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never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.
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learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated
64:
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3351:, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer scientist
1059:"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".
1144:. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the
2182:
Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington,
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A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine
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and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so,
3294:' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of
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Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate
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to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to
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A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
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Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are
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Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through
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factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and does not grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An environment that cultivates intelligence is one that
982:—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.
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Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An
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Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular
1543:, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "
1279:, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and
1224:
Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.
718:, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in both non-human animals and plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit intelligence. Intelligence in computers or other machines is called
1006:
The theory of
Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".
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Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on
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fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online
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and
Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".
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A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments", which has been mathematically formalized.
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in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks. Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".
2993:"Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)"
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and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted." (p. 93.)
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of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework,
1206:. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different
832:. "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary
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Beheshtifar, M., Esmaeli, Z., & Moghadam, M. N. (2011). Effect of moral intelligence on leadership. European
Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 43, 6-11.
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come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)
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and the
Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. Intelligence enables humans to
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It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their
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968:"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".
1706:"Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants"
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3394:, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 61–63. Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable
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3690:. Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p.
1089:. Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to
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that we do not usually notice." A prominent example is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
1262:
1515:. Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".
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889:. It was signed by fifty-two researchers, out of 131 total invited to sign, with 48 explicitly refusing to sign. The op-ed described intelligence thus:
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2305:"Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology"
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Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.
1955:; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert;
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The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.
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The Limits of
Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine
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broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.
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originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année
Psychologique, 11, 191–244
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1148:(IQ) test. However, many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests; stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence.
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-intelligence/animal-intelligence/82F839242F36A27D8B31D6AC0FE8B92F
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has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by
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3284:, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?",
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Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or
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2017:
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1815:"Opera philosophica quæ latine scripsit omnia, in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth ."
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help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our
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3258:, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (
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Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). "The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence".
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can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.
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The SAGE Handbook of
Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance
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Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (30 November 2007). "Universal
Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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3304:, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?",
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Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised
Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence
828:", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical
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3252:, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms",
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1289:'s research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book,
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of intelligence is controversial, varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable.
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Emotional
Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research.
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have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with
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3388:, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind",
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direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".
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became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term
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794:(also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by
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3163:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9.
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defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain
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construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of
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Volkov, A. G.; Carrell, H.; Baldwin, A.; Markin, V. S. (2009). "Electrical memory in Venus flytrap".
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3646:. consulting editors: Douglas K. Detterman, Alan S. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York: Wiley.
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they receive. This could cause for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze
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and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.
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3262:) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of
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are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
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What exactly is intelligence? How could an external observer prove that an agent is intelligent?
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3007:"How did a company best known for playing games just crack one of science's toughest puzzles?"
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818:" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
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2024:. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 37–90. Archived from
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information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge.
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Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms
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is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in
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Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex
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researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:
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1295:. Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include
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2902:"A comparative approach to the principal mechanisms of different memory systems"
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can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as
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a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.
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believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.
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Trewavas, Anthony (September 2005). "Green plants as intelligent organisms".
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Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology.
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History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing
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To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence".
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1437:(Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in
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appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their
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3597:. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Vol. 233. Chichester: Wiley.
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3330:, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ,
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2018:"New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals"
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to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.
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differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as
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Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education
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904:(1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the
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which proposed policy changes based on purported connections between
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3368:, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it",
3088:"The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means"
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3668:. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin.
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factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.
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The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
3374:, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93. "AIs are like
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is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures,
3126:
2247:"TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence"
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Humphreys, L. G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence".
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The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
1833:
Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A., eds. (2015).
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1125:. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like
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Ability to perceive, infer, acquire, retain and apply information.
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What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought
3402:, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending
3320:
aced a test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by
1837:. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 3.
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3270:. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone
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Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity
2992:
3722:
2722:"Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence"
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and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative
1174:
Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey
3378:
and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack
3341:, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI",
3321:
1438:
1678:
Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216
1475:
accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.
696:. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer
2278:. Moral Development and Citizenship Education. Springer.
707:
The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s. Most
30:
For the human faculty of thinking and understanding, see
2788:
Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence
2635:
Common Sense, the Turing Test, and the Quest for Real AI
1813:
Hobbes, Thomas; Molesworth, William (15 February 1839).
1151:
There is debate about if human intelligence is based on
3593:
Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000).
3347:, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98.
3228:, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "
3065:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 103, 104.
814:, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "
2558:
Walker, Ronald E.; Foley, Jeanne M. (December 1973).
1197:
Social intelligence is the ability to understand the
1038:
3459:(second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3185:"Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People"
2606:
The Step-By-Step Plan to Building Moral Intelligence
2115:
Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences
1455:
Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition
4706:
4533:
4403:
4133:
4008:
3967:
3858:
3807:
3563:
2560:"Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement"
1050:
3410:in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
2519:Mayer, John D.; Salovey, Peter (1 October 1993).
1856:
1854:
1674:White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980).
775:. This term, however, was strongly linked to the
3246:, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle
1905:"Mainstream Science on Intelligence (editorial)"
1821:on 5 November 2013 – via Internet Archive.
652:has been defined in many ways: the capacity for
3500:"What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect"
2775:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
1244:
914:
891:
3222:, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.),
4111:
3782:
3476:What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect
3160:Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies
2777:B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017–1027.
2462:Salovey, Peter; Mayer, John D. (March 1990).
2154:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1160:challenges the person's cognitive abilities.
879:, as a response to controversy over the book
630:
8:
3290:, 20 November 2023, pp. 54–59. "If by '
3220:Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will
2521:"The intelligence of emotional intelligence"
1867:. Vol. 157. IOS Press. pp. 17–24.
1704:Goh, C. H.; Nam, H. G.; Park, Y. S. (2003).
1601:, also referred to as Non-Human Intelligence
3762:A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence
1887:
1433:and between 55% and 60% of the variance in
4118:
4104:
4096:
3789:
3775:
3767:
3478:(expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge:
3034:"What is artificial general intelligence?"
2960:Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
2957:Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003).
2900:Rensing, L.; Koch, M.; Becker, A. (2009).
1817:Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn. Archived from
637:
623:
46:
3523:. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.
3421:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3125:
2963:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
2925:
2868:
2769:
2767:
2747:
2737:
2487:
2385:
2303:Stanek, Kevin C.; Ones, Deniz S. (2018),
2206:
1721:
1337:provides an important comparative study.
1042:
1037:
3621:William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001).
3298:, especially smutty ones." (p. 59.)
2790:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2414:"Review of The Intelligence Controversy"
1802:. Oxford University Press. p. xxii.
931:
2362:"Human intelligence and brain networks"
1800:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
1654:
908:, also in response to controversy over
54:
3419:The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
2468:Imagination, Cognition and Personality
2338:
1941:from the original on 22 December 2014.
855:(more unsolved problems in philosophy)
714:Intelligence has been long-studied in
4719:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
3417:; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011).
3214:, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of
2457:
2455:
2407:
2405:
2253:from the original on 4 September 2016
2057:. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
2055:The measurement of adult intelligence
1183:and has ties to social intelligence.
7:
1831:This paragraph almost verbatim from
1743:
1741:
1699:
1697:
1676:An overview of intelligence testing.
763:, to comprehend or perceive. In the
3980:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3891:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3310:, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.
2292:from the original on 2 August 2017.
2183:DC: National Education Associations
1961:"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns"
1509:Progress in artificial intelligence
757:, which in turn stem from the verb
3278:for such a purpose." (p. 82.)
2726:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2720:Roth, Gerhard (19 December 2015).
2418:The American Journal of Psychology
1997:from the original on 28 March 2016
906:American Psychological Association
869:Mainstream Science on Intelligence
25:
3640:Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985).
901:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
4075:
2360:Colom, Roberto (December 2010).
1762:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2009.03.005
1723:10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x
1572:
1558:
1535:to steer the future elsewhere."
604:
62:
4076:
4016:Evolution of human intelligence
3398:. "irtually every sentence is
2118:. New York: Basic Books. 1993.
1140:Intelligence is different from
3541:"What Intelligence Tests Miss"
2693:Childs, Casper (27 May 2020).
2378:10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom
2152:Handbook of human intelligence
1105:, including the capacities to
846:Unsolved problem in philosophy
34:. For human intelligence, see
1:
4576:Hard problem of consciousness
4081:Outline of human intelligence
3985:Multiple-intelligences theory
2822:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005
1924:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
1798:Nidditch, Peter. "Foreword".
1628:Outline of human intelligence
1623:Neuroscience and intelligence
1599:Extraterrestrial intelligence
1155:factors or if it is based on
347:Industrial and organizational
40:Intelligence (disambiguation)
4031:Intelligence and environment
3664:; Merrill, Maude A. (1937).
3623:"The Nature of Intelligence"
3225:The New York Review of Books
2537:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3
2412:Bouchard, Thomas J. (1982).
2249:. TED.com. 6 February 2014.
2100:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6
1303:(notably the language-using
502:Human factors and ergonomics
3975:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
3498:C Shalizi (27 April 2009).
3260:natural-language processing
2480:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
1594:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
1229:Book smart and street smart
921:Besides those definitions,
4811:
3595:The Nature of Intelligence
3480:Cambridge University Press
2272:Tirri, Nokelainen (2011).
1687:Buxton, Claude E. (1985).
1490:
1452:
1425:. Studies have shown that
1375:
1255:
1217:
1190:
1167:
1070:
729:
29:
4739:
4298:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
4288:David Lewis (philosopher)
4071:
3570:. New York: Times Books.
3517:Stanovich, Keith (2009).
3457:IQ and Human Intelligence
3244:Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna
3136:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
2927:10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0
2695:"Words With An Astronaut"
2576:10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839
2317:10.4135/9781473914940.n14
2225:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
1980:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77
1959:; Urbina, Susana (1996).
1787:. Blackwell. p. 305.
1661:Sharma, Radha R. (2008).
1081:feats and high levels of
796:early modern philosophers
277:Applied behavior analysis
4785:Developmental psychology
3734:11 November 2007 at the
3643:Handbook of Intelligence
3629:(Review). Archived from
3547:(Review). Archived from
3506:(Review). Archived from
3474:Flynn, James R. (2009).
2786:Kamphaus, R. W. (2005).
2661:The Intelligence of Dogs
2612:Retrieved 28 April 2016.
2464:"Emotional Intelligence"
2366:Dialogues Clin. Neurosci
2345:: CS1 maint: location (
1783:Maich, Aloysius (1995).
1292:The Intelligence of Dogs
1051:{\displaystyle _{\tau }}
4795:Differential psychology
4426:Eliminative materialism
2802:Trends in Plant Science
2658:Coren, Stanley (1995).
2016:Binet, Alfred (1916) .
1665:Sage Journals. Vol. 12.
1493:Artificial intelligence
1335:Cephalopod intelligence
1236:Artificial intelligence
1028:Alexander Wissner-Gross
871:" was published, as an
742:derives from the Latin
720:artificial intelligence
467:Behavioral neuroscience
124:Behavioral neuroscience
4678:Propositional attitude
4673:Problem of other minds
4581:Hypostatic abstraction
3504:University of Michigan
3157:Bostrom, Nick (2014).
2739:10.1098/rstb.2015.0049
1378:g Factor in Non-Humans
1271:
1249:
1170:Emotional intelligence
1127:fluid vs. crystallized
1052:
919:
896:
826:intellectus intelligit
700:; and to retain it as
517:Psychology of religion
457:Behavioral engineering
143:Cognitive neuroscience
109:Affective neuroscience
38:. For other uses, see
4790:Psychological testing
4749:Philosophers category
4653:Mental representation
4416:Biological naturalism
4303:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
4278:Frank Cameron Jackson
3909:Intelligence quotient
3684:; Simon, Th. (1916).
