177:
6040:
6025:
5371:
4983:
4761:
4689:
4102:
4073:
2616:
2574:
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2502:
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2340:
1560:
1508:
1434:
1262:
1139:
1134:
1070:
1040:
982:
6035:
5916:
5708:
5199:
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4919:
4198:
4118:
3943:
3783:
3565:
3268:
3244:
1723:
1595:
1242:
1167:
1114:
1065:
889:
83:
6667:
6515:
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5355:
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3799:
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3180:
3012:
2777:
2681:
1930:
1309:
1277:
1108:
937:
884:
87:
5700:
3188:
362:
Ochoa, Tyler T. (2007). "Chapter 7: Copyright
Duration: Theories and Practice". In Yu, Peter K. (ed.).
6095:
5924:
5821:
5363:
5223:
4959:
4935:
4895:
3855:
3722:
3573:
2566:
2356:
2075:
1630:
1344:
1339:
1294:
1267:
1217:
962:
546:
Ochoa, Tyler T.; Rose, Mark (2002). "The Anti-Monopoly
Origins of the Patent and Copyright Clause".
6902:
6328:
5908:
5641:
5585:
5561:
4831:
3839:
3823:
3807:
3658:
3557:
3164:
3028:
2234:
2125:
2058:
1847:
1575:
1439:
1227:
1172:
1075:
932:
285:
Free
Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity
225:
107:
6400:
6336:
5631:
5545:
5537:
5467:
5055:
4523:
4126:
3927:
3831:
3815:
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3116:
2558:
2438:
2393:
1760:
1744:
1605:
1419:
1394:
1379:
1289:
1257:
1247:
1207:
1197:
212:
474:
199:
The
Copyright Clause is "the only clause that comes with its own, built-in justification". The
6296:
6030:
5834:
5684:
5443:
5379:
4927:
4721:
4641:
4390:
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3511:
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3052:
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1811:
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1519:
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922:
555:
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510:
377:
367:
47:
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5151:
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3767:
3650:
3473:
2996:
2956:
2940:
2510:
2450:
2287:
1702:
1449:
1324:
1252:
972:
917:
879:
292:
17:
501:
Fenning, Karl (1929). "The Origin of the Patent and Copyright Clause of the Constitution".
94:
was "to secure to authors exclusive rights for a limited time". The other two were made by
6782:
6683:
6571:
6424:
6304:
5900:
5614:
5191:
4991:
4547:
3775:
3706:
3682:
3642:
3495:
3220:
2972:
2948:
2817:
2603:
2319:
2250:
1987:
1935:
1816:
1775:
1686:
1610:
1514:
1496:
1232:
1202:
1060:
484:
279:
189:
2117:
419:"Historic Court Cases That Helped Shape Scope of Copyright Protections | Copyright"
6547:
5796:
5724:
5577:
5513:
5207:
4190:
3674:
3666:
3613:
3420:
3260:
2295:
1925:
1904:
1888:
1852:
1796:
1765:
1580:
6925:
6886:
5957:
5716:
5451:
4713:
4226:
3847:
3714:
3547:
3449:
2181:
2030:
1951:
1909:
1878:
1806:
1728:
1600:
1570:
1486:
1389:
1100:
1055:
95:
86:. Three such proposals made on that day addressed what are now lumped together under
571:
5593:
4382:
98:, who had previously served on a committee of the Congress established under the
3357:
1982:
1862:
123:
395:
4285:
2980:
1707:
1491:
5064:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
4327:
College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board
559:
538:
514:
1615:
381:
242:
185:
4303:
San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee
2850:
Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality of Oregon
184:. Because the clause contains no language under which Congress may protect
6206:
WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act
364:
Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights
6053:
Copyright status of works by subnational governments of the United States
2312:
Arizona State Legislature v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission
27:
Clause of the U.S. constitution allowing intellectual property protection
6048:
Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States
2882:
United Haulers Ass'n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority
1650:
1080:
193:
148: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4904:
Walker Process Equipment, Inc. v. Food Machinery & Chemical Corp.
4500:
Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.
3205:
Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, Inc.
4856:
Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. v. Supermarket Equipment Corp.
3606:
Consolidated Safety-Valve Co. v. Crosby Steam Gauge & Valve Co.
5961:
5861:
5819:
5612:
5494:
5414:
5340:
5072:
J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.
3388:
3331:
2601:
2484:
2436:
2391:
2338:
2269:
2216:
2163:
2121:
575:
4367:
Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc.
4237:
Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Manufacturing Co.
117:
4864:
Graver Tank & Manufacturing Co. v. Linde Air Products Co.
5216:
Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.
5184:
Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Laboratories, Inc.
3021:
Houston East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States
6791:
Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.
4872:
Aro Manufacturing Co. v. Convertible Top Replacement Co.
4468:
Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.
5909:
Northeast Bancorp v. Federal Reserve Board of Governors
3301:
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius
2650:
Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois
2583:
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius
344:
342:
6580:
Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.
6241:
Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act
6201:
Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act
4335:
Cooper Industries, Inc. v. Leatherman Tool Group, Inc.
3536:
General Talking Pictures Corp. v. Western Electric Co.
6604:
Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.
6532:
Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.
6369:
Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.
4588:
Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com
4428:
Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.
3504:
Hollister v. Benedict & Burnham Manufacturing Co.
2754:
Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Commission
567:
Thomas Jefferson letters relating to Copyright Clause
6612:
Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.
5168:
Stanford University v. Roche Molecular Systems, Inc.
4754:
Fortnightly Corp. v. United Artists Television, Inc.
4295:
Inwood Laboratories, Inc. v. Ives Laboratories, Inc.
3590:
City of Elizabeth v. American Nicholson Pavement Co.
3229:
Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority
2914:
Tennessee Wine and Spirits Retailers Assn. v. Thomas
6774:
6491:
6286:
6277:
6256:
6233:
6216:
6141:
6125:
6109:
6068:
6061:
5652:
5629:
5290:
5080:
Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co.
4944:
Anderson's-Black Rock, Inc. v. Pavement Salvage Co.
4788:
4622:
4409:
4284:
4255:
4225:
4092:
4007:
3954:
3749:
3624:
3546:
3484:
3439:
3402:
3345:
2932:
2615:
2044:
2016:
1996:
1975:
1944:
1918:
1897:
1871:
1835:
1784:
1753:
1737:
1716:
1695:
1674:
1658:
1649:
1528:
1158:
1023:
903:
860:
785:
757:
736:
673:
660:
609:
6596:Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc.
4800:Continental Paper Bag Co. v. Eastern Paper Bag Co.
4650:Order of St. Benedict of New Jersey v. Steinhauser
2810:South-Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke
2025:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
548:Journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society
203:has decided numerous cases interpreting the text.
5460:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr
5104:Illinois Tool Works Inc. v. Independent Ink, Inc.
5040:Warner-Jenkinson Co. v. Hilton Davis Chemical Co.
4840:Sinclair & Carroll Co. v. Interchemical Corp.
4343:TrafFix Devices, Inc. v. Marketing Displays, Inc.
3125:United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n
6676:Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd.
5476:Department of Homeland Security v. Thuraissigiam
5318:Patent and Trademark Office v. Booking.com B. V.
5272:TC Heartland LLC v. Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC
4351:Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp.
3896:United Dictionary Co. v. G. & C. Merriam Co.
2898:Comptroller of the Treasury of Maryland v. Wynne
2802:White v. Mass. Council of Construction Employers
2458:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha
438:Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co.
6540:Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.
6441:American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.
5773:Energy Reserves Group v. Kansas P. & L. Co.
5240:Akamai Techs., Inc. v. Limelight Networks, Inc.
5016:Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc.
4572:American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc.
3045:A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States
71:
6799:Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc.
6636:Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l
6353:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.
5789:Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis
5248:Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. v. Sandoz, Inc.
4952:Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc.
4738:Miller Music Corp. v. Charles N. Daniels, Inc.
4658:International News Service v. Associated Press
4183:F. W. Woolworth Co. v. Contemporary Arts, Inc.
