3707:
with the continuum constitute a lambda system. The mechanism of the lambda type trapping is schematically presented in figure. At the rising part of the pulse (a) the excited state (with two degenerate levels 1 and 2) are not in multiphoton resonance with the ground state. The electron is ionized through multiphoton coupling with the continuum. As the intensity of the pulse is increased the excited state and the continuum are shifted in energy due to the Stark shift. At the peak of the pulse (b) the excited states go into multiphoton resonance with the ground state. As the intensity starts to decrease (c), the two state are coupled through continuum and the population is trapped in a coherent superposition of the two states. Under subsequent action of the same pulse, due to interference in the transition amplitudes of the lambda system, the field cannot ionize the population completely and a fraction of the population will be trapped in a coherent superposition of the quasi degenerate levels. According to this explanation the states with higher angular momentum â with more sublevels â would have a higher probability of trapping the population. In general the strength of the trapping will be determined by the strength of the two photon coupling between the quasi-degenerate levels via the continuum. In 1996, using a very stable laser and by minimizing the masking effects of the focal region expansion with increasing intensity, Talebpour et al. observed structures on the curves of singly charged ions of Xe, Kr and Ar. These structures were attributed to electron trapping in the strong laser field. A more unambiguous demonstration of population trapping has been reported by T. Morishita and
422:
account. The major difficulty with
Keldysh's model was its neglect of the effects of Coulomb interaction on the final state of the electron. As it is observed from figure, the Coulomb field is not very small in magnitude compared to the potential of the laser at larger distances from the nucleus. This is in contrast to the approximation made by neglecting the potential of the laser at regions near the nucleus. Perelomov et al. included the Coulomb interaction at larger internuclear distances. Their model (which we call the PPT model) was derived for short range potential and includes the effect of the long range Coulomb interaction through the first order correction in the quasi-classical action. Larochelle et al. have compared the theoretically predicted ion versus intensity curves of rare gas atoms interacting with a Ti:Sapphire laser with experimental measurement. They have shown that the total ionization rate predicted by the PPT model fit very well the experimental ion yields for all rare gases in the intermediate regime of the Keldysh parameter.
418:. In classical ionization, an electron must have enough energy to make it over the potential barrier, but quantum tunneling allows the electron simply to go through the potential barrier instead of going all the way over it because of the wave nature of the electron. The probability of an electron's tunneling through the barrier drops off exponentially with the width of the potential barrier. Therefore, an electron with a higher energy can make it further up the potential barrier, leaving a much thinner barrier to tunnel through and thus a greater chance to do so. In practice, tunnel ionization is observable when the atom or molecule is interacting with near-infrared strong laser pulses. This process can be understood as a process by which a bounded electron, through the absorption of more than one photon from the laser field, is ionized. This picture is generally known as multiphoton ionization (MPI).
38:
4085:, Corkum, Becker and Faisal and Faisal and Becker. The principal features of the model can be understood easily from Corkum's version. Corkum's model describes the NS ionization as a process whereby an electron is tunnel ionized. The electron then interacts with the laser field where it is accelerated away from the nuclear core. If the electron has been ionized at an appropriate phase of the field, it will pass by the position of the remaining ion half a cycle later, where it can free an additional electron by electron impact. Only half of the time the electron is released with the appropriate phase and the other half it never return to the nuclear core. The maximum kinetic energy that the returning electron can have is 3.17 times the ponderomotive potential (
4151:
electron a is ionized. The beginning of the ionization process is shown by the intersection with a sloped dashed line. where the MPI occurs. The propagation of the ionized electron in the laser field, during which it absorbs other photons (ATI), is shown by the full thick line. The collision of this electron with the parent atomic ion is shown by a vertical dotted line representing the
Coulomb interaction between the electrons. The state marked with c describes the ion excitation to a discrete or continuum state. Figure b describes the exchange process. Kuchiev's model, contrary to Corkum's model, does not predict any threshold intensity for the occurrence of NS ionization.
4078:
of the major mechanisms responsible for the multiple ionization of atoms. The SO model describes the NSI process as a mechanism where one electron is ionized by the laser field and the departure of this electron is so rapid that the remaining electrons do not have enough time to adjust themselves to the new energy states. Therefore, there is a certain probability that, after the ionization of the first electron, a second electron is excited to states with higher energy (shake-up) or even ionized (shake-off). We should mention that, until now, there has been no quantitative calculation based on the SO model, and the model is still qualitative.
