1240:). If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work. Other barriers include the generally disciplinary orientation of most scholarly journals, leading to the perception, if not the fact, that interdisciplinary research is hard to publish. In addition, since traditional budgetary practices at most universities channel resources through the disciplines, it becomes difficult to account for a given scholar or teacher's salary and time. During periods of budgetary contraction, the natural tendency to serve the primary constituency (i.e., students majoring in the traditional discipline) makes resources scarce for teaching and research comparatively far from the center of the discipline as traditionally understood. For these same reasons, the introduction of new interdisciplinary programs is often resisted because it is perceived as a competition for diminishing funds.
1209:
training than others; in turn, colleagues in "softer" disciplines who may associate quantitative approaches with difficulty grasp the broader dimensions of a problem and lower rigor in theoretical and qualitative argumentation. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes). Those who lack experience in interdisciplinary collaborations may also not fully appreciate the intellectual contribution of colleagues from those discipline. From the disciplinary perspective, however, much interdisciplinary work may be seen as "soft", lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work. For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by
1669:"Previously, men could be divided simply into the learned and the ignorant, those more or less the one, and those more or less the other. But your specialist cannot be brought in under either of these two categories. He is not learned, for he is formally ignorant of all that does not enter into his specialty; but neither is he ignorant, because he is 'a scientist,' and 'knows' very well his own tiny portion of the universe. We shall have to say that he is a learned ignoramus, which is a very serious matter, as it implies that he is a person who is ignorant, not in the fashion of the ignorant man, but with all the petulance of one who is learned in his own special line."
1304:
the subject. Others have argued that the very idea of synthesis or integration of disciplines presupposes questionable politico-epistemic commitments. Critics of interdisciplinary programs feel that the ambition is simply unrealistic, given the knowledge and intellectual maturity of all but the exceptional undergraduate; some defenders concede the difficulty, but insist that cultivating interdisciplinarity as a habit of mind, even at that level, is both possible and essential to the education of informed and engaged citizens and leaders capable of analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information from multiple sources in order to render reasoned decisions.
1200:. On some views, however, interdisciplinarity is entirely indebted to those who specialize in one field of study—that is, without specialists, interdisciplinarians would have no information and no leading experts to consult. Others place the focus of interdisciplinarity on the need to transcend disciplines, viewing excessive specialization as problematic both epistemologically and politically. When interdisciplinary collaboration or research results in new solutions to problems, much information is given back to the various disciplines involved. Therefore, both disciplinarians and interdisciplinarians may be seen in complementary relation to one another.
1269:
world. The latter has one US organization, the
Association for Interdisciplinary Studies (founded in 1979), two international organizations, the International Network of Inter- and Transdisciplinarity (founded in 2010) and the Philosophy of/as Interdisciplinarity Network (founded in 2009). The US's research institute devoted to the theory and practice of interdisciplinarity, the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity at the University of North Texas, was founded in 2008 but is closed as of 1 September 2014, the result of administrative decisions at the University of North Texas.
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discourse, interdisciplinarity typically applies to four realms: knowledge, research, education, and theory. Interdisciplinary knowledge involves familiarity with components of two or more disciplines. Interdisciplinary research combines components of two or more disciplines in the search or creation of new knowledge, operations, or artistic expressions. Interdisciplinary education merges components of two or more disciplines in a single program of instruction. Interdisciplinary theory takes interdisciplinary knowledge, research, or education as its main objects of study.
1260:. These new fields are occasionally referred to as "interdisciplines". On the other hand, even though interdisciplinary activities are now a focus of attention for institutions promoting learning and teaching, as well as organizational and social entities concerned with education, they are practically facing complex barriers, serious challenges and criticism. The most important obstacles and challenges faced by interdisciplinary activities in the past two decades can be divided into "professional", "organizational", and "cultural" obstacles.
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1300:. Researchers at the Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity have made the distinction between philosophy 'of' and 'as' interdisciplinarity, the former identifying a new, discrete area within philosophy that raises epistemological and metaphysical questions about the status of interdisciplinary thinking, with the latter pointing toward a philosophical practice that is sometimes called 'field philosophy'.
1067:
multiple traditional disciplines. Interdisciplinary education fosters cognitive flexibility and prepares students to tackle complex, real-world problems by integrating knowledge from multiple fields. This approach emphasizes active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, equipping students with the adaptability needed in an increasingly interconnected world. For example, the subject of
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2506:, Wie viel Politik steckt in der Kommunikationswissenschaft? Zum Stellenwert politikwissenschaftlicher Theorien in der Kommunikationswissenschaft. In: Haschke, Josef F./Moser, André M. (eds.): Politik-Deutsch, Deutsch-Politik: Aktuelle Trends und Forschungsergebnisse. Beiträge zur 6. Fachtagung des DFPK (Düsseldorfer Forum Politische Kommunikation, vol. 1;
1462:: Knowledge management discipline exists as a cluster of divergent schools of thought under an overarching knowledge management umbrella by building on works in computer science, economics, human resource management, information systems, organizational behavior, philosophy, psychology, and strategic management.
1035:
is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools
1557:
There are many examples of when a particular idea, almost on the same period, arises in different disciplines. One case is the shift from the approach of focusing on "specialized segments of attention" (adopting one particular perspective), to the idea of "instant sensory awareness of the whole", an
1303:
Perhaps the most common complaint regarding interdisciplinary programs, by supporters and detractors alike, is the lack of synthesis—that is, students are provided with multiple disciplinary perspectives but are not given effective guidance in resolving the conflicts and achieving a coherent view of
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Due to these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry. Examples of
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Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differences of perspectives and methods. For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative rigor may produce practitioners who are more scientific in their
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as a research area deals with problems requiring analysis and synthesis across economic, social and environmental spheres; often an integration of multiple social and natural science disciplines. Interdisciplinary research is also key to the study of health sciences, for example in studying optimal
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Since 1998, there has been an ascendancy in the value of interdisciplinary research and teaching and a growth in the number of bachelor's degrees awarded at U.S. universities classified as multi- or interdisciplinary studies. The number of interdisciplinary bachelor's degrees awarded annually rose
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Transport sciences: Transport sciences are a field of science that deals with the relevant problems and events of the world of transport and cooperates with the specialised legal, ecological, technical, psychological or pedagogical disciplines in working out the changes of place of people, goods,
1307:
While much has been written on the philosophy and promise of interdisciplinarity in academic programs and professional practice, social scientists are increasingly interrogating academic discourses on interdisciplinarity, as well as how interdisciplinarity actually works—and does not—in practice.