4175:Fred Fisher Music Co. v. M. Witmark & Sons
4042:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.
3904:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co.
2036:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
6016:Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices
5973:
5302:G. & C. Merriam Co. v. Syndicate Pub. Co.
5144:Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc.
4666:L. A. Westermann Co. v. Dispatch Printing Co.
4508:Feltner v. Columbia Pictures Television, Inc.
3173:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
2133:
587:
417:Mazumdar, Anandashankar (September 9, 2020).
8:
4266:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC
4111:DeJonge and Co. v. Breuker & Kessler Co.
3981:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC
6716:Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha
6361:Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States
6133:Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988
5733:Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell
4770:Teleprompter Corp. v. Columbia Broadcasting
4580:Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc.
4452:Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid
4420:Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.
4215:Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States
3093:McGoldrick v. Berwind-White Coal Mining Co.
2858:C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown
366:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 133.
6732:Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.
6588:American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc.
6283:
6065:
5980:
5966:
5958:
5858:
5816:
5626:
5609:
5491:
5411:
5337:
5088:Merck KGaA v. Integra Lifesciences I, Ltd.
3399:
3385:
3342:
3328:
3037:Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen
2890:Department of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis
2612:
2598:
2481:
2433:
2388:
2335:
2266:
2213:
2160:
2140:
2126:
2118:
1655:
670:
666:
594:
580:
572:
6932:Clauses of the United States Constitution
6700:Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc.
4848:Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co.
4746:Pub. Affairs Associates, Inc. v. Rickover
4026:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co.
3989:United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.
3973:Interstate Circuit, Inc. v. United States
3965:Straus v. American Publishers Association
3872:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co.
164:Learn how and when to remove this message
6433:Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5160:Global-Tech Appliances, Inc. v. SEB S.A.
4880:Compco Corp. v. Day-Brite Lighting, Inc.
4634:American Lithographic Co. v. Werkmeister
4556:Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3864:Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co.
3077:NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.
2786:Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.
2527:Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.
2092:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
188:, those are instead protected under the
69:laws in the United States, states that:
6321:Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony
6190:Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998
5765:Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus
5176:Microsoft Corp. v. i4i Ltd. Partnership
4492:Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc.
4207:Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co.
4167:Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp.
3792:Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony
2922:National Pork Producers Council v. Ross
2842:Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt
2666:George W. Bush & Sons Co. v. Malloy
2535:Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co.
527:Harvard Journal of Law & Technology
271:
218:Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act
6855:Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc.
6628:A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.
6524:Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates
6508:Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co.
6417:Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A.
6224:Family Entertainment and Copyright Act
5128:KSR International Co. v. Teleflex Inc.
5024:Eli Lilly & Co. v. Medtronic, Inc.
4778:Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken
4444:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises
3085:United States v. Carolene Products Co.
6823:RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.
5933:Polar Tankers, Inc. v. City of Valdez
5693:Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge
5264:Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co.
5232:Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International
5032:Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc.
4816:United States v. General Electric Co.
4596:Rimini Street Inc. v. Oracle USA Inc.
4564:Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc.
4399:Romag Fasteners, Inc. v. Fossil, Inc.
4319:Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co.
3109:United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co.
3005:Southern Railway Co. v. United States
2634:Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co.
2219:Qualifications Clauses of Sections II
7:
6839:Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC
6815:Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.
6692:Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc.
6465:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.
5757:U.S. Trust Co. of N.Y. v. New Jersey
4698:George v. Victor Talking Machine Co.
4612:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc.
4311:Two Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, Inc.
4245:Morton Salt Co. v. G.S. Suppiger Co.
4034:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister
3888:Werckmeister v. American Tobacco Co.
3880:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister
3253:Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida
2965:Cooper Manufacturing Co. v. Ferguson
2794:Sporhase v. Nebraska ex rel. Douglas
2746:Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady
2071:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
503:Journal of the Patent Office Society
146:adding citations to reliable sources
106:Both proposals were referred to the
6847:Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc.
6748:Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc.
6620:Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp.
6481:Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith
6409:MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.
6091:International Copyright Act of 1891
5310:Kellogg Co. v. National Biscuit Co.
5256:Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC
4532:MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.
4359:Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc.
4066:Caliga v. Inter Ocean Newspaper Co.
4009:International Copyright Act of 1891
2770:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland
2059:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
1586:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
6807:Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena
6652:In re Aimster Copyright Litigation
6564:Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd.
6473:Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.
6385:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.
6155:Copyright Remedy Clarification Act
5989:Copyright law of the United States
5120:MedImmune, Inc. v. Genentech, Inc.
4484:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.
4375:POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Co.
3213:Commonwealth Edison Co. v. Montana
3197:National League of Cities v. Usery
2762:City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey
2714:Bibb v. Navajo Freight Lines, Inc.
2304:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton
2243:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton
2190:Department of Commerce v. New York
1150:Drafting and ratification timeline
895:District of Columbia Voting Rights
295:. pp. 130–131. Archived from
61:The clause, which is the basis of
25:
6708:Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc.
6500:Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc.
5136:Microsoft Corp. v. AT&T Corp.
5096:eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C.
4968:United States v. Glaxo Group Ltd.
4808:Minerals Separation, Ltd. v. Hyde
4159:Washingtonian Pub. Co. v. Pearson
4143:Buck v. Jewell-LaSalle Realty Co.
3997:Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS Inc.
3101:United States v. Darby Lumber Co.
2989:United States v. E. C. Knight Co.
2866:West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy
603:Constitution of the United States
6457:Fourth Estate v. Wall-Street.com
6449:Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands
6195:Digital Millennium Copyright Act
5941:Texas v. New Mexico and Colorado
5048:Pfaff v. Wells Electronics, Inc.
4824:United States v. Univis Lens Co.
4674:Lumiere v. Mae Edna Wilder, Inc.
2738:Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp.
2722:National Bellas Hess v. Illinois
2698:Dean Milk Co. v. City of Madison
2658:Swift & Co. v. United States
1006:Convention to propose amendments
327:. Congressional Research Service
122:
6897:Home Recording Rights Coalition
5554:Garner v. Board of Public Works
4682:Educational Films Corp. v. Ward
4540:Reed Elsevier, Inc. v. Muchnick
3912:Dun v. Lumbermen's Credit Ass'n
3141:H.P. Hood & Sons v. Du Mond
2690:Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona
398:. Duke University School of Law
133:needs additional citations for
6010:United States Copyright Office
3731:Mifflin v. R. H. White Company
2674:Baldwin v. G.A.F. Seelig, Inc.
2543:Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
1621:Separation of church and state
56:Article I, Section 8, Clause 8
1:
6756:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp.
6724:Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc.
6660:NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute
6161:Copyright Renewal Act of 1992
5741:W.B. Worthen Co. v. Kavanaugh
5669:Dartmouth College v. Woodward
4257:Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914
4050:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker
3956:Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890
3528:Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell
3429:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker
2906:South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc.
2826:Healy v. Beer Institute, Inc.
2418:United States v. Munoz-Flores
1125:Virginia Ratifying Convention
6863:Hachette v. Internet Archive
6831:Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co.
6184:Copyright Term Extension Act
6172:Uruguay Round Agreements Act
5843:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan
4516:New York Times Co. v. Tasini
3520:Schillinger v. United States
3157:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan
2706:Miller Bros. Co. v. Maryland
2086:National Constitution Center
1884:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
1183:Assemble and Petition Clause
103:knowledge and discoveries".
88:intellectual property rights
36:Intellectual Property Clause
18:Intellectual Property Clause
6345:Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus
5343:Necessary and Proper Clause
5112:LabCorp v. Metabolite, Inc.
4436:Mills Music, Inc. v. Snyder
3920:Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus
3061:Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan
2834:Quill Corp. v. North Dakota
2466:Clinton v. City of New York
1957:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
1011:State ratifying conventions
948:Equal Opportunity to Govern
943:Electoral College abolition
870:Congressional Apportionment
324:U.S. Constitution Annotated
248:United States copyright law
201:United States Supreme Court
40:Copyright and Patent Clause
6958:
6644:Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.