842:
273:
1589:
3698:
4155:
In fact, their model is more exact and does not suffer from the large number of approximations made by
Kuchiev. Their calculation results perfectly fit with the experimental results of Walker et al. Becker and Faisal have been able to fit the experimental results on the multiple NSI of rare gas atoms using their model. As a result, the electron re-scattering can be taken as the main mechanism for the occurrence of the NSI process.
7267:
2184:
3720:
From the experimental point of view, the NS double ionization refers to processes which somehow enhance the rate of production of doubly charged ions by a huge factor at intensities below the saturation intensity of the singly charged ion. Many, on the other hand, prefer to define the NSI as a process by which two electrons are ionized nearly simultaneously. This definition implies that apart from the sequential channel
478:
1146:
7364:
356:
181:
2804:
4143:
2489:
1879:
1890:
837:{\displaystyle W_{PPT}=\left|C_{n^{*}l^{*}}\right|^{2}{\sqrt {\frac {6}{\pi }}}f_{lm}E_{i}\left({\frac {2}{F}}\left(2E_{i}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\right)^{2n^{*}-|m|-{\frac {3}{2}}}\left(1+\gamma ^{2}\right)^{\left|{\frac {m}{2}}\right|+{\frac {3}{4}}}A_{m}(\omega ,\gamma )e^{-{\frac {2}{F}}\left(2E_{i}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}g\left(\gamma \right)}}
1584:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}f_{lm}&={\frac {(2l+1)(l+|m|)!}{2^{m}|m|!(l-|m|)!}}\\g(\gamma )&={\frac {3}{2\gamma }}\left(1+{\frac {1}{2\gamma ^{2}}}\sinh ^{-1}(\gamma )-{\frac {\sqrt {1+\gamma ^{2}}}{2\gamma }}\right)\\|C_{n^{*}l^{*}}|^{2}&={\frac {2^{2n^{*}}}{n^{*}\Gamma (n^{*}+l^{*}+1)\Gamma (n^{*}-l^{*})}}\end{aligned}}}
2553:
2220:
1642:
4530:
one moves to the âoscillatingâ or âKramersâHennebergerâ frame, in which the classical electron is at rest. By a phase factor transformation for convenience one obtains the âspace-translatedâ Hamiltonian, which is unitarily equivalent to the lab-frame
Hamiltonian, which contains the original potential
4178:
The short pulse induced molecular fragmentation may be used as an ion source for high performance mass spectroscopy. The selectivity provided by a short pulse based source is superior to that expected when using the conventional electron ionization based sources, in particular when the identification
4077:
Two models have been proposed to explain the non-sequential ionization; the shake-off model and electron re-scattering model. The shake-off (SO) model, first proposed by
Fittinghoff et al., is adopted from the field of ionization of atoms by X rays and electron projectiles where the SO process is one
3693:
In 1992, de Boer and Muller showed that Xe atoms subjected to short laser pulses could survive in the highly excited states 4f, 5f, and 6f. These states were believed to have been excited by the dynamic Stark shift of the levels into multiphoton resonance with the field during the rising part of the
3719:
The phenomenon of non-sequential ionization (NSI) of atoms exposed to intense laser fields has been a subject of many theoretical and experimental studies since 1983. The pioneering work began with the observation of a "knee" structure on the Xe ion signal versus intensity curve by LâHuillier et al.
3349:
In calculating the rate of MPI of atoms only transitions to the continuum states are considered. Such an approximation is acceptable as long as there is no multiphoton resonance between the ground state and some excited states. However, in real situation of interaction with pulsed lasers, during the
4914:
The KH frame is thus employed in theoretical studies of strong-field ionization and atomic stabilization (a predicted phenomenon in which the ionization probability of an atom in a high-intensity, high-frequency field actually decreases for intensities above a certain threshold) in conjunction with
4154:
Kuchiev did not include the
Coulomb effects on the dynamics of the ionized electron. This resulted in the underestimation of the double ionization rate by a huge factor. Obviously, in the approach of Becker and Faisal (which is equivalent to Kuchiev's model in spirit), this drawback does not exist.