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and several other disciplines. Any broadminded humanist project involves interdisciplinarity, and history shows a crowd of cases, as seventeenth-century
Leibniz's task to create a system of universal justice, which required linguistics, economics, management, ethics, law philosophy, politics, and
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An initial distinction should be made between interdisciplinary studies, which can be found spread across the academy today, and the study of interdisciplinarity, which involves a much smaller group of researchers. The former is instantiated in thousands of research centers across the US and the
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is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand, including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of
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To begin with, a discipline can be conveniently defined as any comparatively self-contained and isolated domain of human experience which possesses its own community of experts. Interdisciplinarity is best seen as bringing together distinctive components of two or more disciplines. In academic
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1972:"Research and Development Priorities to Achieve the "Grand Convergence": An Initial Scan of Priority Research Areas for Public Health, Implementation Science and Innovative Financing for Neglected Diseases: Working Paper for the Lancet Commission on Investing in Health"
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of the disciplines in their attempt to recolonize the experimental knowledge production of otherwise marginalized fields of inquiry. This is due to threat perceptions seemingly based on the ascendancy of interdisciplinary studies against traditional academia.
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in an educational setting. Interdisciplinary programs may be founded in order to facilitate the study of subjects which have some coherence, but which cannot be adequately understood from a single disciplinary perspective (for example, women's studies or
1674:"It is the custom among those who are called 'practical' men to condemn any man capable of a wide survey as a visionary: no man is thought worthy of a voice in politics unless he ignores or does not know nine-tenths of the most important relevant facts."
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At the same time, many thriving longstanding bachelor's in interdisciplinary studies programs in existence for 30 or more years, have been closed down, in spite of healthy enrollment. Examples include
Arizona International (formerly part of the
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of any two instances of knowledge, research, or education can be ranked by weighing four variables: number of disciplines involved, the "distance" between them, the novelty of any particular combination, and their extent of integration.
3193:
Franks, D.; Dale, P.; Hindmarsh, R.; Fellows, C.; Buckridge, M.; Cybinski, P. (2007). "Interdisciplinary foundations: reflecting on interdisciplinarity and three decades of teaching and research at
Griffith University, Australia".
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attests that "the roots of the concepts lie in a number of ideas that resonate through modern discourse—the ideas of a unified science, general knowledge, synthesis and the integration of knowledge", while Giles Gunn says that
2687:: The Charité Human Remains Project - interdisciplinary research and restitution of human remains. In: Mitteilungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, vol. 33, 2012, pp. 103-108.
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Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as
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from 7,000 in 1973 to 30,000 a year by 2005 according to data from the
National Center of Educational Statistics (NECS). In addition, educational leaders from the Boyer Commission to Carnegie's President
1225:, it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.
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research: Interdisciplinary research comes into play when clarifying the path of artworks into public and private art collections and also in relation to human remains in natural history collections.
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Interdisciplinarians may help breach communication gaps in the modern academy, thereby helping to mobilize its enormous intellectual resources in the cause of greater social rationality and justice.
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Thorbecke, Eric. (2006) "The
Evolution of the Development Doctrine, 1950–2005". UNU-WIDER Research Paper No. 2006/155. United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research
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attention to the "total field", a "sense of the whole pattern, of form and function as a unity", an "integral idea of structure and configuration". This has happened in painting (with
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attempts to provide a simple, common-sense, definition of interdisciplinarity, bypassing the difficulties of defining that concept and obviating the need for such related concepts as
1289:). More rarely, and at a more advanced level, interdisciplinarity may itself become the focus of study, in a critique of institutionalized disciplines' ways of segmenting knowledge.
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have advocated for interdisciplinary rather than disciplinary approaches to problem-solving in the 21st century. This has been echoed by federal funding agencies, particularly the
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has no disciplinary departments and emphasizes interdisciplinary concentrations in the
Humanities, Social and Behavioral Sciences, International Studies, and Environmental Studies.
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Some have shown, for example, that some interdisciplinary enterprises that aim to serve society can produce deleterious outcomes for which no one can be held to account.
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or ethnic area studies. Interdisciplinarity can likewise be applied to complex subjects that can only be understood by combining the perspectives of two or more fields.
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Siskin, L.S. & Little, J.W. (1995). The
Subjects in Question. Teachers College Press. about the departmental organization of high schools and efforts to change that.
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may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example,
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1490:: A holistic design science that provides a framework for making design decisions in any sphere of human endeavor, but especially in land use and resource security.
1652:"The modern mind divides, specializes, thinks in categories: the Greek instinct was the opposite, to take the widest view, to see things as an organic whole . The
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into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several fields like sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, etc. It is related to an
1440:. Faculty members of environmental programs often collaborate in interdisciplinary teams to solve complex global environmental problems. Those who study areas of
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1664:, if you won this, you were a man. Needless to say, the Marathon race was never heard of until modern times: the Greeks would have regarded it as a monstrosity."
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Although "interdisciplinary" and "interdisciplinarity" are frequently viewed as twentieth century terms, the concept has historical antecedents, most notably
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1217:; interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek
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Interdisciplinary programs may also fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For example, interdisciplinary faculty are usually recruited to a
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1337:, who has advocated that grant proposals be framed more as interdisciplinary collaborative projects than single-researcher, single-discipline ones.
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raise to self-consciousness questions about how interdisciplinarity works, the nature and history of disciplinarity, and the future of knowledge in
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or other project requires the melding of several specialties. However, the term "interdisciplinary" is sometimes confined to academic settings.
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programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines. They may also arise from new research developments, such as
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More so than narrow disciplinarians, interdisciplinarians often treat themselves to the intellectual equivalent of traveling in new lands.
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and movement in cooperation with a number of other sciences, such as sociology, ethics, biology, medicine, biomechanics or pedagogy.
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former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines, many of them named for their parent disciplines, include
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At another level, interdisciplinarity is seen as a remedy to the harmful effects of excessive specialization and isolation in
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3317:"Disciplinary hegemony meets interdisciplinary ascendancy: Can interdisciplinary/integrative studies survive, and if so how?"