5749:City of El Paso v. Simmons
5396:United States v. Kebodeaux
4888:Wilbur-Ellis Co. v. Kuther
3149:Henderson v. United States
2730:Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc.
2642:Cooley v. Board of Wardens
2487:Taxing and Spending Clause
350:Copyright Law and Practice
321:"COPYRIGHTS AND PATENTS".
238:United States Constitution
52:United States Constitution
6942:Copyright Clause case law
6937:Intellectual property law
6877:
6740:Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc
6149:Visual Artists Rights Act
5995:
5885:Virginia v. West Virginia
5871:
5857:
5829:
5815:
5625:
5608:
5508:
5497:No Bills of Attainder or
5490:
5430:
5410:
5388:United States v. Comstock
5350:
5336:
4730:Commissioner v. Wodehouse
4135:Fox Film Corp. v. Knowles
4082:Kalem Co. v. Harper Bros.
3398:
3384:
3341:
3327:
3285:United States v. Morrison
3237:New York v. United States
3133:North American Co. v. SEC
3069:Carter v. Carter Coal Co.
2611:
2597:
2519:Springer v. United States
2497:
2480:
2446:
2432:
2404:
2387:
2351:
2334:
2282:
2265:
2229:
2212:
2176:
2159:
1410:Privileges and Immunities
1223:Congressional enforcement
1145:Rhode Island ratification
1036:Articles of Confederation
1001:
978:Parental Rights amendment
669:
224:language of the clause.
100:Articles of Confederation
6910:You Wouldn't Steal a Car
6166:Audio Home Recording Act
5677:Sturges v. Crowninshield
5570:Barr v. City of Columbia
5522:Sturges v. Crowninshield
5280:Peter v. NantKwest, Inc.
4912:Graham v. John Deere Co.
4706:KVOS v. Associated Press
4476:Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc.
4274:Dowling v. United States
4058:Bong v. Campbell Art Co.
4018:Press Pub. Co. v. Monroe
3936:Bong v. Campbell Art Co.
2410:Flint v. Stone Tracy Co.
2365:United States v. Johnson
1641:Unitary executive theory
1415:Privileges or Immunities
1130:New York Circular Letter
1120:Massachusetts Compromise
452:Graham v. John Deere Co.
253:United States patent law
6247:Music Modernization Act
6178:No Electronic Theft Act
6041:Section 108 Study Group
5781:Exxon Corp. v. Eagerton
4984:Sakraida v. Ag Pro Inc.
4762:Goldstein v. California
4690:Fox Film Corp. v. Doyal
4103:Hills and Co. v. Hoover
4074:Hills and Co. v. Hoover
3309:Taylor v. United States
2617:Dormant Commerce Clause
2551:United States v. Butler
2503:Hylton v. United States
2373:Gravel v. United States
2341:Speech or Debate Clause
1561:Dormant Commerce Clause
1405:Presidential succession
1140:Fayetteville Convention
1135:Hillsborough Convention
1071:Three-fifths Compromise
1051:Philadelphia Convention
1041:Mount Vernon Conference
928:Campaign finance reform
475:A Platonic Dialogue on
423:The Library of Congress
6892:Don't Copy That Floppy
6647:(9th Cir. 2002 / 2003)
6393:Quality King v. L'anza
6036:Register of Copyrights
5917:New Jersey v. New York
5372:Sabri v. United States
5200:Bowman v. Monsanto Co.
5000:Diamond v. Chakrabarty
4920:United States v. Adams
4199:De Sylva v. Ballentine
4119:Herbert v. Shanley Co.
3944:Henry v. A.B. Dick Co.
3784:Schreiber v. Sharpless
3566:Hotchkiss v. Greenwood
3277:Jones v. United States
3269:United States v. Locke
3245:United States v. Lopez
2575:Sabri v. United States
1724:William Samuel Johnson
1596:Nondelegation doctrine
1168:Admission to the Union
1115:Anti-Federalist Papers
1066:Connecticut Compromise
483:July 17, 2011, at the
441:, 499 U.S. 349 (1991).
84:United States Congress
75:
6668:BMG Music v. Gonzalez
6516:Eltra Corp. v. Ringer
6117:Copyright Act of 1976
6101:Copyright Act of 1909
6086:Copyright Act of 1870
6081:Copyright Act of 1831
6076:Copyright Act of 1790
5893:Virginia v. Tennessee
5356:McCulloch v. Maryland
4411:Copyright Act of 1976
4151:Douglas v. Cunningham
4094:Copyright Act of 1909
3800:Thornton v. Schreiber
3751:Copyright Act of 1870
3626:Copyright Act of 1831
3404:Copyright Act of 1790
3366:Juilliard v. Greenman
3181:Katzenbach v. McClung
3013:Hoke v. United States
2778:Reeves, Inc. v. Stake
2682:Edwards v. California
1931:Richard Dobbs Spaight
1400:Presidential Electors
1375:Original Jurisdiction
1315:Full Faith and Credit
1188:Assistance of Counsel
1109:The Federalist Papers
938:Crittenden Compromise
6096:Printing Act of 1895
5925:Virginia v. Maryland
5822:Import-Export Clause
5709:Stone v. Mississippi
5364:Lambert v. Yellowley
5224:FTC v. Actavis, Inc.
4960:Gottschalk v. Benson
4936:Lear, Inc. v. Adkins
4896:Brulotte v. Thys Co.
3856:Bolles v. Outing Co.
3723:Bolles v. Outing Co.
2567:South Dakota v. Dole
2357:Kilbourn v. Thompson
2100:A More Perfect Union
2076:Constitution Gardens
1997:Convention Secretary
1659:Convention President
1631:Symmetric federalism
1626:Separation of powers
1360:Necessary and Proper
1355:Natural-born citizen
1300:Freedom of the Press
1238:Copyright and Patent
1228:Contingent Elections
1046:Annapolis Convention
455:, 383 U.S. 1 (1966).
142:improve this article
6903:Nimmer on Copyright
6786:(C.C.D. Mass. 1841)
6329:Banks v. Manchester
5642:Hepburn v. Griswold
5586:Kansas v. Hendricks
5562:De Veau v. Braisted
4832:Altvater v. Freeman
3840:Belford v. Scribner
3824:Thompson v. Hubbard
3808:Banks v. Manchester
3659:Stevens v. Gladding
3558:Pennock v. Dialogue
3486:Patent infringement
3165:Boynton v. Virginia
3029:Hammer v. Dagenhart
2235:Powell v. McCormack
2107:Worldwide influence
1848:Gunning Bedford Jr.