421:
Keldysh modeled the MPI process as a transition of the electron from the ground state of the atom to the Volkov states. In this model the perturbation of the ground state by the laser field is neglected and the details of atomic structure in determining the ionization probability are not taken into
3701:
Schematic presentation of lambda type population trapping. G is the ground state of the atom. 1 and 2 are two degenerate excited states. After the population is transferred to the states due to multiphoton resonance, these states are coupled through continuum c and the population is trapped in the
3706:
We mention the theoretical calculation that incomplete ionization occurs whenever there is parallel resonant excitation into a common level with ionization loss. We consider a state such as 6f of Xe which consists of 7 quasi-degnerate levels in the range of the laser bandwidth. These levels along
4932:(table salt) into sodium and chlorine ions. Although it may seem as a case of ionization, in reality the ions already exist within the crystal lattice. When salt is dissociated, its constituent ions are simply surrounded by water molecules and their effects are visible (e.g. the solution becomes
4150:
The re-scattering model in
Kuchiev's version (Kuchiev's model) is quantum mechanical. The basic idea of the model is illustrated by Feynman diagrams in figure a. First both electrons are in the ground state of an atom. The lines marked a and b describe the corresponding atomic states. Then the
346:
In general, the analytic solutions are not available, and the approximations required for manageable numerical calculations do not provide accurate enough results. However, when the laser intensity is sufficiently high, the detailed structure of the atom or molecule can be ignored and analytic
3645:
is the time-dependent energy difference between the two dressed states. In interaction with a short pulse, if the dynamic resonance is reached in the rising or the falling part of the pulse, the population practically remains in the ground state and the effect of multiphoton resonances may be
4187:
The
KramersâHenneberger frame is the non-inertial frame moving with the free electron under the influence of the harmonic laser pulse, obtained by applying a translation to the laboratory frame equal to the quiver motion of a classical electron in the laboratory frame. In other words, in the
260:
of the device. If the electric field is strong enough, the free electron gains sufficient energy to liberate a further electron when it next collides with another molecule. The two free electrons then travel towards the anode and gain sufficient energy from the electric field to cause impact
3840:
laser was reported by Augst et al. Later, systematically studying the NSI of all rare gas atoms, the quadruple NSI of Xe was observed. The most important conclusion of this study was the observation of the following relation between the rate of NSI to any charge state and the rate of tunnel
209:, i.e. experiments in which the complete momentum vector of all collision fragments (the scattered projectile, the recoiling target-ion, and the ejected electron) are determined, have contributed to major advances in the theoretical understanding of the few-body problem in recent years.
2179:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}w_{m}(x)&=e^{-x^{2}}\int _{0}^{x}(x^{2}-y^{2})^{m}e^{y^{2}}\,dy\\\alpha (\gamma )&=2\left(\sinh ^{-1}(\gamma )-{\frac {\gamma }{\sqrt {1+\gamma ^{2}}}}\right)\\v&={\frac {E_{i}}{\omega }}\left(1+{\frac {2}{\gamma ^{2}}}\right)\end{aligned}}}
4438:
184:
Avalanche effect in an electric field created between two electrodes. The original ionization event liberates one electron, and each subsequent collision liberates a further electron, so two electrons emerge from each collision: the ionizing electron and the liberated
342:
methods where the wave function is expanded in a finite basis set. There are numerous options available e.g. B-splines or
Coulomb wave packets. Another non-perturbative method is to solve the corresponding SchrĂśdinger equation fully numerically on a lattice.