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Sumner, A and M. Tribe (2008) International
Development Studies: Theories and Methods in Research and Practice, London: Sage
1456:, may also seek knowledge in the environmental sciences to better develop their expertise and understanding in their fields.
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solutions to diseases. Some institutions of higher education offer accredited degree programs in
Interdisciplinary Studies.
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National Science Foundation Workshop Report: Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Innovative Science and Engineering Fields
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that deals with the conscious entering into and experiencing of borderline situations. For this purpose, the findings of
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throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined
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2009:"Does increased interdisciplinary contact among hard and social scientists help or hinder interdisciplinary research?"
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2104:"Association for Interdisciplinary Studies Homepage - Association for Interdisciplinary Studies - Oakland University"
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of thought, professions, or technologies—along with their specific perspectives—in the pursuit of a common task. The
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2548:", Department of Environmental Sciences - College and Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Virginia.
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1578:, which brought sequentiality, to the era shaped by the instant speed of electricity, which brought simultaneity.
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Nissani, M. (1997). "Ten cheers for interdisciplinarity: The Case for Interdisciplinary Knowledge and Research".
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2589:"A Structured Literature Review of Scientometric Research of the Knowledge Management Discipline: A 2021 Update"
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1502:: Sport science is an interdisciplinary science that researches the problems and manifestations in the field of
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Schuurman, F.J. (2000). "Paradigms Lost, paradigms regained? Development studies in the twenty-first century".
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By bridging fragmented disciplines, interdisciplinarians might play a role in the defense of academic freedom."
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Disciplinarians often commit errors which can be best detected by people familiar with two or more disciplines.
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3546:. Eds. Thorsten Philipp und Tobias Schmohl, 195-204. Bielefeld: transcript. doi: 10.14361/9783839463475-021.
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1382:: Communication studies takes up theories, models, concepts, etc. of other, independent disciplines such as
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Frodeman, R.; Mitcham, C. (Fall 2007). "New Directions in Interdisciplinarity: Broad, Deep, and Critical".
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Qual–quant: qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal - complementaries, tensions, and the way forward
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José Andrés-Gallego (2015). "Are Humanism and Mixed Methods Related? Leibniz's Universal (Chinese) Dream".
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College for Interdisciplinary Studies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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1168:, which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include
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3070:(2001), "Qualitative approaches: self-criticism and what can be gained from quantitative approaches", in
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Commons and borderlands: working papers on interdisciplinarity, accountability and the flow of knowledge
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Gerhard Medicus: Being Human – Bridging the Gap between the Sciences of Body and Mind, Berlin 2017 VWB]
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Ravallion, Martin (2003), "Can qualitative methods help quantitative poverty", in Kanbur, Ravi (ed.),
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Frodeman, Robert; Briggle, Adam; Holbrook, J. Britt (2012). "Philosophy in the Age of Neoliberalism".
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2291:"What is interdisciplinary communication? Reflections on the very idea of disciplinary integration"
1837:"College Student Motivation: An Interdisciplinary Approach to an Integrated Learning Systems Model"
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A multi-method analysis of the social and technical conditions for interdisciplinary collaboration
2463:"Accountability and the academy: producing knowledge about the human dimensions of climate change"
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Nissani, M. (1995). "Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity".
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Harriss, John (2002). "The Case for Cross-Disciplinary Approaches in International Development".
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2980:(1995). "Unitary Versus Collective Models of the Household: Time to Shift the Burden of Proof?".
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1472:. It covers the design, discovery and application of new materials by incorporating elements of
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White, Howard (2002). "Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in Poverty Analysis".
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Sportwissenschaft interdisziplinär - Geschichte, Struktur und Gegenstand der Sportwissenschaft
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Some worthwhile topics of research fall in the interstices among the traditional disciplines.
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Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities: An Online Open Access E-Journal
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Interdisciplinary knowledge and research serve to remind us of the unity-of-knowledge ideal.
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3746:- A guide to on-line resources on integration and trans- and inter-disciplinary approaches.
3734:(2002) Globalisation and its Discontents, United States of America, W.W. Norton and Company
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2700:. Geschichte, Struktur und Gegenstand der Sportwissenschaft. Feldhaus Verlag, Hamburg 2001.
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Tackling Your Inner 5-Year-Old: Saving the world requires an interdisciplinary perspective
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3483:(2003), "Q-squared?: a commentry on qualitative and quantitative poverty appraisal", in
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1468:: Field that combines the scientific and engineering aspects of materials, particularly
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Interdisciplinary Studies Project, Harvard University School of Education, Project Zero
3130:. Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne. Archived from
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2008:
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Many intellectual, social, and practical problems require interdisciplinary approaches.
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Higher Education at the Crossroads of Disruption: the University of the 21st Century
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Managing Development: Decentralisation, Geographical Socialism And Urban Replication
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3652:, Delhi Bangalore: Permanent Black Distributed by Orient Longman, pp. 58–67,
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Lipton, Michael (1970). "Interdisciplinary Studies in Less Developed Countries".
3491:, Delhi Bangalore: Permanent Black Distributed by Orient Longman, pp. 2–27,
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Q-squared, combining qualitative and quantitative methods in poverty appraisal
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Q-squared, combining qualitative and quantitative methods in poverty appraisal
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434:
418:
297:
287:
277:
252:
3177:
2659:
2607:
2042:
1948:
1071:
may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for instance,
4639:
4156:
3125:"Interdisciplinary Higher Education: Implications for Teaching and Learning"
3062:
Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester)
2848:"Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working Definition of Interdisciplinarity"
2479:
2462:
1477:
1425:
1413:
1391:
1383:
1153:
1140:
1132:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1060:
1008:
which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between
811:
408:
199:
3691:
3519:
Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and Interdisciplinarities
3116:
Rethinking Interdisciplinarity across the Social Sciences and Neurosciences
2883:
2060:
1660:
of the whole man, not a merely specialized skill . The great event was the
3785:
University Experiments in Interdisciplinarity: Obstacles and Opportunities
2993:
2639:
4680:
4670:
4528:
3088:
Chubin, D. E. (1976). "The conceptualization of scientific specialties".
1745:
1545:
1366:
1120:
1088:
1068:
1048:
requires understanding of diverse disciplines to solve complex problems.