1576:Executive privilege
1556:Criminal sentencing
1479:Title of Nobility (
1470:Taxing and Spending
1370:Oath or Affirmation
1330:House Apportionment
1193:Case or Controversy
1076:Committee of Detail
968:"Liberty" amendment
933:Christian amendment
302:on October 13, 2015
108:Committee of Detail
34:(also known as the
6401:Eldred v. Ashcroft
6337:Callaghan v. Myers
5877:Florida v. Georgia
5632:Legal Tender Cases
5546:Samuels v. McCurdy
5538:Hawker v. New York
5468:Boumediene v. Bush
5056:Dickinson v. Zurko
4524:Eldred v. Ashcroft
4127:Manners v. Morosco
3928:Scribner v. Straus
3832:Higgins v. Keuffel
3816:Callaghan v. Myers
3699:Higgins v. Keuffel
3691:Callaghan v. Myers
3598:Egbert v. Lippmann
3582:Cochrane v. Deener
3441:Patent Act of 1793
3348:Legal Tender Cases
3117:Wickard v. Filburn
2559:Helvering v. Davis
2439:Presentment Clause
2394:Origination Clause
2166:Enumeration Clause
2149:U.S. Supreme Court
1761:William Livingston
1745:Alexander Hamilton
1551:Criminal procedure
1546:Constitutional law
1481:Foreign Emoluments
1445:State of the Union
1430:Self-Incrimination
1420:Recess appointment
1213:Compulsory Process
875:Titles of Nobility
477:Eldred v. Ashcroft
348:William F. Patry,
213:Eldred v. Ashcroft
178:U.S. copyright law
6919:
6918:
6873:
6872:
6826:(W.D. Wash. 2000)
6297:Wheaton v. Peters
6273:
6272:
6031:Copyright Catalog
5955:
5954:
5951:
5950:
5853:
5852:
5835:Brown v. Maryland
5811:
5810:
5807:
5806:
5701:Bronson v. Kinzie
5685:Ogden v. Saunders
5604:
5603:
5486:
5485:
5444:Ex parte Merryman
5420:Suspension Clause
5406:
5405:
5380:Gonzales v. Raich
5332:
5331:
5328:
5327:
4928:Brenner v. Manson
4722:Buck v. Gallagher
4642:Ferris v. Frohman
4391:Iancu v. Brunetti
3760:Perris v. Hexamer
3739:Mifflin v. Dutton
3635:Wheaton v. Peters
3574:O'Reilly v. Morse
3512:Rowell v. Lindsay
3413:Wheaton v. Peters
3380:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3323:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3293:Gonzales v. Raich
3189:Maryland v. Wirtz
3053:Gold Clause Cases
2874:Granholm v. Heald
2626:Brown v. Maryland
2593:
2592:
2476:
2475:
2428:
2427:
2383:
2382:
2330:
2329:
2261:
2260:
2208:
2207:
2198:Trump v. New York
2115:
2114:
2081:Constitution Week
2066:Independence Mall
2054:National Archives
2012:
2011:
1827:Gouverneur Morris
1812:Thomas Fitzsimons
1792:Benjamin Franklin
1666:George Washington
1566:Enumerated powers
1541:Concurrent powers
1536:Balance of powers
1365:No Religious Test
1305:Freedom of Speech
1096:Independence Hall
1019:
1018:
923:Bricker amendment
856:
855:
259:Stanford v. Roche
174:
173:
166:
16:(Redirected from
6949:
6882:Berne Convention
6858:(C.D. Cal. 2015)
6810:(M.D. Fla. 1993)
6802:(N.D. Cal. 1986)
6764:Naruto v. Slater
6556:Whelan v. Jaslow
6313:Trade-Mark Cases
6284:
6066:
6005:Copyright Clause
5982:
5975:
5968:
5959:
5859:
5817:
5661:Fletcher v. Peck
5627:
5610:
5530:Ex parte Garland
5492:
5436:Ex parte Bollman
5412:
5338:
5152:Bilski v. Kappos
5008:Diamond v. Diehr
4976:Dann v. Johnston
4460:Stewart v. Abend
3768:Trade-Mark Cases
3651:Stephens v. Cady
3474:Evans v. Hettich
3400:
3391:Copyright Clause
3386:
3343:
3329:
2997:Champion v. Ames
2957:Paul v. Virginia
2941:Gibbons v. Ogden
2613:
2599:
2511:Collector v. Day
2482:
2451:Pocket Veto Case
2434:
2389:
2336:
2288:Ex parte Siebold
2272:Elections Clause
2267:
2214:
2161:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2119:
1962:Charles Pinckney
1771:William Paterson
1703:Nathaniel Gorham
1656:
1435:Speech or Debate
1263:Equal Protection
973:Ludlow amendment
958:Flag Desecration
953:Federal Marriage
918:Blaine amendment
880:Corwin Amendment
671:
667:
596:
589:
582:
573:
563:
542:
518:
488:
471:
465:
462:
456:
448:
442:
433:
427:
426:
414:
408:
407:
405:
403:
392:
386:
385:
359:
353:
346:
337:
336:
334:
332:
318:
312:
311:
309:
307:
301:
293:Internet Archive
291:(PDF ed.).
290:
280:Lessig, Lawrence
276:
226:Justice Ginsburg
169:
162:
158:
155:
149:
126:
118:
92:Charles Pinckney
48:enumerated power
32:Copyright Clause
21:
6957:
6956:
6952:
6951:
6950:
6948:
6947:
6946:
6922:
6921:
6920:
6915:
6869:
6866:(S.D.N.Y. 2023)
6850:(S.D.N.Y. 2013)
6842:(S.D.N.Y. 2010)
6834:(S.D.N.Y. 2005)
6818:(S.D.N.Y. 1999)
6794:(E.D.N.Y. 1973)
6783:Folsom v. Marsh
6770:
6767:(9th Cir. 2018)
6759:(9th Cir. 2015)
6743:(9th Cir. 2013)
6727:(9th Cir. 2012)
6711:(9th Cir. 2010)
6703:(2nd Cir. 2008)
6695:(9th Cir. 2006)
6687:(2nd Cir. 2006)
6684:Blanch v. Koons
6679:(2nd Cir. 2006)
6671:(7th Cir. 2005)
6655:(7th Cir. 2003)
6639:(5th Cir. 2002)
6631:(9th Cir. 2001)
6623:(1st Cir. 2000)
6615:(9th Cir. 2000)
6599:(9th Cir. 1997)
6591:(2nd Cir. 1995)
6575:(2nd Cir. 1992)
6572:Rogers v. Koons
6567:(5th Cir. 1988)
6551:(9th Cir. 1986)
6535:(7th Cir. 1983)
6527:(9th Cir. 1978)
6519:(4th Cir. 1978)
6511:(9th Cir. 1970)
6487:
6425:Golan v. Holder
6305:Baker v. Selden
6279:
6269:
6252:
6229:
6212:
6137:
6121:
6105:
6057:
5991:
5986:
5956:
5947:
5901:Wharton v. Wise
5867:
5849:
5825:
5803:
5648:
5621:
5615:Contract Clause
5600:
5504:
5482:
5426:
5402:
5346:
5345:of Section VIII
5324:
5293:trademark cases
5286:
5192:Kappos v. Hyatt
4992:Parker v. Flook
4784:
4625:copyright cases
4618:
4604:Allen v. Cooper
4548:Golan v. Holder
4405:
4280:
4251:
4221:
4088:
4003:
3950:
3776:Merrell v. Tice
3745:
3707:Holmes v. Hurst
3683:Baker v. Selden
3643:Backus v. Gould
3620:
3542:
3496:Evans v. Jordan
3480:
3435:
3394:
3393:of Section VIII
3372:
3337:
3336:of Section VIII
3315:
3221:EEOC v. Wyoming
2973:Kidd v. Pearson
2949:Passenger Cases
2928:
2818:Maine v. Taylor
2607:
2606:of Section VIII
2604:Commerce Clause
2589:
2493:
2472:
2442:
2424:
2400:
2379:
2347:
2326:
2320:Moore v. Harper
2278:
2257:
2251:Cook v. Gralike
2225:
2204:
2172:
2155:
2146:
2116:
2111:
2046:
2040:
2008:
2004:William Jackson
1992:
1988:Abraham Baldwin
1971:
1940:
1936:Hugh Williamson
1914:
1893:
1867:
1858:Richard Bassett
1831:
1817:Jared Ingersoll
1780:
1776:Jonathan Dayton
1749:
1733:
1712:
1691:
1687:Nicholas Gilman
1670:
1645:
1611:Reserved powers
1591:Judicial review
1524:
1320:General Welfare
1243:Double Jeopardy
1154:
1081:List of Framers
1061:New Jersey Plan
1015:
997:
993:Victims' Rights
913:Balanced budget
899:
852:
781:
753:
732:
656:
605:
600:
545:
524:
500:
497:
495:Further reading
492:
491:
485:Wayback Machine
472:
468:
463:
459:
449:
445:
434:
430:
416:
415:
411:
401:
399:
394:
393:
389:
374:
361:
360:
356:
347:
340:
330:
328:
320:
319:
315:
305:
303:
299:
288:
278:
277:
273:
268:
234:
190:Commerce Clause
182:U.S. patent law
170:
159:
153:
150:
139:
127:
116:
80:
46:) describes an
44:Progress Clause
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6955:
6953:
6945:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6924:
6923:
6917:
6916:
6914:
6913:
6906:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6878:
6875:
6874:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6867:
6859:
6851:
6843:
6835:
6827:
6819:
6811:
6803:
6795:
6787:
6778:
6776:
6772:
6771:
6769:
6768:
6760:
6752:
6751:(2d Cir. 2015)
6744:
6736:
6735:(2d Cir. 2012)
6728:
6720:
6719:(2d Cir. 2011)
6712:
6704:
6696:
6688:
6680:
6672:
6664:
6663:(2d Cir. 2004)
6656:
6648:
6640:
6632:
6624:
6616:
6608:
6607:(2d Cir. 1998)
6600:
6592:
6584:
6583:(2d Cir. 1992)
6576:
6568:
6560:
6559:(3d Cir. 1986)
6552:
6548:Fisher v. Dees
6544:
6543:(3d Cir. 1983)
6536:
6528:
6520:
6512:
6504:
6503:(2d Cir. 1964)
6495:
6493:
6492:Appeals courts
6489:
6488:
6486:
6485:
6477:
6469:
6461:
6453:
6445:
6437:
6429:
6421:
6413:
6405:
6397:
6389:
6381:
6377:Feist v. Rural
6373:
6365:
6357:
6349:
6341:
6333:
6325:
6317:
6309:
6301:
6292:
6290:
6281:
6275:
6274:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6267:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6244:
6237:
6235:
6231:
6230:
6228:
6227:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6209:
6208:
6203:
6192:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6169:
6163:
6158:
6152:
6145:
6143:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6135:
6129:
6127:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6119:
6113:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6072:
6070:
6063:
6059:
6058:
6056:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6044:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6019:
6007:
6002:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5987:
5985:
5984:
5977:
5970:
5962:
5953:
5952:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5945:
5937:
5929:
5921:
5913:
5905:
5897:
5889:
5881:
5872:
5869:
5868:
5864:Compact Clause
5862:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5839:
5830:
5827:
5826:
5820:
5813:
5812:
5809:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5801:
5797:Sveen v. Melin
5793:
5785:
5777:
5769:
5761:
5753:
5745:
5737:
5729:
5725:Block v. Hirsh
5721:
5713:
5705:
5697:
5689:
5681:
5673:
5665:
5656:
5654:
5650:
5649:
5647:
5646:
5637:
5635:
5623:
5622:
5613:
5606:
5605:
5602:
5601:
5599:
5598:
5590:
5582:
5578:Teague v. Lane
5574:
5566:
5558:
5550:
5542:
5534:
5526:
5518:
5514:Calder v. Bull
5509:
5506:
5505:
5495:
5488:
5487:
5484:
5483:
5481:
5480:
5472:
5464:
5456:
5448:
5440:
5431:
5428:
5427:
5415:
5408:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5400:
5392:
5384:
5376:
5368:
5360:
5351:
5348:
5347:
5341:
5334:
5333:
5330:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5322:
5314:
5306:
5297:
5295:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5284:
5276:
5268:
5260:
5252:
5244:
5236:
5228:
5220:
5212:
5208:Gunn v. Minton
5204:
5196:
5188:
5180:
5172:
5164:
5156:
5148:
5140:
5132:
5124:
5116:
5108:
5100:
5092:
5084:
5076:
5068:
5060:
5052:
5044:
5036:
5028:
5020:
5012:
5004:
4996:
4988:
4980:
4972:
4964:
4956:
4948:
4940:
4932:
4924:
4916:
4908:
4900:
4892:
4884:
4876:
4868:
4860:
4852:
4844:
4836:
4828:
4820:
4812:
4804:
4795:
4793:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4782:
4774:
4766:
4758:
4750:
4742:
4734:
4726:
4718:
4710:
4702:
4694:
4686:
4678:
4670:
4662:
4654:
4646:
4638:
4629:
4627:
4620:
4619:
4617:
4616:
4608:
4600:
4592:
4584:
4576:
4568:
4560:
4552:
4544:
4536:
4528:
4520:
4512:
4504:
4496:
4488:
4480:
4472:
4464:
4456:
4448:
4440:
4432:
4424:
4415:
4413:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4395:
4387:
4379:
4371:
4363:
4355:
4347:
4339:
4331:
4323:
4315:
4307:
4299:
4290:
4288:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4278:
4270:
4261:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4249:
4241:
4232:
4230:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4211:
4203:
4195:
4191:Mazer v. Stein
4187:
4179:
4171:
4163:
4155:
4147:
4139:
4131:
4123:
4115:
4107:
4098:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4086:
4078:
4070:
4062:
4054:
4046:
4038:
4030:
4022:
4013:
4011:
4005:
4004:
4002:
4001:
3993:
3985:
3977:
3969:
3960:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3940:
3932:
3924:
3916:
3908:
3900:
3892:
3884:
3876:
3868:
3860:
3852:
3844:
3836:
3828:
3820:
3812:
3804:
3796:
3788:
3780:
3772:
3764:
3755:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3735:
3727:
3719:
3711:
3703:
3695:
3687:
3679:
3675:Paige v. Banks
3671:
3667:Little v. Hall
3663:
3655:
3647:
3639:
3630:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3614:Voss v. Fisher
3610:
3602:
3594:
3586:
3578:
3570:
3562:
3553:
3551:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3540:
3532:
3524:
3516:
3508:
3500:
3491:
3489:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3470:
3466:Evans v. Eaton
3462:
3458:Evans v. Eaton
3454:
3445:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3425:
3421:Paige v. Banks
3417:
3408:
3406:
3396:
3395:
3389:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3362:
3353:
3351:
3339:
3338:
3334:Coinage Clause
3332:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3305:
3297:
3289:
3281:
3273:
3265:
3261:Reno v. Condon
3257:
3249:
3241:
3233:
3225:
3217:
3209:
3201:
3193:
3185:
3177:
3169:
3161:
3153:
3145:
3137:
3129:
3121:
3113:
3105:
3097:
3089:
3081:
3073:
3065:
3057:
3049:
3041:
3033:
3025:
3017:
3009:
3001:
2993:
2985:
2977:
2969:
2961:
2953:
2945:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2918:
2910:
2902:
2894:
2886:
2878:
2870:
2862:
2854:
2846:
2838:
2830:
2822:
2814:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
2766:
2758:
2750:
2742:
2734:
2726:
2718:
2710:
2702:
2694:
2686:
2678:
2670:
2662:
2654:
2646:
2638:
2630:
2621:
2619:
2609:
2608:
2602:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2579:
2571:
2563:
2555:
2547:
2539:
2531:
2523:
2515:
2507:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2485:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2462:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2441:of Section VII
2437:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2414:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2392:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2369:
2361:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2339:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2316:
2308:
2300:
2296:Smiley v. Holm
2292:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2270:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2247:
2239:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2217:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2194:
2186:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2164:
2157:
2156:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2130:
2122:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2096:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2050:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1945:South Carolina
1942:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1926:William Blount
1922:
1920:
1919:North Carolina
1916:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1889:Daniel Carroll
1886:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1853:John Dickinson
1850:
1845:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1797:Thomas Mifflin
1794:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1766:David Brearley
1763:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1668:
1662:
1660:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1636:Taxation power
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1581:Implied powers
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1529:Interpretation
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1425:Recommendation
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1310:Fugitive Slave
1307:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1280:
1278:Excessive Bail
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1178:Appropriations
1175:
1170:
1164:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1013:
1008:
1002:
999:
998:
996:
995:
990:
988:Single subject
985:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
915:
909:
907:
901:
900:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
866:
864:
858:
857:
854:
853:
851:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
789:
787:
783:
782:
780:
779:
774:
769:
763:
761:
759:Reconstruction
755:
754:
752:
751:
746:
740:
738:
734:
733:
731:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
679:
677:
675:Bill of Rights
664:
658:
657:
655:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
613:
611:
607:
606:
601:
599:
598:
591:
584:
576:
570:
569:
564:
543:
522:
521:Michelle R Paz
519:
496:
493:
490:
489:
466:
457:
443:
428:
409:
387:
372:
354:
338:
313:
270:
269:
267:
264:
263:
262:
255:
250:
245:
240:
233:
230:
172:
171:
130:
128:
121:
115:
112:
79:
76:
50:listed in the
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6954:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6911:
6907:
6905:
6904:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6887:Uruguay Round
6885:
6883:
6880:
6879:
6876:
6865:
6864:
6860:
6857:
6856:
6852:
6849:
6848:
6844:
6841:
6840:
6836:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6825:
6824:
6820:
6817:
6816:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6804:
6801:
6800:
6796:
6793:
6792:
6788:
6785:
6784:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6773:
6766:
6765:
6761:
6758:
6757:
6753:
6750:
6749:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6737:
6734:
6733:
6729:
6726:
6725:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6713:
6710:
6709:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6681:
6678:
6677:
6673:
6670:
6669:
6665:
6662:
6661:
6657:
6654:
6653:
6649:
6646:
6645:
6641:
6638:
6637:
6633:
6630:
6629:
6625:
6622:
6621:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6601:
6598:
6597:
6593:
6590:
6589:
6585:
6582:
6581:
6577:
6574:
6573:
6569:
6566:
6565:
6561:
6558:
6557:
6553:
6550:
6549:
6545:
6542:
6541:
6537:
6534:
6533:
6529:
6526:
6525:
6521:
6518:
6517:
6513:
6510:
6509:
6505:
6502:
6501:
6497:
6496:
6494:
6490:
6483:
6482:
6478:
6475:
6474:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6430:
6427:
6426:
6422:
6419:
6418:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6403:
6402:
6398:
6395:
6394:
6390:
6387:
6386:
6382:
6379:
6378:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6366:
6363:
6362:
6358:
6355:
6354:
6350:
6347:
6346:
6342:
6339:
6338:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6326:
6323:
6322:
6318:
6315:
6314:
6310:
6307:
6306:
6302:
6299:
6298:
6294:
6293:
6291:
6289:
6288:Supreme Court
6285:
6282:
6276:
6265:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6248:
6245:
6242:
6239:
6238:
6236:
6232:
6225:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6215:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6185:
6182:
6179:
6176:
6173:
6170:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6156:
6153:
6150:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6140:
6134:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6108:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6073:
6071:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024: →
6023:
6020:
6018:
6017:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5997:
5994:
5990:
5983:
5978:
5976:
5971:
5969:
5964:
5963:
5960:
5943:
5942:
5938:
5935:
5934:
5930:
5927:
5926:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5914:
5911:
5910:
5906:
5903:
5902:
5898:
5895:
5894:
5890:
5887:
5886:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5845:
5844:
5840:
5837:
5836:
5832:
5831:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5814:
5799:
5798:
5794:
5791:
5790:
5786:
5783:
5782:
5778:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5767:
5766:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5754:
5751:
5750:
5746:
5743:
5742:
5738:
5735:
5734:
5730:
5727:
5726:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5717:Smyth v. Ames
5714:
5711:
5710:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5698:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5687:
5686:
5682:
5679:
5678:
5674:
5671:
5670:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5658:
5657:
5655:
5651:
5644:
5643:
5639:
5638:
5636:
5634:
5633:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5596:
5595:
5591:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5575:
5572:
5571:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5556:
5555:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5510:
5507:
5503:of Section IX
5502:
5500:
5499:Ex post facto
5493:
5489:
5478:
5477:
5473:
5470:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5457:
5454:
5453:
5452:Ex parte Endo
5449:
5446:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5419:
5418:Habeas corpus
5413:
5409:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5390:
5389:
5385:
5382:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5365:
5361:
5358:
5357:
5353:
5352:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5335:
5320:
5319:
5315:
5312:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5289:
5282:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5269:
5266:
5265:
5261:
5258:
5257:
5253:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5237:
5234:
5233:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5217:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5205:
5202:
5201:
5197:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5173:
5170:
5169:
5165:
5162:
5161:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5149:
5146:
5145:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5133:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5117:
5114:
5113:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5093:
5090:
5089:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5037:
5034:
5033:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5021:
5018:
5017:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4997:
4994:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4973:
4970:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4961:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4922:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4877:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4866:
4865:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4853:
4850:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4805:
4802:
4801:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4787:
4780:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4759:
4756:
4755:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4727:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4714:Gibbs v. Buck
4711:
4708:
4707:
4703:
4700:
4699:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4687:
4684:
4683:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4639:
4636:
4635:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4621:
4614:
4613:
4609:
4606:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4550:
4549:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4533:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4401:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4300:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4275:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4247:
4246:
4242:
4239:
4238:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4227:Patent misuse
4224:
4217:
4216:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4180:
4177:
4176:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4039:
4036:
4035:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4006:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3967:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3890:
3889:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3848:Brady v. Daly
3845:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3748:
3741:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3725:
3724:
3720:
3717:
3716:
3715:Brady v. Daly
3712:
3709:
3708:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3693:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3648:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3548:Patentability
3545:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3450:Tyler v. Tuel
3447:
3446:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3383:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3326:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3119:
3118:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2386:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2182:Utah v. Evans
2179:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2031:Jacob Shallus
2029:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1967:Pierce Butler