329:
The interaction of atoms and molecules with sufficiently strong laser pulses or with other charged particles leads to the ionization to singly or multiply charged ions. The ionization rate, i.e. the ionization probability in unit time, can be calculated using
292:
without going into the details of wave functions or the ionization process. An example is presented in the figure to the right. The periodic abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the emergence of a new shell in
3350:
evolution of laser intensity, due to different Stark shift of the ground and excited states there is a possibility that some excited state go into multiphoton resonance with the ground state. Within the dressed atom picture, the ground state dressed by
2799:{\displaystyle W_{KRA}=\sum _{n=N}^{\infty }2\pi \omega ^{2}p\left(n-n_{\mathrm {osc} }\right)^{2}\int \mathrm {d} \Omega \left|FT\left(I_{KAR}\Psi \left(\mathbf {r} \right)\right)\right|^{2}J_{n}^{2}\left(n_{f},{\frac {n_{\mathrm {osc} }}{2}}\right)}
3979:
196:
Positively charged ions are produced by transferring an amount of energy to a bound electron in a collision with charged particles (e.g. ions, electrons or positrons) or with photons. The threshold amount of the required energy is known as
316:
and collision-mediated ionization. In these cases, during the ionization process, the energy of the electron exceeds the energy difference of the potential barrier it is trying to pass. The classical description, however, cannot describe
3620:
4655:
4295:
4163:
The ionization of inner valence electrons are responsible for the fragmentation of polyatomic molecules in strong laser fields. According to a qualitative model the dissociation of the molecules occurs through a three-step mechanism:
2484:{\displaystyle W_{ADK}=\left|C_{n^{*}l^{*}}\right|^{2}{\sqrt {\frac {6}{\pi }}}f_{lm}E_{i}\left({\frac {2}{F}}\left(2E_{i}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}\right)^{2n^{*}-|m|-{\frac {3}{2}}}e^{-{\frac {2}{3F}}\left(2E_{i}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}}}
1874:{\displaystyle A_{m}(\omega ,\gamma )={\frac {4}{3\pi }}{\frac {1}{|m|!}}{\frac {\gamma ^{2}}{1+\gamma ^{2}}}\sum _{n>v}^{\infty }e^{-(n-v)\alpha (\gamma )}w_{m}\left({\sqrt {{\frac {2\gamma }{\sqrt {1+\gamma ^{2}}}}(n-v)}}\right)}
261:
ionization when the next collisions occur; and so on. This is effectively a chain reaction of electron generation, and is dependent on the free electrons gaining sufficient energy between collisions to sustain the avalanche.
2547:-gauge, which emphasizes the particle nature of light (absorbing multiple photons during ionization). This approach was adopted by Krainov model based on the earlier works of Faisal and Reiss. The resulting rate is given by
334:. (There are classical methods available also, like the Classical Trajectory Monte Carlo Method (CTMC) ,but it is not overall accepted and often criticized by the community.) There are two quantum mechanical methods exist,
4660:
The utility of the KH frame lies in the fact that in this frame the laser-atom interaction can be reduced to the form of an oscillating potential energy, where the natural parameters describing the electron dynamics are
3214:
3338:
3132:
4927:
without necessarily producing ions. As an example, the molecules of table sugar dissociate in water (sugar is dissolved) but exist as intact neutral entities. Another subtle event is the dissociation of
900:
189:
Negatively charged ions are produced when a free electron collides with an atom and is subsequently trapped inside the electric potential barrier, releasing any excess energy. The process is known as
961:
4306:
3694:
laser pulse. Subsequent evolution of the laser pulse did not completely ionize these states, leaving behind some highly excited atoms. We shall refer to this phenomenon as "population trapping".
4494:
1895:
1151:
3491:
2918:
4821:
4300:
In the dipole approximation, the quiver motion of a classical electron in the laboratory frame for an arbitrary field can be obtained from the vector potential of the electromagnetic field:
3688:
4036:
3785:
3690:, then the excited state is populated. After being populated, since the ionization potential of the excited state is small, it is expected that the electron will be instantly ionized.
6156:
Sharifi, S. M.; Talebpour, A; Yang, J.; Chin, S. L. (2010). "Quasi-static tunnelling and multiphoton processes in the ionization of Ar and Xe using intense femtosecond laser pulses".
4882:
4563:
1634:
4737:
4528:
4072:
2861:
5015:
3847:
3830:
1138:
1031:
4770:
4706:
5652:
5574:
3051:
1094:
4679:
3234:
2525:
2212:
470:
1065:
4909:
4848:
4772:
the system reduces to the so-called âstructure equationâ, which has the form of a typical energy-eigenvalue SchrĂśdinger equation containing the âdressed potentialâ
4137:
4110:
3526:
3518:
3422:
3395:
2945:
450:
6935:
Walker, B.; Sheehy, B.; Dimauro, L. F.; Agostini, P.; Schafer, K. J.; Kulander, K. C. (1994). "Precision
Measurement of Strong Field Double Ionization of Helium".
