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promote interspecific aggression because resources need to be defended against heterospecifics as well. So, the use of efficient vocal strategies such as matching might prove to be effective in interspecific communication. Hence, heterospecific matching could be a way of phrasing a threat in the language of the heterospecfic intruder. It could equally be well argued that these imitations of blue tit sounds have no function at all and are merely the result of learning mistakes in the sensitive period of great tits because blue and great tits form mixed foraging flocks together. While the authors agree with the first hypothesis, it is plausible that the latter also being true given the data on age and experience in primates.
136:), the leopard will typically not attack. Therefore, when a leopard alarm call is given, both species respond by positioning near the leopard signaling that it has been found out. It also seems that the monkeys are able to distinguish a leopard alarm call from, for example, a raptor alarm call. When a raptor alarm call is given, the monkeys respond by moving towards the forest floor and away from aerial attack. It is not simply that the monkeys act upon hearing the alarm calls but rather they are able to actually extract particular information from a call. Responses to heterospecific alarm calls are not confined to
392:"Allomone was proposed by Brown and Eisner (Brown, 1968) to denote those substances which convey an advantage upon the emitter. Because Brown and Eisner did not specify whether or not the receiver would benefit, the original definition of allomone includes both substances that benefit the receiver and the emitter, and substances that only benefit the emitter. An example of the first relationship would be a mutualistic relationship, and the latter would be a repellent secretion."
177:, the odd couple of an orphaned baby hippopotamus and a 130-year-old Aldabran tortoise, display this relationship rarely seen in the animal world. Dr. Kahumbu of the sanctuary that holds the two believes that the two vocalize to one another in neither a stereotypical tortoise nor a hippopotamus fashion. Owen does not respond to hippopotamus calls. It is likely that when Owen was first introduced to Mzee he was still young enough to be imprinted.
237:
275:
rattlesnakes have been well studied (i.e. tail flagging), only recently have scientists discovered that these squirrels also employ a type of infrared heat signaling. By using robotic models of squirrels, the researchers found that when infrared radiation was added to tail flagging, rattlesnakes shifted from predatory to defensive behavior and were less likely to attack than when no radiation component was added.
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543:. A follow-up workshop to review progress and plan future activities occurred in 2019 and was co-hosted by MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms, Google, and the Jeremy Coller Foundation. The ongoing efforts coalesced into a think-tank to accelerate understanding of interspecies communication. Workshops and public conferences were held in 2020 and 2021.
165:
to recognize heterospecific calls. Macaques who were exposed longer to other species' alarm calls were more likely to correctly respond to heterospecific alarm calls. Key to this early learning was the reinforcement of a predatory threat, when an alarm call was given a corresponding threat had to be
201:
alarm calls, which broadcast the location and size of a predator. Since chickadees and nuthatches typically occupy the same habitat, mobbing predators together acts as a deterrent that benefits both species. Nuthatches screen chickadee alarm calls in order to determine whether it is cost-efficient,
148:
and the golden-mantled ground squirrel. Researchers have determined that bird species are able to understand, or at least respond, to alarms calls by species of mammals and vice versa; red squirrels' acoustic response to raptors is near-identical to that of birds, making the latter also aware to a
274:
larvae produce a clicking noise with their mandibles followed by an unpalatable oral secretion. Scientists believe this to be âacoustic aposematismâ which has only been previously found in a controlled study with bats and tiger moths. While the defense mechanisms of ground squirrels to predatory
216:
Work by
Gorissen, Gorissen, and Eens (2006) has focused on blue tit song matching (or, "song imitation") by great tits. Blue and great tits compete for resources such as food and nesting cavities and their coexistence has important fitness consequences for both species. These fitness costs might
131:
and
Campbell's monkeys. When one species elicits an alarm signal specific to a certain predator, the other species react in the same pattern as the species that called. For example, leopards hunt both species by capitalizing the elements of stealth and surprise. If the monkeys detect the leopard
438:
in a way that benefits an individual of another species which receives it and harms the emitter. This "eavesdropping" is often disadvantageous to the producer (though other benefits of producing the substance may outweigh this cost, hence its persistence over evolutionary time). The kairomone
523:
Social scientists and others have historically criticized research in interspecies communication, characterizing it as anthropomorphizing. This perspective has become less common in recent years. A 2013 TED Talk featured a proposal to construct an
Interspecies Internet by presenters musician
76:, PhD, started working with her in 1975. Penny and Koko worked together at the Gorilla Foundation in one of the longest interspecies communication studies ever conducted until Koko's death in 2018. Koko had a vocabulary of over 1000 signs, and understood a greater amount of spoken English.