1041:
737:
535:
530:
490:
413:
302:
3009:
3003:
Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies
2545:
1868:
Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies
1852:
1821:
1516:: Venture research is an interdisciplinary research area located in the
3830:
3615:
2644:. Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
2527:", Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences.
2077:
Interdisciplinary Higher Education; Criticism, Challenges and Obstacles
1473:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1237:
1072:
247:
40:
3472:
2489:
2103:
1365:, have been cut back. Stuart Henry has seen this trend as part of the
1232:, with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as
3061:
2569:", University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability.
2007:
Urbanska, Karolina; Huet, Sylvie; Guimond, Serge (4 September 2019).
1700:
1559:
1541:
1222:
3632:
Cents and Sensibility: What Economics Can Learn from the Humanities.
3609:
3258:
3240:"Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness"
2932:
Lives in the Balance: the Cold War and American Politics, 1945-1991
3341:
1657:
1503:
1469:
282:
237:
3672:
1633:
Interdisciplinarians enjoy greater flexibility in their research.
1618:
Immigrants often make important contributions to their new field.
27:
Combination of two or more academic disciplines into one activity
3673:
School of Social Ecology at the University of California, Irvine
2770:. Tyrolia Publishing House. Munich-Innsbruck-Bolzano. P. 96-111.
1611:
Interdisciplinary knowledge and research are important because:
1353:; others such as the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at
227:
3915:
3849:
2726:
Discussion Papers from the Institute of Economics and Transport
3911:
3408:"Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts"
2751:
Im Rausch der Gefahr. Why more and more people seek the thrill
1908:
Introduction to Scholarship in Modern Language and Literatures
1276:
is an academic program or process seeking to synthesize broad
267:
2764:
Vom Sinn des Wagens. Why people take on dangerous challenges.
2171:
3637:
2641:
Materials : engineering, science, processing and design
1264:
Interdisciplinary studies and studies of interdisciplinarity
1127:) to further understand their own material. The building of
3750:
Truman State University's Interdisciplinary Studies Program
3342:
Interdisciplinary Arts Department, Columbia College Chicago
1970:
J.S. Edge; S.J. Hoffman; C.L. Ramirez; S.J. Goldie (2013).
3901:
3874:
3638:
NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study, New York, NY
2141:
3610:
Interdisciplinarity: A Nobel Opportunity, November 2018
3553:(2008). "Interdisciplinary studies at the crossroads".
3083:, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, pp. 22–25.
3036:
Underdevelopment and Development: The Third World Today
1615:"Creativity often requires interdisciplinary knowledge.
1119:
took elements from other realms of knowledge (such as
3902:
SystemsX.ch – The Swiss Initiative in Systems Biology
1349:, and the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies at
3536:
Klein, Julie Thompson and Thorsten Philipp (2023), "
4679:
4663:
4615:
4379:
4321:
4240:
4165:
4092:
3985:
3972:
3031:"Introduction: Development and The Social Sciences"
1327:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
437:. In order to explore related topics, please visit
3744:Trans- & inter-disciplinary science approaches
3029:
3016:
2882:
1910:. New York: Modern Language Association. pp.
1901:
1885:Interdisciplinarity: History, Theory, and Practice
1882:
1870:(2nd ed.). New York: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
3866:, a journal (in French), with a special issue on
3782:Peter Weingart; Britta Padberg (30 April 2014).
3357:Jackson, Cecile (2002). "Disciplining Gender?".
3230:The Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington
1400:: Environmental science is an interdisciplinary
1156:paid little attention to the social analysis of
2340:Barry, A.; G. Born & G. Weszkalnys (2008).
1672:
1667:
1650:
1596:
3154:'Interdisciplitarity': The First Half Century"
2467:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute
1594:, pluridisciplinarity, and multidisciplinary:
1345:), the School of Interdisciplinary Studies at
3927:
3166:Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society
2194:"Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity"
1574:was due to the passage from an era shaped by
1016:, as new needs and professions emerge. Large
968:
457:
8:
3757:"Distrust Opens the Door for Polio in India"
3380:"Interdisciplinarity: A Critical Assessment"
3234:Gram Vikas (2007) Annual Report, p. 19.
2712:Glossary of Transport and Transport Sciences
2399:"Interdisciplinarity: a critical assessment"
1841:Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management
3856:Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity
3446:"Economics, social science and development"
3222:Frodeman, R., Klein, J.T., and Mitcham, C.
3114:Callard, Felicity; Fitzgerald, Des (2015).
3057:Center for the Study of Interdisciplinarity
2972:Alderman, Harold; Chiappori, Pierre Andre;
1280:, knowledge, skills, interconnections, and
3982:
3934:
3920:
3912:
3879:, publishing articles on a number of areas
3774:Peter Weingart and Nico Stehr, eds. 2000.
1582:Efforts to simplify and defend the concept
1548:are cooperatively processed and evaluated.
1416:, and involves the use of a wide range of
1020:teams are usually interdisciplinary, as a
975:
961:
497:
477:
464:
450:
127:
31:
3831:Association for Interdisciplinary Studies
3019:The Political Economy of Underdevelopment
3010:Association for Interdisciplinary Studies
2615:
2488:
2478:
2050:
2032:
3883:Article about interdisciplinary modeling
3620:Moran, Joe. (2002). Interdisciplinarity.
3567:Interdisciplinarity and Higher Education
2514:), Berlin: Frank & Timme, pp. 37-58.
1686:Commensurability (philosophy of science)
1236:) and a traditional discipline (such as
906:Library and information science software
3571:The Pennsylvania State University Press
3527:Resources for interdisciplinary studies
3023:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2525:Environmental Science & Engineering
1800:
489:
219:
130:
39:
4714:Electrical and electronics engineering
3863:Labyrinthe. Atelier interdisciplinaire
3506:Kaplan Andreas (2021). Emerald (ed.).
3289:Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies
3224:Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity
2929:Bertrand Russell; Nissani, M. (1992).
2397:Jacobs, J.A. & S. Frickel (2009).
2074:Khorsandi, Ali Taskoh (18 July 2011).
1562:), physics, poetry, communication and
901:Geographic information system software
3714:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2814:
2812:
2766:In: German Alpine Association (ed.):
2235:from the original on 28 December 2018
2223:Frodeman, Robert (23 November 2010).