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1952:John Rutledge
1950:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1910:James Madison
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1879:James McHenry
1877:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1807:George Clymer
1805:
1803:
1802:Robert Morris
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1729:Roger Sherman
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:Massachusetts
1694:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:New Hampshire
1673:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1601:Plenary power
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1571:Equal footing
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1492:Trial by Jury
1490:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1345:Ineligibility
1343:
1341:
1340:Import-Export
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1295:Free Exercise
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1285:
1284:Ex Post Facto
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1268:Establishment
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1218:Confrontation
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:Syng inkstand
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1056:Virginia Plan
1054:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1000:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
983:School Prayer
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
908:
906:
902:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
865:
863:
859:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
790:
788:
784:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
764:
762:
760:
756:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
739:
735:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
680:
678:
676:
672:
668:
665:
663:
659:
653:
650:
648:
645:
643:
640:
638:
635:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
612:
608:
604:
597:
592:
590:
585:
583:
578:
577:
574:
568:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
523:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
499:
498:
494:
486:
482:
479:
478:
470:
467:
461:
458:
454:
453:
447:
444:
440:
439:
432:
429:
424:
420:
413:
410:
397:
391:
388:
383:
379:
375:
373:9780275988838
369:
365:
358:
355:
351:
345:
343:
339:
331:September 17,
326:
325:
317:
314:
298:
294:
287:
286:
281:
275:
272:
265:
261:
260:
256:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
235:
231:
229:
227:
223:
222:limited times
219:
215:
214:
208:
204:
202:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
168:
165:
157:
147:
143:
137:
136:
131:This section
129:
125:
120:
119:
113:
111:
109:
104:
101:
97:
96:James Madison
93:
89:
85:
77:
74:
70:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6901:
6861:
6853:
6845:
6837:
6829:
6821:
6813:
6805:
6797:
6789:
6781:
6775:Lower courts
6762:
6754:
6746:
6738:
6730:
6722:
6714:
6706:
6698:
6690:
6682:
6674:
6666:
6658:
6650:
6642:
6634:
6626:
6618:
6610:
6602:
6594:
6586:
6578:
6570:
6562:
6554:
6546:
6538:
6530:
6522:
6514:
6506:
6498:
6479:
6471:
6463:
6455:
6447:
6439:
6431:
6423:
6415:
6407:
6399:
6391:
6383:
6375:
6367:
6359:
6351:
6343:
6335:
6327:
6319:
6311:
6303:
6295:
6014:
6004:
5939:
5931:
5923:
5915:
5907:
5899:
5891:
5883:
5875:
5866:of Section X
5841:
5833:
5824:of Section X
5795:
5787:
5779:
5771:
5763:
5755:
5747:
5739:
5731:
5723:
5715:
5707:
5699:
5691:
5683:
5675:
5667:
5659:
5640:
5630:
5594:Smith v. Doe
5592:
5584:
5576:
5568:
5560:
5552:
5544:
5536:
5528:
5520:
5512:
5498:
5474:
5466:
5458:
5450:
5442:
5434:
5417:
5394:
5386:
5378:
5370:
5362:
5354:
5316:
5308:
5300:
5278:
5270:
5262:
5254:
5246:
5238:
5230:
5222:
5214:
5206:
5198:
5190:
5182:
5174:
5166:
5158:
5150:
5142:
5134:
5126:
5118:
5110:
5102:
5094:
5086:
5078:
5070:
5062:
5054:
5046:
5038:
5030:
5022:
5014:
5006:
4998:
4990:
4982:
4974:
4966:
4958:
4950:
4942:
4934:
4926:
4918:
4910:
4902:
4894:
4886:
4878:
4870:
4862:
4854:
4846:
4838:
4830:
4822:
4814:
4806:
4798:
4791:patent cases
4776:
4768:
4760:
4752:
4744:
4736:
4728:
4720:
4712:
4704:
4696:
4688:
4680:
4672:
4664:
4656:
4648:
4640:
4632:
4610:
4602:
4594:
4586:
4578:
4570:
4562:
4554:
4546:
4538:
4530:
4522:
4514:
4506:
4498:
4490:
4482:
4474:
4466:
4458:
4450:
4442:
4434:
4426:
4418:
4397:
4389:
4383:Matal v. Tam
4381:
4373:
4365:
4357:
4349:
4341:
4333:
4325:
4317:
4309:
4301:
4293:
4272:
4264:
4243:
4235:
4213:
4205:
4197:
4189:
4181:
4173:
4165:
4157:
4149:
4141:
4133:
4125:
4117:
4109:
4101:
4080:
4072:
4064:
4056:
4048:
4040:
4032:
4024:
4016:
3995:
3987:
3979:
3971:
3963:
3942:
3934:
3926:
3918:
3910:
3902:
3894:
3886:
3878:
3870:
3862:
3854:
3846:
3838:
3830:
3822:
3814:
3806:
3798:
3790:
3782:
3774:
3766:
3758:
3737:
3729:
3721:
3713:
3705:
3697:
3689:
3681:
3673:
3665:
3657:
3649:
3641:
3633:
3612:
3604:
3596:
3588:
3580:
3572:
3564:
3556:
3534:
3526:
3518:
3510:
3502:
3494:
3472:
3464:
3456:
3448:
3427:
3419:
3411:
3390:
3364:
3356:
3346:
3307:
3299:
3291:
3283:
3275:
3267:
3259:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3227:
3219:
3211:
3203:
3195:
3187:
3179:
3171:
3163:
3155:
3147:
3139:
3131:
3123:
3115:
3107:
3099:
3091:
3083:
3075:
3067:
3059:
3051:
3043:
3035:
3027:
3019:
3011:
3003:
2995:
2987:
2979:
2971:
2963:
2955:
2947:
2939:
2920:
2912:
2904:
2896:
2888:
2880:
2872:
2864:
2856:
2848:
2840:
2832:
2824:
2816:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2784:
2776:
2768:
2760:
2752:
2744:
2736:
2728:
2720:
2712:
2704:
2696:
2688:
2680:
2672:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2640:
2632:
2624:
2581:
2573:
2565:
2557:
2549:
2541:
2533:
2525:
2517:
2509:
2501:
2491:Section VIII
2464:
2456:
2416:
2408:
2371:
2363:
2355:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2294:
2286:
2249:
2241:
2233:
2196:
2188:
2180:
2098:
2090:
2023:
1822:James Wilson
1785:Pennsylvania
1682:John Langdon
1440:Speedy Trial
1282:
1237:
1173:Appointments
1107:
890:Equal Rights
786:20th century
551:
547:
530:
526:
506:
502:
476:
469:
460:
450:
446:
436:
431:
422:
412:
400:. Retrieved
390:
363:
357:
349:
329:. Retrieved
323:
316:
304:. Retrieved
297:the original
284:
274:
257:
221:
211:
209:
205:
198:
175:
160:
154:January 2024
151:
140:Please help
135:verification
132:
105:
81:
72:
60:
43:
39:
35:
31:
29:
6280:and rulings
5501:Laws Clause
3358:Knox v. Lee
2398:Section VII
1983:William Few
1863:Jacob Broom
1843:George Read
1717:Connecticut
1651:Signatories
1501:Legislative
1475:Territorial
1395:Presentment
1380:Origination
1335:Impeachment
1290:Extradition
1258:Engagements
1248:Due Process
1198:Citizenship
885:Child Labor
402:January 28,
6926:Categories
6278:Precedents
5424:Section IX
4286:Lanham Act
2981:In re Debs
2345:Section VI
2276:Section IV
2170:Section II
2095:(painting)
2047:and legacy
1905:John Blair
1754:New Jersey
1708:Rufus King
1606:Preemption
1520:War Powers
1455:Suspension
1273:Exceptions
963:Human Life
862:Unratified
662:Amendments
266:References
186:trademarks
90:. One, by
6000:17 U.S.C.
5619:Section X
2152:Article I
1616:Saxbe fix
1505:Executive
1460:Take Care
1450:Supremacy
1325:Guarantee
1253:Elections
1024:Formation
737:1795–1804
560:0096-3577
539:0897-3393
515:0096-3577
243:Copyright
63:copyright
42:, or the
6264:CASE Act
6069:Pre-1976
6062:Statutes
4229:case law
3550:case law
3488:case law
2154:case law
1898:Virginia
1872:Maryland
1836:Delaware
1738:New York
1515:Vicinage
1509:Judicial
1233:Contract
1203:Commerce
1091:Printing
905:Proposed
617:Preamble
610:Articles
533:: 1–23.
481:Archived
382:71427267
306:July 19,
282:(2004).
232:See also
194:artisans
6197:(1998)
2045:Display
2017:Related
1976:Georgia
1497:Vesting
1465:Takings
1350:Militia
1208:Compact
1160:Clauses
1086:Signing
1031:History
554:: 909.
509:: 438.
352:(1994).