57:
has been working with primates at
Georgia State University's Language Research Center (LRC), and more recently, the Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary. In 1985, using lexigram symbols, a keyboard and monitor, and other computer technology, Savage-Rumbaugh began her groundbreaking work with
189:). In terms of alarm calls, this means that the warnings are not bi-directional. It may be that the other species has simply not been able to decipher the calls of the first species. Much of the research done on this type of communication has been in bird species, including the
111:, she has 2 males to 1 female which is the reverse of what she needs. I think that is why she said that, because in our current situation, it isn't possible for her to have a baby. She needs several females and one male to have a family.
66:(P. paniscus). Her research has made significant contributions to a growing body of work in sociobiology studying language learning in non-human primates and exploring the role of language and communication as an evolutionary mechanism.
345:
that affects the behaviour of a member of another species to the benefit of the originator but not the receiver. Production of allomones is a common form of defense against predators, particularly by plant species against insect
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in terms of energy consumption, to mob a particular predator, because not all predators pose the same risk to nuthatches as to chickadees. Screening may be most important in the winter when energy demands are the highest.
207:
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Nishida, R., K.H. Tan, S.L. Wee, A.K.W. Hee and Toong, Y. C. (2004). "Phenylpropanoids in the fragrance of the fruit fly orchid, Bulbophyllum cheiri, and their relationship to the pollinator, Bactrocera papayae".
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Others rely on the technique adopted by a wolf in sheep's clothingâthey mimic a harmless species. ... Other predators even mimic their prey's prey: angler fish (Lophiiformes) and alligator snapping turtles
247:
Much of the communication between predators and prey can be defined as signaling. In some animals, the best way to avoid being preyed upon is an advertisement of danger or unpalatability, or
79:
In April 1998, Koko gave an AOL live chat. Sign language was used to relay to Koko questions from the online audience of 7,811 AOL members. The following is an excerpt from the live chat.
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Gorissen, L.; Gorissen, M.; Eens, M. (2006). "Heterospecific song matching in two closely related songbirds (Parus major and P. caeruleus): Great tits match blue tits but not vice versa".
101:
PENNY: Oh poor sweetheart. She said 'unattention.' She covered her face with her hands..which means it's not happening, basically, or it hasn't happened yet. . . I don't see it.
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Tan, K.H., L.T. Tan, and R. Nishida (2006). "Floral phenylpropanoid cocktail and architecture of
Bulbophyllum vinaceum orchid in attracting fruit flies for pollination".
208:
494:. In this true mutualistic inter-relationship, both organisms gain benefits in their respective sexual reproductive systems â i.e. orchid flowers are pollinated and the
259:
fireflies mimic female
Photinus fireflies by scent and glow patterns in order to lure interested male Photinus fireflies, which they then kill and eat. Lophiiformes, or
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PENNY: It is responding to the question. In other words, she hasn't had one yet, and she doesn't see a future here. The way the situation is actually with Koko &
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1526:
Tan, K.H.; Nishida, R. (2005). "Synomone or
Kairomone? - Bulbophyllum apertum (Orchidaceae) flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies".
451:(the study of insects). Two main ecological cues are provided by kairomones; they generally either indicate a food source for the receiver, or the presence of a
46:
Cooperative interspecies communication implies sharing and understanding information between two or more species that work towards the benefit of both species (
447:(which is the opposite: it benefits the producer and harms the receiver) and a synomone (which benefits both parties). The term is mostly used in the field of
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Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2007). "Zingerone in the floral synomone of
Bulbophyllum baileyi (Orchidaceae) attracts Bactrocera fruit flies during pollination".
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Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2000). "Mutual reproductive benefits between a wild orchid, Bulbophyllum patens, and
Bactrocera fruit flies via a floral synomone".
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fruit fly males are rewarded with a sex pheromone precursor or booster. The floral synomone, also acts as a reward to pollinators, is either in the form of a
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understanding is a learned behavior or not is unclear. In 2000 it was found that age and interspecies experience were important factors in the ability for
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A synomone is an interspecific semiochemical that is beneficial to both interacting organisms, the emitter and receiver, e.g. floral synomone of certain
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It is unusual for interspecies communication to be observed in an older animal taking care of a younger animal of a different species. For example,
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206:
608:"Influence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Exoproducts on Virulence Factor Production in Burkholderia cepacia: Evidence of Interspecies Communication"
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Brown, William L. Jr.; Eisner, Thomas; Whittaker, Robert H. (1 January 1970). "Allomones and
Kairomones: Transspecific Chemical Messengers".