2084:from the original on 15 November 2011
1312:Politics of interdisciplinary studies
994:involves the combination of multiple
7:
4747:
3885:(in French with an English abstract)
3565:Kockelmans, Joseph J. editor (1979)
2461:Hall, E.F. & T. Sanders (2015).
2450:. Wantage: Sean Kingston Publishing.
1781:Periodic table of human sciences in
4757:
3543:Handbook Transdisciplinary Learning
3038:. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp.
2627:from the original on 12 March 2023.
2378:from the original on 22 August 2016
3378:Jacobs, J.A.; Frickel, S. (2009).
3118:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
3102:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1976.tb01715.x
2114:from the original on 7 August 2006
1889:. Detroit: Wayne State University.
1835:Debnath, Sukumar C. (1 May 2005).
1810:The Journal of Educational Thought
1394:and thus decisively develops them.
25:
3399:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115954
3247:The American Journal of Sociology
2918:. New York: New American Library.
2567:Environmental Policy and Planning
2418:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115954
2225:"Experiments of Field Psychology"
1981:. London, England. Archived from
1937:Journal of Mixed Methods Research
4798:Academic discipline interactions
4766:
4756:
4746:
4737:
4736:
4606:
3858:at the University of North Texas
3226:. Oxford University Press, 2010.
2666:from the original on 31 May 2024
1510:messages that characterise them.
52:
3347:Interdisciplinarity and tenure/
3158:Issues in Integrative Studies 6
3123:Davies. M.; Devlin, M. (2007).
2889:. Middlesex: Penguin. pp.
2596:Journal of Knowledge Management
2342:"Logics of interdisciplinarity"
1162:science, technology and society
3892:, an interdisciplinary project
3844:Rethinking Interdisciplinarity
3776:Practicing Interdisciplinarity
3586:Journal of Development Studies
3525:Klein, Julie Thompson (2006) "
3522:(University Press of Virginia)
2914:Ortega y Gasset, José (1932).
2852:Journal of Educational Thought
2791:"McLuhan: Understanding Media"
2730:Technische Universität Dresden
2709:Hendrik Ammoser, Mirko Hoppe:
1881:Klein, Julie Thompson (1990).
1761:Science and technology studies
1294:studies of interdisciplinarity
1170:quantum information processing
1:
3817:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00114-0
3778:(University of Toronto Press)
3516:Klein, Julie Thompson (1996)
3465:10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00117-6
3371:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00113-9
3324:Issues in Integrative Studies
3308:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00115-2
2833:10.1016/S0362-3319(97)90051-3
1331:National Institutes of Health
3964:List of engineering branches
3634:(Princeton University Press)
3034:. In Henry Bernstein (ed.).
3015:Bagchi, Amiya Kumar (1982).
2982:World Bank Research Observer
2858:(2): 119–126. Archived from
2268:10.1080/02691728.2012.722701
2034:10.1371/journal.pone.0221907
1355:Appalachian State University
1131:required men who understood
3196:Studies in Higher Education
2587:Serenko, Alexander (2021).
2289:Holbrook, J. Britt (2013).
1903:"Interdisciplinary Studies"
1731:Interprofessional education
1603:In turn, interdisciplinary
4834:
3896:Soka University of America
3387:Annual Review of Sociology
3238:Granovetter, Mark (1985).
3090:The Sociological Quarterly
2724:, published in the series
2406:Annual Review of Sociology
1783:Tinbergen's four questions
1726:Interdisciplinary teaching
1656:were designed to test the
163:Interdisciplinary sciences
4732:
4604:
3949:
3598:10.1080/00220387008421343
3208:10.1080/03075070701267228
3028:Bernstein, Henry (1973).
2361:10.1080/03085140701760841
2307:10.1007/s11229-012-0179-7
1736:Meta-functional expertise
992:interdisciplinary studies
928:Qualitative data analysis
18:Interdisciplinary Studies
3178:10.1177/0270467607308284
3001:Augsburg, Tanya (2005).
2916:The Revolt of the Masses
2608:10.1108/JKM-09-2020-0730
1949:10.1177/1558689813515332
1906:. In Gibaldi, J. (ed.).
1006:interdisciplinary field,
308:Research and development
4818:Philosophy of education
4625:Bachelor of Engineering
4467:Engineering mathematics
3869:La Fin des Disciplines?
3415:Studies in Intelligence
3334:Indiresan, P.V. (1990)
2717:7 December 2022 at the
2480:10.1111/1467-9655.12162
1866:Ausburg, Tanya (2006).
1756:Social ecological model
1751:Science of team science
1538:differential psychology
1359:George Mason University
1333:under the direction of
1298:post-industrial society
1274:interdisciplinary study
1213:drawn from established
1190:Sustainable development
1188:with computer science.
4724:Structural engineering
4719:Mechanical engineering
4462:Engineering management
3712:Development as freedom
3692:10.1080/01436590013198
3315:Henry, Stuart (2005).
2881:Kitto, H.D.F. (1957).
2821:Social Science Journal
2573:28 August 2022 at the
2552:28 August 2022 at the
2531:28 August 2022 at the
2446:Strathern, M. (2004).
1721:Interdisciplinary arts
1676:
1671:
1666:
1601:
1588:Social Science Journal
1418:scientific disciplines
1351:Wayne State University
1258:biomedical engineering
807:Inferential statistics
753:Descriptive statistics
700:Human subject research
220:Extrascientific fields
132:Intrascientific fields
4704:Aerospace engineering
4617:Engineering education
3788:. transcript Verlag.
3755:Waldman, Amy (2003).
3680:Third World Quarterly
3533:, (Mark/April). 52–58
2762:Siegbert A. Warwitz:
2638:Ashby, M. F. (2007).
1526:cultural anthropology
1454:environmental justice
1398:Environmental science
1380:Communication science
1343:University of Arizona
1172:, an amalgamation of
591:Philosophical schools
384:Science communication
233:Communication studies
4645:Graduate certificate
3406:Johnston, R (2003).
2846:Nissani, M. (1995).
2108:www.units.muohio.edu
1900:Gunn, Giles (1992).