3662:Terman, Lewis Madison
3427:10.1017/9781108770422
2843:Trewavas, A. (2002).
2564:Psychological Reports
1968:American Psychologist
1901:Gottfredson, Linda S.
1481:cost–benefit analysis
1397:. First described in
1265:
1146:Intelligence Quotient
1053:
990:& William Salter
887:race and intelligence
611:Psychology portal
4431:Emergent materialism
3995:Three-stratum theory
3752:. By Douglas Fox in
3551:on 24 December 2013.
3415:Sternberg, Robert J.
3032:Heath, Nick (2018).
1957:Sternberg, Robert J.
1445:in humans (40–50%).
1372:factor in non-humans
1036:
4628:Language of thought
4378:Ludwig Wittgenstein
4208:Patricia Churchland
3968:Models and theories
3755:Scientific American
3558:Blakeslee, Sandra;
3391:Scientific American
3371:Scientific American
3357:AI machine-learning
3327:Scientific American
3255:Scientific American
2918:2009NW.....96.1373R
2906:Naturwissenschaften
2861:2002Natur.415..841T
2814:2005TPS....10..413T
2217:2007arXiv0712.3329L
2150:; Salter W (1982).
1785:A Hobbes Dictionary
1750:Bioelectrochemistry
1421:, and responses to
1395:cognitive abilities
1319:and to some extent
1268:crab-eating macaque
1193:Social intelligence
996:adaptive behavior.
877:Wall Street Journal
674:emotional knowledge
462:Behavioral genetics
377:Occupational health
119:Behavioral genetics
50:Part of a series on
4456:Neurophenomenology
4127:Philosophy of mind
4021:Heritability of IQ
3798:Human intelligence
3744:Indiana University
3603:10.1002/0470870850
3114:Minds and Machines
2845:"Mindless mastery"
2732:(1684): 20150049.
2631:Hector J. Levesque
2195:Minds and Machines
1272:
1220:Moral intelligence
1208:schools of thought
1107:recognize patterns
1073:Human intelligence
1048:
579:Schools of thought
417:Sport and exercise
263:Applied psychology
36:Human intelligence
4767:
4766:
4663:Mind–body problem
4561:Cognitive closure
4525:Substance dualism
4143:G. E. M. Anscombe
4093:
4092:
4009:Areas of research
3959:Visual processing
3876:Cognitive liberty
3653:978-0-471-89738-5
3577:978-0-8050-7456-7
3530:978-0-300-12385-2
3489:978-0-521-74147-7
3466:978-0-19-958559-5
3453:Mackintosh, N. J.
3355:writes: "Current
3282:Immerwahr, Daniel
3268:ancient languages
3216:Kevin J. Mitchell
3170:978-0-19-967811-2
3086:Gary Lea (2015).
2970:978-0-13-790395-5
2912:(12): 1373–1384.
2671:978-0-553-37452-0
2326:978-1-4462-0721-5
2285:978-94-6091-758-5
2161:978-0-521-29687-8
2125:978-0-465-02510-7
2064:978-0-19-502296-4
1844:978-1-4939-1561-3
1710:The Plant Journal
1638:Superintelligence
1633:Passive intellect
1580:Psychology portal
1566:Philosophy portal
1500:intelligent agent
1064:
1063:
1002:Reuven Feuerstein
875:statement in the
690:critical thinking
647:
646:
544:Counseling topics
487:Consumer behavior
228:Psycholinguistics
114:Affective science
16:(Redirected from
4802:
4515:Representational
4510:Property dualism
4503:Type physicalism
4468:New mysterianism
4436:Epiphenomenalism
4258:Martin Heidegger
4120:
4113:
4106:
4097:
4079:
4078:
4000:Triarchic theory
3791:
3784:
3777:
3768:
3740:Jonathan Plucker
3702:
3700:
3698:
3677:
3657:
3634:
3619:Lay summary in:
3616:
3589:
3569:
3552:
3537:Lay summary in:
3534:
3511:
3510:on 14 June 2010.