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heterospecifics. The scientists posit that mixed-species choruses may reduce their risk of predation without increasing mate competition.
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354:
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Shriner, W.M.K.E.E. (1998). "Yellow-bellied marmot and golden-mantled ground squirrel responses to heterospecific alarm calls".
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Tan, K.H., R. Nishida and Y.C. Toong (2002). "Bulbophyllum cheiri's floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination".
807:
Ramakrishnan, U.; Coss, R. G. (2000). "Recognition of Heterospecific Alarm Vocalization by Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata)".
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350:. In addition to defense, allomones are also used by organisms to obtain their prey or to hinder any surrounding competitors.
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Reciprocal recognition of sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) and redfronted lemur (Eulemur fulvus rufus) alarm calls
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presented in order to make the association. Interspecies communication may not be an innate ability but rather a sort of
373:, and yet others adopt them into their own defensive strategies, for example by regurgitating them when attacked by an
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537:
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Brown, W L Jr.; Eisner, T; Whittaker, R H (1970). "Allomones and kairomones: Transpecific chemical messengers".
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Osada, Kazumi; Kurihara, Kenzo; Izumi, Hiroshi; Kashiwayanagi, Makoto (24 April 2013). Bolhuis, Johan J. (ed.).
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Hristov, N. I.; Conner, W. E. (2005). "Sound strategy: acoustic aposematism in the batâtiger moth arms race".
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can wriggle fleshy outgrowths of their fins or tongues and attract small predatory fish close to their mouths.
970:"Pyrazine Analogues Are Active Components of Wolf Urine That Induce Avoidance and Freezing Behaviours in Mice"
361:). One method of adapting to allomones is to develop a positive reaction to them; the allomone then becomes a
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to ward off predators. Some predators also use aggressive mimicry as a hunting technique. For example,
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Unlike cooperative communication, parasitic communication involves an unequal sharing of information (
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Research observing cooperative communication has largely focused on primates, and predatory animals.
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PENNY: What about a baby? You going to have baby? She's just thinking...her hands are together...
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The mixed-species chorus as public information: tĂșngara frogs eavesdrop on a heterospecific
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Clicking caterpillars: acoustic aposematism in Antheraea polyphemus and other Bombycoidea
72:, a lowland gorilla, began learning a modified American Sign Language as an infant, when
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251:. Given the effectiveness of this, it is no surprise that many animals employ styles of
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863:"Nuthatches eavesdrop on variations in heterospecific chickadee mobbing alarm calls"
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Doctor Dolittle's Delusion, Subtitle: Animals and the Uniqueness of Human Language
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Wood William F. (1983). "Chemical Ecology: Chemical Communication in Nature".
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PENNY: OK, is that for Koko? Koko are you going to have a baby in the future?
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Two examples of predatorâprey signaling were found in caterpillars and
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1283:"kairomone, n.". OED Online. September 2012. Oxford University Press.
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Ground squirrels use an infrared signal to deter rattlesnake predation
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Cerf, Diana Reiss, Peter Gabriel, Neil Gershenfeld and Vint (2013),
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197:. Nuthatches are able to discriminate between subtle differences in
83:
AOL: MInyKitty asks Koko are you going to have a baby in the future?
1137:. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:14372-14376.
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Rundus, A.S.; Owings, D.H.; Joshi, S.S.; Chinn, E; Giannini, N.
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455:, the latter of which is less common or at least less studied.
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http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/241005?redirectedFrom=kairomone
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Grasswitz, T.R. and G.R. Jones (2002). "Chemical Ecology".
1633:"The Internet Is Coming to the Rest of the Animal Kingdom"
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Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates
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Many insects have developed ways to defend against these
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Grasswitz, T.R.; G.R. Jones (2002). "Chemical Ecology".
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coupled with an intense emotion (fear) early in life.
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The Behavior of Communicating: an ethological approach
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McKenney David; Brown Kathryn; Allison David (1995).
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of the recipient and in this respect differs from an
380:A third class of allelochemical (chemical used in
775:"When Birds Squawk, Other Species Seem to Listen"
1659:"The interspecies internet? An idea in progress"
1330:
1328:
687:"Koko's First Interspecies Web Chat: Transcript"
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1069:Brown, S.G.; Boettner, G.H.; Yack, J.E. (2007)
341:produced and released by an individual of one
720:. Proc R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 267:713â718.
8:
1681:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1511:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1454:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1412:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
954:Phelps, S.M.; Rand, A.S.; Ryan, M.J. (2007)
490:) as pollinators, so can be classed as an
127:. The same has been found in West African
1041:. Harvard University Press. p. 381.