4571:
4194:
3007:
3643:
3368:
983:
6207:
Krainov, Vladimir P. (1997). "Ionization rates and energy and angular distributions at the barrier-suppression ionization of complex atoms and atomic ions".
5622:"Recommendations for Nomenclature and Symbolism for Mass Spectroscopy (including an appendix of terms used in vacuum technology)(IUPAC Recommendations 1991)"
4188:
KramersâHenneberger frame the classical electron is at rest. Starting in the lab frame (velocity gauge), we may describe the electron with the Hamiltonian:
6611:
Augst, S.; Talebpour, A.; Chin, S. L.; Beaudoin, Y.; Chaker, M. (1995). "Nonsequential triple ionization of argon atoms in a high-intensity laser field".
7301:
7022:
6058:
2194:
The quasi-static tunneling (QST) is the ionization whose rate can be satisfactorily predicted by the ADK model, i.e. the limit of the PPT model when
5008:
6576:
LâHuillier, A.; Lompre, L. A.; Mainfray, G.; Manus, C. (1983). "Multiply charged ions induced by multiphoton absorption in rare gases at 0.53 Îźm".
4168:
MPI of electrons from the inner orbitals of the molecule which results in a molecular ion in ro-vibrational levels of an excited electronic state;
335:
297:. In addition, the local maximums in the ionization energy plot, moving from left to right in a row, are indicative of s, p, d, and f sub-shells.
4742:
From here one can apply Floquet theory to calculate quasi-stationary solutions of the TDSE. In high frequency Floquet theory, to lowest order in
7113:
Mehdi Sharifi, S.; Talebpour, A.; Chin, S. L. (2008). "Ultra-fast laser pulses provide an ion source for highly selective mass spectroscopy".
5346:
5246:
5165:
6978:
Becker, A.; Faisal, F. H. M. (1999). "S-matrix analysis of ionization yields of noble gas atoms at the focus of Ti:sapphire laser pulses".
3138:
284:
of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number, as summarized by ordering atoms in
7070:
Talebpour, A; Bandrauk, A D; Vijayalakshmi, K; Chin, S L (2000). "Dissociative ionization of benzene in intense ultra-fast laser pulses".
5715:"Comparison of single-electron removal processes in collisions of electrons, positrons, protons, and antiprotons with hydrogen and helium"
6654:
Larochelle, S.; Talebpour, A.; Chin, S. L. (1998). "Non-sequential multiple ionization of rare gas atoms in a Ti:Sapphire laser field".
5001:
3255:
6115:
3058:
6016:
5974:
3832:
which is the main contribution to the production of doubly charged ions at lower intensities. The first observation of triple NSI in
5608:
5395:
5379:
5321:
5296:
5271:
5221:
206:
853:
385:
the Coulomb potential is negligible compared to the potential of the laser field. The electron emerges from under the barrier at
7157:
6809:
6518:"Photoelectron spectra and high Rydberg states of lithium generated by intense lasers in the over-the-barrier ionization regime"
5411:"The effect of an ion generator on indoor air quality in a residential room: Effect of an ion generator on indoor air in a room"
7568:
6387:
De Boer, M.; Muller, H. (1992). "Observation of large populations in excited states after short-pulse multiphoton ionization".
6765:
Schafer, K. J.; Yang, B.; DiMauro, L.F.; Kulander, K.C. (1992). "Above threshold ionization beyond the high harmonic cutoff".
6336:
Story, J.; Duncan, D.; Gallagher, T. (1994). "Landau-Zener treatment of intensity-tuned multiphoton resonances of potassium".