1711:Integrative learning
1460:Knowledge management
1442:environmental policy
1406:environmental issues
1404:aimed at addressing
1105:Julie Thompson Klein
1010:academic disciplines
996:academic disciplines
916:Reference management
866:Scientific modelling
608:Critical rationalism
341:Scientific integrity
323:Vocational education
258:Knowledge management
4630:Bachelor of Science
4472:Engineering physics
4456:Engineering drawing
3978:Interdisciplinarity
3848:, organized by the
3665:Rhoten, D. (2003).
3538:Interdisciplinarity
3421:(1). Archived from
2994:10.1093/wbro/10.1.1
2785:Understanding Media
2349:Economy and Society
2321:on 20 November 2015
2256:Social Epistemology
2198:University of Texas
2025:2019PLoSO..1421907U
1853:10.21818/001c.14552
1788:Transdisciplinarity
1767:Synoptic philosophy
1592:transdisciplinarity
1553:Historical examples
1534:behavioral research
1522:evolutionary theory
1363:New Century College
988:Interdisciplinarity
896:Argument technology
35:Part of a series on
4232:Telecommunications
4137:Naval architecture
3890:Unity of Knowledge
3761:The New York Times
3643:Poverty Action Lab
3628:Morton O. Schapiro
3137:on 2 December 2007
2949:on 19 October 2016
2797:on 11 October 2007
2722:(PDF; 1,3 MB)
2696:Klaus Willimczik:
2427:on 22 October 2016
2204:on 1 December 2017
2168:pin-net.gatech.edu
1988:on 22 October 2016
1586:An article in the
1564:educational theory
1014:schools of thought
890:Tools and software
834:Secondary research
758:Discourse analysis
59:Science portal
4780:
4779:
4709:Civil engineering
4655:Licensed engineer
4650:Engineer's degree
4602:
4601:
4434:Building services
4417:Health technology
4278:Chemical reaction
4227:Signal processing
3846:online conference
3805:World Development
3795:978-3-8394-2616-6
3624:Morson, Gary Saul
3608:, Michael Szell,
3555:Liberal Education
3453:World Development
3428:on 10 August 2006
3359:World Development
3296:World Development
2651:978-0-08-047149-5
2504:Christian Schäfer
2301:(11): 1865–1879.
1777:Thematic learning
1706:Holism in science
1466:Materials science
1446:environmental law
1388:political science
1230:joint appointment
1198:information silos
1186:molecular biology
1064:interdisciplinary
1050:Interdisciplinary
1033:interdisciplinary
985:
984:
951:Philosophy portal
859:Systematic review
844:Literature review
802:Historical method
785:Social experiment
720:Scientific method
705:Narrative inquiry
556:Interdisciplinary
550:Research strategy
521:Research question
516:Research proposal
474:
473:
399:Scientific method
389:Science education
330:
329:
313:Strategic studies
16:(Redirected from
4825:
4770:
4760:
4759:
4750:
4749:
4740:
4739:
4610:
4197:Electromechanics
3983:
3936:
3929:
3922:
3913:
3820:
3799:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3732:Stiglitz, Joseph
3725:
3703:
3662:
3614:Gerhard Medicus
3601:
3562:
3551:Kleinberg, Ethan
3513:
3502:
3476:
3450:
3437:
3435:
3433:
3427:
3412:
3402:
3384:
3374:
3331:
3321:
3311:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3276:on 2 August 2014
3275:
3269:. Archived from
3244:
3219:
3189:
3160:(1988): 139-151.
3153:
3149:Frank, Roberta:
3146:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3129:
3119:
3105:
3084:
3082:
3068:Chambers, Robert
3053:
3033:
3024:
3022:
3006:
2997:
2974:Haddad, Lawrence
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2945:. Archived from
2926:
2920:
2919:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2888:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2867:
2862:on 6 August 2016
2843:
2837:
2836:
2816:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2793:. Archived from
2780:Marshall McLuhan
2777:
2771:
2760:
2754:
2747:
2741:
2732:. Dresden 2006.
2707:
2701:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2619:
2602:(8): 1889–1925.
2593:
2584:
2578:
2563:
2557:
2542:
2536:
2521:
2515:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2482:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2426:
2420:. Archived from
2403:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2377:
2346:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2317:. Archived from
2286:
2280:
2279:
2262:(3–4): 311–330.
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2200:. Archived from
2190:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2170:. Archived from
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2140:. Archived from
2130:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2054:
2036:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1987:
1976:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1905:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1805:
1568:Marshall McLuhan
1514:Venture research
1347:Miami University
1319:Vartan Gregorian
1287:medieval studies
1178:computer science
1137:material science
1101:Greek philosophy
977:
970:
963:
923:Science software
822:Cultural mapping
790:Quasi-experiment
780:Field experiment
748:Content analysis
643:Critical realism
561:Multimethodology
501:
478:
466:
459:
452:
394:Research funding
263:Language studies
168:Natural sciences
141:Applied sciences
128:
61:
57:
56:
32:
21:
4833:
4832:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4783:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4728:
4675:
4659:
4635:Master's degree
4611:
4598:
4512:Instrumentation
4375:
4317:
4283:Electrochemical
4236:
4222:Radio frequency
4161:
4088:
4052:Municipal/Urban
3976:
3974:
3968:
3945:
3940:
3827:
3802:
3796:
3781:
3765:
3763:
3754:
3722:
3706:
3677:
3660:
3647:
3606:Roberta Sinatra
3583:
3549:
3505:
3499:
3479:
3448:
3440:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3410:
3405:
3382:
3377:
3356:
3319:
3314:
3293:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3242:
3237:
3192:
3163:
3151:
3140:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3122:
3113:
3087:
3080:
3066:
3050:
3027:
3014:
3005:. Kendall/Hunt.
3000:
2978:Hoddinott, John
2971:
2968:
2966:Further reading
2963:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2943:
2935:. Hollowbrook.
2928:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2880:
2879:
2875:
2865:
2863:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2800:
2798:
2789:
2778:
2774:
2761:
2757:
2749:Michael Apter:
2748:
2744:
2719:Wayback Machine
2708:
2704:
2695:
2691:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2667:
2652:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2624:
2591:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2575:Wayback Machine
2564:
2560:
2554:Wayback Machine
2543:
2539:
2533:Wayback Machine
2522:
2518:
2502:
2498:
2460:
2459:
2455:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2401:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2253:
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2248:
2238:
2236:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2205:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2177:
2175:
2174:on 16 June 2013
2162:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2117:
2115:
2102:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2085:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2019:(9): e0221907.