3496:Lay summary in:
3493:
3470:
3448:
3376:autistic savants
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2710:
2708:
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2690:
2684:
2683:
2664:. Bantam Books.
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2007:
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2002:
1996:
1965:
1949:
1943:
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1891:
1890:, pp. 17–20
1888:Gottfredson 1997
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1589:Active intellect
1582:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1281:operationalizing
1258:Animal cognition
1242:has noted that:
1204:social character
1057:
1055:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1046:
988:Robert Sternberg
932:
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792:active intellect
639:
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609:
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574:Research methods
233:Psychophysiology
95:Basic psychology
66:
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21:
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4769:
4768:
4763:
4735:
4702:
4648:Mental property
4541:Abstract object
4529:
4399:
4353:Wilfrid Sellars
4228:Donald Davidson
4213:Paul Churchland
4173:George Berkeley
4129:
4124:
4094:
4089:
4067:
4004:
3963:
3929:Problem solving
3863:
3854:
3803:
3795:
3758:, 14 June 2011.
3738:. Developed by
3736:Wayback Machine
3709:
3696:
3694:
3680:
3660:
3654:
3639:
3633:on 26 May 2013.
3620:
3613:
3592:
3578:
3566:On intelligence
3557:
3538:
3531:
3516:
3497:
3490:
3473:
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3451:
3437:
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3366:Domingos, Pedro
3344:Foreign Affairs
3339:Cukier, Kenneth
3208:
3206:Further reading
3203:
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3096:
3094:
3092:Popular Science
3085:
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3080:
3073:
3059:Häggström, Olle
3057:
3056:
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2899:
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2870:10.1038/415841a
2842:
2841:
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2461:
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2453:
2430:10.2307/1422481
2411:
2410:
2403:
2359:
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2107:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2065:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2031:
2029:
2028:on 19 June 2010
2015:
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2010:
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1998:
1994:
1963:
1953:Neisser, Ulrich
1951:
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1695:
1691:Academic Press.
1686:
1682:
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1660:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1578:
1573:
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1564:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1513:protein folding
1495:
1489:
1461:
1459:Plant cognition
1453:Main articles:
1451:
1419:social learning
1380:
1374:
1343:nervous systems
1287:Wolfgang Köhler
1260:
1254:
1252:Nonhuman animal
1240:Hector Levesque
1231:
1222:
1216:
1195:
1189:
1172:
1166:
1075:
1069:
1039:
1034:
1033:
980:problem solving
964:Lloyd Humphreys
858:
857:
852:
849:
845:
842:
734:
728:
694:problem-solving
643:
605:
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569:Psychotherapies
537:
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213:Neuropsychology
97:
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28:
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5:
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4613:Intentionality
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4507:
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4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4463:Neutral monism
4460:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4446:Interactionism
4443:
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4365:
4360:
4358:Baruch Spinoza
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4268:Edmund Husserl
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4238:René Descartes
4235:
4233:Daniel Dennett
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4203:David Chalmers
4200:
4195:
4190:
4188:Franz Brentano
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4168:Alexander Bain
4165:
4160:
4158:Thomas Aquinas
4155:
4150:
4145:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4115:
4108:
4100:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4072:
4069:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4012:
4010:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3867:
3865:
3864:and constructs
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3804:
3796:
3794:
3793:
3786:
3779:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3747:
3725:
3708:
3707:External links
3705:
3704:
3703:
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3652:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3612:978-0471494348
3611:
3590:
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3553:
3529:
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3488:
3471:
3465:
3449:
3436:978-0521739115
3435:
3411:
3396:disambiguation
3383:
3363:
3336:
3314:Roivainen, Eka
3311:
3307:The New Yorker
3299:
3287:The New Yorker
3279:
3249:Cain's Jawbone
3241:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3201:
3176:
3169:
3149:
3120:(4): 391–444.