7638:
7563:
7294:
5068:
4433:{\displaystyle \mathbf {\alpha } (t)\equiv {\frac {1}{c}}\int _{0}^{t}\mathbf {A} (t')dt'=(\alpha _{0}/E_{0})\mathbf {E} (t)}
236:
is a good example of the creation of positive ions and free electrons due to ion impact. It is a cascade reaction involving
907:
7750:
7578:
5099:
7633:
7378:
4446:
7760:
7023:"Multiphoton ionization of inner-valence electrons and fragmentation of ethylene in an intense Ti:sapphire laser pulse"
7831:
3427:
2867:
2543:-gauge, meaning that the laser field is taken as electromagnetic waves. The ionization rate can also be calculated in
190:
4775:
100:, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an
7271:
7841:
7836:
7821:
7806:
5855:"Wave-packet continuum-discretization approach to single ionization of helium by antiprotons and energetic protons"
4945:
3649:
2528:
5183:"Current status of antiproton impact ionization of atoms and molecules: theoretical and experimental perspectives"
7287:
125:
121:
3987:
3723:
7785:
7684:
7314:
4924:
172:). It is also widely used for air purification, though studies have shown harmful effects of this application.
157:
7826:
7679:
6517:
4853:
4534:
1597:
264:
Ionization efficiency is the ratio of the number of ions formed to the number of electrons or photons used.
7439:
7053:
6097:
4711:
4502:
4041:
37:
7704:
7694:
7444:
3974:{\displaystyle W_{NS}(A^{n+})=\sum _{i=1}^{n-1}\alpha _{n}\left(\lambda \right)W_{ADK}\left(A^{i+}\right)}
2815:
70:
31:
5182:
137:
129:
4171:
Rapid radiationless transition to the high-lying ro-vibrational levels of a lower electronic state; and
6863:
Becker, Andreas; Faisal, Farhad H M (1996). "Mechanism of laser-induced double ionization of helium".
3493:
coupling the two states. According to Story et al., the probability of remaining in the ground state,
321:
since the process involves the passage of electron through a classically forbidden potential barrier.
7623:
7383:
7122:
7079:
7037:
6987:
6944:
6916:
Faisal, F. H. M.; Becker, A. (1997). "Nonsequential double ionization: Mechanism and model formula".
6872:
6821:
6774:
6710:
6663:
6620:
6585:
6532:
6482:
6439:
6396:
6345:
6302:
6259:
6216:
6165:
6127:
6073:
6028:
5986:
5915:
5866:
5827:
5523:
5484:
5125:
285:
198:
153:
3790:
1099:
7811:
7598:
7490:
7480:
7393:
7348:
5903:
5854:
5451:
4955:
4950:
3697:
990:
133:
5816:"Coupled-channel study with Coulomb wave packets for ionization of helium in heavy ion collisions"
4745:
272:
7745:
7674:
7508:
7212:
7193:
7138:
7095:
7003:
6896:
6845:
6679:
6498:
6189:
6089:
5784:
5714:
5557:
5389:
4981:
4976:
4960:
4684:
4174:
Subsequent dissociation of the ion to different fragments through various fragmentation channels.
233:
217:
Adiabatic ionization is a form of ionization in which an electron is removed from or added to an
161:
105:
5683:
3014:
1070:
164:. The ionization process is widely used in a variety of equipment in fundamental science (e.g.,
132:
can result in the formation of ion pairs. Ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the
6116:"Tunnel ionization of complex atoms and of atomic ions in an alternating electromagnetic field"
5815:
4146:
Feynman diagram for the process of double ionization in an atom through re-scattering mechanism
7775:
7770:
7740:
7699:
7588:
7540:
7525:
7418:
7388:
7232:
7185:
7177:
6960:
6888:
6837:
6790:
6726:
6636:
6558:
6455:
6430:
Hioe, F. T.; Carrol, C. E. (1988). "Coherent population trapping in N-level quantum systems".
6412:
6369:
6361:
6318:
6275:
6232:
6181:
5765:
5745:
5604:
5549:
5432:
5375:
5342:
5317:
5292:
5267:
5242:
5217:
5161:
3615:{\displaystyle P_{g}=\exp \left(-{\frac {2\pi W_{m}^{2}}{\mathrm {d} W/\mathrm {d} t}}\right)}
415:
411:
331:
318:
305:
281:
169:
165:
6293:
Reiss, Howard (1980). "Effect of an intense electromagnetic field on a weakly bound system".
5603:
Glenn F Knoll. Radiation Detection and Measurement, third edition 2000. John Wiley and sons,
4850:
is as follows: in the oscillating frame, the nucleus has an oscillatory motion of trajectory
4664:
4074:
are some constants depending on the wavelength of the laser (but not on the pulse duration).