2006:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1716:Interdiscipline
1681:
1649:
1584:
1566:. According to
1555:
1530:social sciences
1376:
1323:Alan I. Leshner
1314:
1266:
1234:women's studies
1206:
1174:quantum physics
1144:even sinology.
1097:
1054:women's studies
1001:interdiscipline
981:
945:
944:
891:
883:
882:
829:Phenomenography
768:Autoethnography
733:
725:
724:
685:Grounded theory
680:Critical theory
675:Art methodology
670:Action research
665:
655:
654:
593:
583:
582:
551:
543:
542:
511:
509:Research design
470:
424:
423:
379:
378:
369:
368:
364:Research ethics
359:Logical fallacy
349:Reproducibility
344:
343:
332:
331:
190:Social sciences
146:Formal sciences
125:
124:
104:
51:
50:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4831:
4829:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4785:
4784:
4778:
4777:
4775:
4774:
4764:
4754:
4744:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4727:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4700:
4699:
4694:
4685:
4683:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4673:
4667:
4665:
4664:Related topics
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4621:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4584:Sustainability
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4520:
4519:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4469:
4464:
4459:
4453:
4448:
4446:Geoengineering
4443:
4442:
4441:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4427:Rehabilitation
4424:
4422:Pharmaceutical
4419:
4414:
4409:
4407:Bioinformatics
4399:
4394:
4389:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4366:Semiconductors
4363:
4358:
4356:Nanotechnology
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4327:
4325:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4253:
4246:
4244:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4177:
4171:
4169:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4098:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4079:
4072:Transportation
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3991:
3989:
3980:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3941:
3939:
3938:
3931:
3924:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3888:Wolf, Dieter.
3886:
3880:
3872:
3859:
3853:
3852:, CNRS, Paris
3850:Institut Nicod
3840:
3833:
3826:
3825:External links
3823:
3822:
3821:
3811:(3): 511–522.
3800:
3794:
3779:
3772:
3752:
3747:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3729:
3726:
3720:
3704:
3675:
3670:
3663:
3658:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3621:
3618:
3612:
3602:
3581:
3563:
3547:
3534:
3523:
3514:
3503:
3497:
3477:
3459:(3): 477–486.
3444:(March 2002).
3438:
3403:
3375:
3365:(3): 497–509.
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3332:
3312:
3302:(3): 487–496.
3291:
3286:
3259:10.1086/228311
3253:(3): 481–510.
3235:
3232:
3227:
3220:
3202:(2): 167–185.
3190:
3172:(6): 506–514.
3161:
3147:
3120:
3111:
3106:
3096:(4): 448–476.
3085:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3048:
3025:
3012:
3007:
2998:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2942:978-0893416591
2941:
2921:
2906:
2900:978-0140135213
2899:
2873:
2838:
2827:(2): 201–216.
2808:
2772:
2755:
2753:. Munich 1994.
2742:
2702:
2689:
2685:Nils Seethaler
2677:
2650:
2630:
2579:
2558:
2537:
2516:
2496:
2453:
2438:
2389:
2332:
2281:
2246:
2215:
2185:
2155:
2144:on 31 May 2013
2138:www.inidtd.org
2125:
2095:
2066:
1999:
1962:
1943:(2): 118–132.
1927:
1921:978-0873523851
1920:
1892:
1873:
1858:
1847:(3): 168–188.
1827:
1816:(2): 121–128.
1799:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1790:
1785:
1779:
1774:
1772:Systems theory
1769:
1764:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1583:
1580:
1572:paradigm shift
1554:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1518:human sciences
1511:
1507:
1500:Sports science
1497:
1491:
1485:
1463:
1457:
1450:sustainability
1410:global warming
1395:
1375:
1372:
1335:Elias Zerhouni
1313:
1310:
1265:
1262:
1211:peer reviewers
1205:
1202:
1182:bioinformatics
1166:nanotechnology
1096:
1093:
1046:global warming
983:
982:
980:
979:
972:
965:
957:
954:
953:
947:
946:
943:
942:
941:
940:
935:
930:
920:
919:
918:
913:
903:
898:
892:
889:
888:
885:
884:
881:
880:
875:
874:
873:
863:
862:
861:
856:
854:Scoping review
851:
846:
841:
831:
826:
825:
824:
814:
809:
804:
799:
797:Field research
794:
793:
792:
787:
782:
772:
771:
770:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
734:
731:
730:
727:
726:
723:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
695:Historiography
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
666:
661:
660:
657:
656:
653:
652:
651:
650:
648:Subtle realism
645:
635:
630:
628:Postpositivism
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
603:Constructivism
600:
598:Antipositivism
594:
589:
588:
585:
584:
581:
580:
575:
574:
573:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
545:
544:
541:
540:
539:
538:
533:
523:
518:
512:
507:
506:
503:
502:
494:
493:
487:
486:
472:
471:
469:
468:
461:
454:
446:
443:
442:
426:
425:
422:
421:
416:
411:
406:
404:Science policy
401:
396:
391:
386:
380:
376:
375:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
361:
356:
354:Cognitive bias
351:
345:
339:
338:
337:
334:
333:
328:
327:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
222:
221:
217:
216:
215:
214:
213:
212:
207:
202:
197:
187:
186:
185:
180:
175:
165:
160:
159:
158:
153:
143:
135:
134:
126:
111:
110:
109:
106:
105:
103:
102:
97:
92:
87:
85:Disambiguation
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
47:
44:
43:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4830:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4763:
4755:
4753:
4745:
4743:
4735:
4734:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4682:
4678:
4672:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4662:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4609:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4518:
4515:
4514:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4465:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4243:
4239:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4186:
4183:
4182:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4127:Manufacturing
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4117:Biomechanical
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4091:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4015:Environmental
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3995:Architectural
3993:
3992:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3971:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3932:
3930:
3925:
3923:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3891:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3851:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3839:
3838:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3791:
3787:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3723:
3721:9780198297581
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3659:9788178240534
3655:
3651:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3579:
3578:9780271038261
3575:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3498:9788178240534
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:. India: Sage
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3159:
3155:
3148:
3133:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3049:9780140807233
3045:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2925:
2922:
2917:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2886:
2877:
2874:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2839:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2796:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2713:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2678:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2634:
2631:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2497:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2473:(2): 438–61.