78:History
6484:(2023)
6476:(2021)
6468:(2020)
6460:(2019)
6452:(2017)
6444:(2014)
6436:(2013)
6428:(2012)
6420:(2010)
6412:(2005)
6404:(2003)
6396:(1998)
6388:(1994)
6380:(1991)
6372:(1984)
6364:(1975)
6356:(1908)
6348:(1908)
6340:(1888)
6332:(1888)
6324:(1884)
6316:(1879)
6308:(1879)
6300:(1834)
6266:(2020)
6249:(2018)
6243:(2014)
6226:(2005)
6186:(1998)
6180:(1994)
6174:(1994)
6168:(1992)
6157:(1990)
6151:(1990)
5944:(2018)
5936:(2009)
5928:(2003)
5920:(1998)
5912:(1985)
5904:(1894)
5896:(1893)
5888:(1871)
5880:(1855)
5846:(1951)
5838:(1827)
5800:(2018)
5792:(1987)
5784:(1983)
5776:(1983)
5768:(1978)
5760:(1977)
5752:(1965)
5744:(1935)
5736:(1934)
5728:(1921)
5720:(1898)
5712:(1880)
5704:(1843)
5696:(1837)
5688:(1827)
5680:(1819)
5672:(1819)
5664:(1810)
5653:Others
5645:(1870)
5597:(2003)
5589:(1997)
5581:(1989)
5573:(1964)
5565:(1960)
5557:(1951)
5549:(1925)
5541:(1898)
5533:(1866)
5525:(1819)
5517:(1798)
5479:(2020)
5471:(2008)
5463:(2001)
5455:(1944)
5447:(1861)
5439:(1807)
5399:(2013)
5391:(2010)
5383:(2005)
5375:(2004)
5367:(1926)
5359:(1819)
5321:(2020)
5313:(1938)
5305:(1915)
5291:Other
5283:(2019)
5275:(2017)
5267:(2016)
5259:(2015)
5251:(2015)
5243:(2014)
5235:(2014)
5227:(2013)
5219:(2013)
5211:(2013)
5203:(2013)
5195:(2012)
5187:(2012)
5179:(2011)
5171:(2011)
5163:(2011)
5155:(2010)
5147:(2008)
5139:(2007)
5131:(2007)
5123:(2007)
5115:(2006)
5107:(2006)
5099:(2006)
5091:(2005)
5083:(2002)
5075:(2001)
5067:(1999)
5059:(1999)
5051:(1998)
5043:(1997)
5035:(1996)
5027:(1990)
5019:(1989)
5011:(1981)
5003:(1980)
4995:(1978)
4987:(1976)
4979:(1976)
4971:(1973)
4963:(1972)
4955:(1971)
4947:(1969)
4939:(1969)
4931:(1966)
4923:(1966)
4915:(1966)
4907:(1965)
4899:(1964)
4891:(1964)
4883:(1964)
4875:(1961)
4867:(1950)
4859:(1950)
4851:(1948)
4843:(1945)
4835:(1943)
4827:(1942)
4819:(1926)
4811:(1916)
4803:(1908)
4789:Other
4781:(1975)
4773:(1974)
4765:(1973)
4757:(1968)
4749:(1962)
4741:(1960)
4733:(1949)
4725:(1939)
4717:(1939)
4709:(1936)
4701:(1934)
4693:(1932)
4685:(1931)
4677:(1923)
4669:(1919)
4661:(1918)
4653:(1914)
4645:(1912)
4637:(1911)
4623:Other
4615:(2020)
4607:(2020)
4599:(2019)
4591:(2019)
4583:(2017)
4575:(2014)
4567:(2014)
4559:(2013)
4551:(2012)
4543:(2010)
4535:(2005)
4527:(2003)
4519:(2001)
4511:(1998)
4503:(1998)
4495:(1996)
4487:(1994)
4479:(1994)
4471:(1991)
4463:(1990)
4455:(1989)
4447:(1985)
4439:(1985)
4431:(1984)
4423:(1977)
4402:(2020)
4394:(2019)
4386:(2017)
4378:(2014)
4370:(2014)
4362:(2003)
4354:(2003)
4346:(2001)
4338:(2001)
4330:(1999)
4322:(1995)
4314:(1992)
4306:(1987)
4298:(1982)
4277:(1985)
4269:(1941)
4248:(1942)
4240:(1917)
4218:(1973)
4210:(1964)
4202:(1956)
4194:(1954)
4186:(1952)
4178:(1943)
4170:(1940)
4162:(1939)
4154:(1935)
4146:(1931)
4138:(1923)
4130:(1920)
4122:(1917)
4114:(1914)
4106:(1911)
4085:(1911)
4077:(1911)
4069:(1909)
4061:(1909)
4053:(1908)
4045:(1908)
4037:(1907)
4029:(1903)
4021:(1896)
4000:(1979)
3992:(1948)
3984:(1941)
3976:(1939)
3968:(1913)
3947:(1912)
3939:(1909)
3931:(1908)
3923:(1908)
3915:(1908)
3907:(1908)
3899:(1907)
3891:(1907)
3883:(1907)
3875:(1903)
3867:(1903)
3859:(1899)
3851:(1899)
3843:(1892)
3835:(1891)
3827:(1889)
3819:(1888)
3811:(1888)
3803:(1888)
3795:(1884)
3787:(1884)
3779:(1881)
3771:(1879)
3763:(1879)
3742:(1903)
3734:(1903)
3726:(1899)
3718:(1899)
3710:(1899)
3702:(1891)
3694:(1888)
3686:(1879)
3678:(1872)
3670:(1856)
3662:(1854)
3654:(1853)
3646:(1849)
3638:(1834)
3617:(1885)
3609:(1885)
3601:(1881)
3593:(1878)
3585:(1876)
3577:(1853)
3569:(1851)
3561:(1829)
3539:(1938)
3531:(1913)
3523:(1894)
3515:(1885)
3507:(1885)
3499:(1815)
3477:(1822)
3469:(1822)
3461:(1818)
3453:(1810)
3432:(1908)
3424:(1872)
3416:(1834)
3369:(1884)
3361:(1871)
3312:(2016)
3304:(2012)
3296:(2005)
3288:(2000)
3280:(2000)
3272:(2000)
3264:(2000)
3256:(1996)
3248:(1995)
3240:(1992)
3232:(1985)
3224:(1983)
3216:(1981)
3208:(1981)
3200:(1976)
3192:(1968)
3184:(1964)
3176:(1964)
3168:(1960)
3160:(1951)
3152:(1950)
3144:(1949)
3136:(1946)
3128:(1944)
3120:(1942)
3112:(1942)
3104:(1941)
3096:(1940)
3088:(1938)
3080:(1937)
3072:(1936)
3064:(1935)
3056:(1935)
3048:(1935)
3040:(1923)
3032:(1918)
3024:(1914)
3016:(1913)
3008:(1911)
3000:(1903)
2992:(1895)
2984:(1895)
2976:(1888)
2968:(1885)
2960:(1869)
2952:(1849)
2944:(1824)
2933:Others
2925:(2023)
2917:(2019)
2909:(2018)
2901:(2015)
2893:(2008)
2885:(2007)
2877:(2005)
2869:(1994)
2861:(1994)
2853:(1994)
2845:(1992)
2837:(1992)
2829:(1989)
2821:(1986)
2813:(1984)
2805:(1983)
2797:(1982)
2789:(1981)
2781:(1980)
2773:(1978)
2765:(1978)
2757:(1977)
2749:(1977)
2741:(1976)
2733:(1970)
2725:(1967)
2717:(1959)
2709:(1954)
2701:(1951)
2693:(1945)
2685:(1941)
2677:(1935)
2669:(1925)
2661:(1905)
2653:(1886)
2645:(1852)
2637:(1829)
2629:(1827)
2586:(2012)
2578:(2004)
2570:(1987)
2562:(1937)
2554:(1936)
2546:(1922)
2538:(1916)
2530:(1895)
2522:(1881)
2514:(1871)
2506:(1796)
2469:(1998)
2461:(1983)
2453:(1929)
2421:(1990)
2413:(1911)
2376:(1972)
2368:(1966)
2360:(1881)
2323:(2023)
2315:(2015)
2307:(1995)
2299:(1932)
2291:(1879)
2254:(2001)
2246:(1995)
2238:(1969)
2201:(2020)
2193:(2019)
2185:(2002)
2103:(film)
1487:Treaty
1390:Postal
1385:Pardon
558:
537:
513:
380:
370:
114:Effect
67:patent
6257:2020s
6234:2010s
6217:2000s
6142:1990s
6126:1980s
6110:1970s
300:(PDF)
289:(PDF)
6022:CARP
2221:and
556:ISSN
535:ISSN
511:ISSN
473:See
435:See
404:2024
378:OCLC
368:ISBN
333:2021
308:2018
65:and
58:).
30:The
6026:CRB
5617:of
5422:of
2489:of
2396:of
2343:of
2274:of
2223:III
2168:of
652:VII
632:III
144:by
6928::
1507:/
1503:/
848:27
843:26
838:25
833:24
828:23
823:22
818:21
813:20
808:19
803:18
798:17
793:16
777:15
772:14
767:13
749:12
744:11
728:10
647:VI
637:IV
627:II
552:84
550:.
531:16
529:.
507:11
505:.
421:.
376:.
341:^
38:,
6912:"
6908:"
5981:e
5974:t
5967:v
2141:e
2134:t
2127:v
1511:)
1499:(
1483:)
723:9
718:8
713:7
708:6
703:5
698:4
693:3
688:2
683:1
642:V
622:I
595:e
588:t
581:v
562:.
541:.
517:.
487:.
425:.
406:.
384:.
335:.
310:.
167:)
161:(
156:)
152:(
138:.
54:(
20:)
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