3219:
2497:
2197:
455:
7730:
7353:
7224:
7169:
7156:
Peng, Jiahui; Puskas, Noah; Corkum, Paul B.; Rayner, David M.; Loboda, Alexandre V. (2012).
7130:
7087:
7045:
6995:
6952:
6880:
6829:
6782:
6718:
6671:
6628:
6593:
6548:
6540:
6490:
6447:
6404:
6353:
6310:
6267:
6224:
6173:
6135:
6081:
5942:
5923:
5882:
5874:
5835:
5796:
5757:
5726:
5695:
5666:
5633:
5588:
5539:
5531:
5492:
5422:
5367:
5194:
5153:
5051:
4994:
1040:
202:
149:
6036:
5994:
4887:
4826:
4650:{\displaystyle H_{KH}={\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {P} ^{2}+V(\mathbf {r} +\mathbf {\alpha } (t))}
4290:{\displaystyle H_{lab}={\frac {1}{2}}(\mathbf {P} +{\frac {1}{c}}\mathbf {A} (t))^{2}+V(r)}
4159:
Multiphoton ionization of inner-valence electrons and fragmentation of polyatomic molecules
4115:
4088:
3496:
3400:
3373:
2923:
428:
7720:
7573:
7310:
5904:"Ionization of helium by antiprotons: Fully correlated, four-dimensional lattice approach"
5544:
4971:
4929:
313:
289:
288:. This is a valuable tool for establishing and understanding the ordering of electrons in
248:. Following an original ionization event, due to such as ionizing radiation, the positive
93:
6743:
6177:
5198:
7126:
7083:
7041:
6991:
6948:
6876:
6825:
6778:
6714:
6667:
6624:
6589:
6536:
6486:
6443:
6400:
6349:
6306:
6263:
6220:
6169:
6131:
6077:
6032:
5990:
5919:
5870:
5831:
5527:
5488:
4823:(the cycle-average of the oscillating potential). The interpretation of the presence of
2952:
84:
specifically in Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand) is the process by which an
7518:
7513:
7470:
7403:
7398:
5785:"Ionization and dissociation using B-splines: photoionization of the hydrogen molecule"
5744:
Abdurakhmanov, I.B.; Plowman, C; Kadyrov, A.S.; Bray, I.; Mukhamedzhanov, A.M. (2020).
3628:
3353:
968:
339:
241:
7266:
7228:
7091:
7049:
6999:
6494:
6473:
Talebpour, A.; Chien, C. Y.; Chin, S. L. (1996). "Population trapping in rare gases".
5800:
4963:â Instrument for detecting gaseous ionization, used in ionizing radiation measurements
4911:
can be seen as the potential of the smeared out nuclear charge along its trajectory.
3370:
photons and the resonant state undergo an avoided crossing at the resonance intensity
7816:
7800:
7755:
7735:
7658:
7618:
7553:
7485:
7408:
7142:
7099:
7007:
6900:
6884:
6683:
6675:
6502:
6193:
6093:
6085:
5699:
5427:
5410:
3708:
338:
and non-perturbative methods like time-dependent coupled-channel or time independent
294:
46:
7197:
6849:
6271:
5662:
5584:
4984:â The chain reaction of ionization occurring in a gas with an applied electric field
3646:
neglected. However, if the states go onto resonance at the peak of the pulse, where
7780:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7608:
7558:
7475:
6913:
5561:
5104:
5087:
4933:
355:
226:
54:
5496:
180:
6699:"Observation of nonsequential double ionization of helium with optical tunneling"
5839:
5684:"Classical theory of charge transfer and ionization of hydrogen atoms by protons"
5157:
27:
Process by which atoms or molecules acquire charge by gaining or losing electrons
7689:
7583:
7495:
7363:
6956:
6833:
6786:
6722:
6408:
5657:
5579:
5475:
Andersen, T (2004). "Atomic negative ions: structure, dynamics and collisions".
5289:
Lectures on Ion-Atom Collisions: From Nonrelativistic to Relativistic Velocities
4499:
By applying a transformation to the laboratory frame equal to the quiver motion
4142:
4112:) of the laser. Corkum's model places a cut-off limit on the minimum intensity (
4081:
The electron rescattering model was independently developed by Kuchiev, Schafer
6544:
5927:
5878:
5761:
5150:
Springer Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Springer Handbooks
5148:
Machacek, J.R.; McEachran, R.P.; Stauffer, A.D. (2023). "Positron Collisions".