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993:
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434:, emitted by an organism, which mediates
666:. 2004 Yale University Press by Anderson
388:, benefit both the sender and receiver.
132:before it attacks (usually resulting in
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1722:"Conversations 2020 Public Conference"
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365:. Others alter the allomones to form
153:are keen to mobbing calls by eastern
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861:Templeton, C.N.; Greene, E. (2007).
773:Solomon, Christopher (18 May 2015).
140:species but have also been found in
1606:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology
1430:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology
922:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
41:communication between dog and human
19:is communication between different
149:potential predatory threat, while
14:
809:Journal of Comparative Psychology
660:2 January 2003, Anil Ananthaswamy
658:Lab chimp speaks his own language
1697:"Interspecies Internet Workshop"
653:to attach to different surfaces.
624:10.1128/jb.177.23.6989-6992.1995
528:, Internet protocol co-inventor
465:This section is an excerpt from
404:This section is an excerpt from
287:This section is an excerpt from
220:Eavesdropping has been found in
53:Since the 1970s, primatologist
1341:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
1156:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
270:. When physically disturbed,
241:Chemical signals in wolf urine
1:
1631:Dolgin, Elie (17 July 2019).
1442:10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00179-0
1338:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
1299:Journal of Chemical Education
1153:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
1035:Smith, William John (2009).
995:10.1371/journal.pone.0061753
506:) or a phenylbutanoid (e.g.
482:) attracts fruit fly males (
328:
181:Parasitism and eavesdropping
89:KOKO: Koko-love eat ... sip.
1571:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1528:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1471:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1372:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1220:Journal of Chemical Ecology
707:. Animal Cognition 7:45â52.
382:interspecific communication
1828:
1802:Interspecies communication
1287:(accessed 3 October 2012).
1073:. J Exp Biol 210:993â1005.
958:. Behav. Ecol. 18:108â114.
573:Humanâanimal communication
464:
436:interspecific interactions
403:
322:
286:
74:Francine "Penny" Patterson
17:Interspecies communication
1618:10.1016/j.bse.2007.01.013
1540:10.1007/s10886-005-2023-8
1483:10.1007/s10886-006-9154-4
1105:10.1007/s00114-005-0611-7
934:10.1007/s00265-006-0164-6
821:10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.3
590:communication in bacteria
538:Center for Bits and Atoms
532:, cognitive psychologist
243:are avoided by their prey
536:, and director of MIT's
467:Semiochemical § Synomone
123:recognize one another's
1772:"Interspecies Internet"
1583:10.1023/A:1005477926244
1384:10.1023/A:1016277500007
1347:10.1038/npg.els.0001716
1162:10.1038/npg.els.0001716
888:10.1073/pnas.0605183104
716:Zuberbuhler, K. (2000)
612:Journal of Bacteriology
23:of animals, plants, or
744:10.1006/anbe.1997.0623
394:
359:evolutionary arms race
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1776:Interspecies Internet
1751:Interspecies Internet
1726:Interspecies Internet
1056:Macroclemys temmincki
390:
298:
239:
211:
146:yellow-bellied marmot
38:
1807:Animal communication
1747:"Conversations 2021"
553:Animal communication
212:Song of a Great Tit.
1311:1983JChEd..60..531W
1097:2005NW.....92..164H
1085:Naturwissenschaften
986:2013PLoSO...861753O
879:2007PNAS..104.5479T
703:Fichtel, C. (2004)
693:on 6 February 2007.
656:The New Scientist:
144:, specifically the
55:Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
1812:Cell communication
1228:10.1007/BF00987681
779:The New York Times
568:Great ape language
311:
304:on the flowers of
301:Dasyscolia ciliata
245:
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117:Red-fronted lemurs
98:KOKO: Unattention.
44:
1477:(11): 2429â2441.
1356:978-0-470-01617-6
1319:10.1021/ed060p531
1048:978-0-674-04379-4
873:(13): 5479â5482.
649:exoproducts help
618:(23): 6989â6991.
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689:. Archived from
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558:Anna Breytenbach
541:Neil Gershenfeld
508:raspberry ketone
424:opportune moment
419:using the Greek
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142:ground squirrels
104:AOL: That's sad!
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484:Tephritidae
480:Orchidaceae
272:Lepidoptera
249:aposematism
125:alarm calls
1796:Categories
1251:BioScience
1177:BioScience
671:References
651:B. cepacia
492:attractant
449:entomology
399:Kairomones
367:pheromones
348:herbivores
261:anglerfish
224:and their
187:parasitism
168:imprinting
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