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2454:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2390:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2333:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2247:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2216:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1896:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1877:
1874:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
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2167:
2164:"PIN / HOME"
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2076:
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1282:epistemology
1278:perspectives
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1246:neuroscience
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1150:anthropology
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1030:
1026:mobile phone
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690:Hermeneutics
578:Quantitative
555:
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273:Liberal arts
162:
151:Mathematical
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4808:Occupations
4762:Wikiproject
4517:and Control
4507:Information
4331:Biomaterial
4261:Bioresource
4252:/Bioprocess
4250:Biochemical
4202:Electronics
3973:Specialties
3943:Engineering
3686:(1): 7–20.
3604:Yifang Ma,
3592:(1): 5–18.
2988:(1): 1–19.
2801:4 September
2229:Opinionator
2208:26 November
2134:"INIT-Home"
1741:Methodology
1482:engineering
1250:cybernetics
1215:disciplines
1129:Roman roads
1095:Development
1018:engineering
763:Ethnography
663:Methodology
618:Fallibilism
566:Qualitative
536:Referencing
377:Instruments
298:Professions
4787:Categories
4681:Glossaries
4502:Industrial
4482:Facilities
4477:Explosives
4402:Biomedical
4397:Automation
4346:Metallurgy
4256:Biological
4207:Microwaves
4167:Electrical
4112:Automotive
4094:Mechanical
4067:Structural
4032:Geological
4020:Ecological
4010:Earthquake
3766:4 November
3561:(1): 6–11.
3473:1813/57796
3280:25 October
3141:7 November
2953:15 October
2885:The Greeks
2490:1807/68882
2325:29 January
2118:6 November
1979:The Lancet
1795:References
1662:pentathlon
1647:Quotations
1494:Provenance
1420:including
1158:technology
1125:philosophy
1117:dramatists
1113:historians
938:Statistics
933:Simulation
871:Simulation
812:Interviews
775:Experiment
743:Case study
715:Pragmatism
633:Pragmatism
623:Positivism
613:Empiricism
439:navigation
435:philosophy
429:This is a
419:Technology
293:Polemology
288:Philosophy
278:Literature
253:Humanities
243:Futurology
200:Economical
100:Philosophy
95:Literature
4803:Knowledge
4640:Doctorate
4554:Packaging
4524:Logistics
4497:Geomatics
4458:/graphics
4351:Molecular
4341:Corrosion
4323:Materials
4303:Petroleum
4293:Molecular
4175:Broadcast
4157:Tribology
4107:Aerospace
4042:Hydraulic
3700:145181997
3393:: 43–65.
3216:144173921
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2617:233907050
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2276:143872826
2043:1932-6203
1957:147266697
1478:chemistry
1426:chemistry
1414:pollution
1392:economics
1384:sociology
1219:promotion
1154:sociology
1141:logistics
1133:surveying
1085:geography
1081:economics
1077:chemistry
1061:adjective
1031:The term
571:Art-based
431:subseries
409:Scientist
210:Political
4813:Pedagogy
4793:Academia
4742:Category
4671:Engineer
4579:Software
4574:Security
4549:Ontology
4539:Military
4529:Robotics
4492:Forensic
4412:Clinical
4371:Surfaces
4361:Polymers
4336:Ceramics
4313:Reaction
4242:Chemical
4180:Computer
4102:Acoustic
4057:Offshore
4025:Sanitary
3710:(1999).
3630:(2017).
3432:8 August
3267:17242802
2715:Archived
2664:Archived
2622:Archived
2571:Archived
2550:Archived
2546:Research
2529:Archived
2373:Archived
2369:17283125
2295:Synthese
2233:Archived
2178:15 April
2148:15 April
2112:Archived
2082:Archived
2061:31483810
2013:PLOS ONE
1822:23767672
1746:Polymath
1679:See also
1605:richness
1546:pedagogy
1444:such as
1408:such as
1374:Examples
1367:hegemony
1204:Barriers
1121:medicine
1089:politics
1069:land use
1042:HIV/AIDS
738:Analysis
531:Argument
491:Research
483:a series
481:Part of
414:Research
303:Religion
195:Cultural
173:Physical
156:Computer
80:Glossary
70:Category
4752:Commons
4594:Textile
4589:Systems
4559:Privacy
4544:Nuclear
4308:Process
4266:Genetic
4212:Optical
4192:Control
4185:outline
4152:Thermal
4142:Railway
4082:Railway
4077:Traffic
4000:Coastal
3959:Outline
3954:History
3487:(ed.),
3330:: 1–37.
3074:(ed.),
2866:31 July
2788:, p.13
2782:(1964)
2670:13 June
2431:31 July
2382:31 July
2315:8553978
2239:31 July
2088:19 July
2052:6726372
2021:Bibcode
1992:31 July
1912:239–240
1570:, this
1474:physics
1434:ecology
1430:physics
1422:geology
1238:history
1073:biology
817:Mapping
732:Methods
638:Realism
526:Writing
248:History
117:Outline
90:History
65:Outline
41:Science
4772:Portal
4569:Survey
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4271:Tissue
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1087:, and
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4298:Paper
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3696:S2CID
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3212:S2CID
3182:S2CID
3135:(PDF)
3128:(PDF)
3081:(PDF)
3040:13–30
2891:173–4
2625:(PDF)
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2365:S2CID
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1975:(PDF)
1953:S2CID
1818:JSTOR
1763:(STS)
1658:arete
1504:sport
1110:Greek
283:Music
238:Craft
205:Human
75:Index
4487:Fire
4288:Food
3790:ISBN
3768:2008
3716:ISBN
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3626:and
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3493:ISBN
3434:2006
3282:2017
3143:2007
3044:ISBN
2955:2016
2937:ISBN
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2868:2016
2803:2007
2734:ISSN
2672:2022
2656:OCLC
2646:ISBN
2508:ISSN
2433:2016
2384:2016
2327:2019
2241:2016
2210:2017
2180:2013
2150:2013
2120:2004
2090:2011
2057:PMID
2039:ISSN
1994:2016
1916:ISBN
1412:and
1390:and
1256:and
1221:and
1176:and
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1115:and
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178:Life
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