3104:
3078:
3072:978-0191035395
3071:
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2892:
2835:
2808:(9): 413–419.
2792:
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2712:
2685:
2670:
2650:
2639:
2637:(2017), p. 80.
2623:
2614:
2597:
2570:(3): 839–864.
2550:
2531:(4): 433–442.
2511:
2474:(3): 185–211.
2451:
2424:(2): 346–349.
2401:
2372:(4): 489–501.
2352:
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2284:
2264:
2238:
2201:(4): 391–444.
2185:
2175:
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2139:
2124:
2105:
2094:(2): 105–120.
2078:
2063:
2042:
2008:
1944:
1892:
1880:
1874:978-1586037581
1873:
1850:
1843:
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1805:
1790:
1775:
1756:(2): 142–147.
1737:
1716:(2): 240–255.
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1584:
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1569:
1553:
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1533:Garry Kasparov
1520:Olle Häggström
1518:Mathematician
1491:Main article:
1488:
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1447:
1376:Main article:
1373:
1367:
1256:Main article:
1253:
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1230:
1227:
1218:Main article:
1215:
1212:
1191:Main article:
1188:
1185:
1168:Main article:
1165:
1162:
1115:solve problems
1087:self-awareness
1071:Main article:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1045:
1041:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1008:
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991:
984:
983:
976:
974:Howard Gardner
970:
969:
966:
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954:David Wechsler
950:
949:
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940:
939:
936:
910:The Bell Curve
882:The Bell Curve
853:
850:
844:
841:
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730:Main article:
727:
724:
666:self-awareness
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309:
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160:Cross-cultural
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4724:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4693:Understanding
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
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4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
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4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4618:Introspection
4616:
4614:
4611:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4571:Consciousness
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4532:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4493:Phenomenology
4491:
4489:
4488:Phenomenalism
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4478:Occasionalism
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4451:Naïve realism
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4441:Functionalism
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4383:Stephen Yablo
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
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4338:Richard Rorty
4336:
4334:
4333:Hilary Putnam
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4308:Marvin Minsky
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4283:Immanuel Kant
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4273:William James
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
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4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
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4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4178:Henri Bergson
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
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4070:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Psychometrics
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4007:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
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3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3954:Understanding
3952:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:Communication
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
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3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3799:
3792:
3787:
3785:
3780:
3778:
3773:
3772:
3769:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3711:
3710:
3706:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3682:Binet, Alfred
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3618:
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3614:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3568:
3567:
3561:
3560:Hawkins, Jeff
3556:
3550:
3546:
3545:Psych Central
3542:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3526:
3522:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3491:
3485:
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3472:
3468:
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3409:
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3392:
3387:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3353:Alex Pentland
3350:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3276:training data
3273:
3272:civilizations
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3242:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3212:Gleick, James
3210:
3209:
3205:
3190:
3189:idlewords.com
3186:
3180:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3162:
3161:
3153:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3119:
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3105:
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3064:
3060:
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3035:
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3008:
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2988:
2985:
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2961:
2953:
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2945:
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2937:
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2888:
2884:
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2876:
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2855:(6874): 841.
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2074:
2070:
2066:
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2056:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1974:(2): 77–101.
1973:
1969:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
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1917:
1913:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
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1857:
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1440:
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1270:using a stone
1269:
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1200:
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1181:mental health
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1157:environmental
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1117:, and employ
1116:
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1100:
1096:
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1092:
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1080:
1074:
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1026:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1017:Marcus Hutter
1014:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1003:
1000:
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994:Goal-directed
992:
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867:In 1994 the "
865:
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839:
837:
835:
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822:
817:
813:
809:
805:
804:Thomas Hobbes
801:
800:Francis Bacon
797:
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