4139:
is proportional to intensity) where ionization due to re-scattering can occur.
201:. The study of such collisions is of fundamental importance with regard to the
7628:
7530:
7500:
7434:
7413:
7134:
4966:
309:
117:
42:
7236:
7181:
6892:
6632:
6597:
6562:
6451:
6365:
6357:
6322:
6314:
6279:
6236:
6185:
5730:
5661:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
5583:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3424:, at the avoided crossing is proportional to the generalized Rabi frequency,
6228:
5670:
5638:
5621:
5592:
65:
of these particles causes them to emit light of varying color, thus forming
58:
7189:
6964:
6841:
6794:
6730:
6416:
5746:"One-center close-coupling approach to two-center rearrangement collisions"
5553:
5436:
104:. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with
7279:
6640:
6459:
6373:
6250:
Faisal, F. H. M. (1973). "Multiple absorption of laser photons by atoms".
5371:
3841:
ionization (predicted by the ADK formula) to the previous charge states;
7765:
7593:
5080:
237:
222:
109:
97:
89:
7158:"High-Pressure Gas Phase Femtosecond Laser Ionization Mass Spectrometry"
5887:
5535:
136:
process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the
7725:
7613:
7548:
7465:
7460:
7249:
Gavrila, Mihai. "Atomic structure and decay in high-frequency fields."
5063:
372:, the potential of the laser can be neglected, while at distances with
253:
66:
7173:
6697:
Fittinghoff, D. N.; Bolton, P. R.; Chang, B.; Kulander, K. C. (1992).
6553:
5769:
3209:{\textstyle n_{f}=2{\sqrt {n_{\mathrm {osc} }/\omega }}p\cos(\theta )}
359:
Combined potential of an atom and a uniform laser field. At distances
17:
7334:
5041:
113:
6698:
5853:
Abdurakhmanov, I.B.; Kadyrov, A.S.; Bray, I; Bartschat, K. (2017).
7343:
7329:
5036:
4141:
3837:
3833:
3696:
3333:{\displaystyle I_{KAR}=\left({\frac {2Z^{2}}{n^{2}Fr}}\right)^{n}}
354:
271:
257:
179:
50:
3127:{\displaystyle p={\sqrt {2\omega (n-n_{\mathrm {osc} }-n_{i})}},}
7253:
edited by Mihai Gavrila, Academic Press, Inc, 1992, pp. 435-508.
218:
85:
7283:
4038:
is the rate of quasi-static tunneling to i'th charge state and
7339:
5046:
3009:
is the minimum number of photons necessary to ionize the atom,
276:
Ionization energies of neutral elements (predicted beyond 104)
249:
245:
101:
30:"Ionisation" redirects here. For the musical composition, see
7021:
Talebpour, A.; Bandrauk, A. D.; Yang, J; Chin, S. L. (1999).
4936:). However, no transfer or displacement of electrons occurs.
6059:"Coulomb effect in multiphoton ionization of rare-gas atoms"
895:{\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {\omega {\sqrt {2E_{i}}}}{F}}}
7217:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
7072:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6980:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6865:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6810:"Plasma perspective on strong field multiphoton ionization"
6656:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6475:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6158:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
6066:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
5789:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
5750:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
5511:
5364:
Ion-Atom Collisions The Few-Body Problem in Dynamic Systems
5187:
Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics
4708:(sometimes called the âexcursion amplitudeâ, obtained from
2527:
the absence of summation over n, which represent different
6017:"Ionization of Atoms in an Alternating Electric Field: II"
5943:"Ionization in the Field of a Strong Electromagnetic Wave"
205:, which is one of the major unsolved problems in physics.
156:
lamps. It is also used in radiation detectors such as the
6015:
Perelomov, A. M.; Popov, V. S.; Terent'ev, M. V. (1967).
5973:
Perelomov, A. M.; Popov, V. S.; Terent'ev, M. V. (1966).
5512:"Three-Dimensional Imaging of Atomic Four-Body Processes"
5452:"Study uncovers safety concerns with ionic air purifiers"
6114:
Ammosov, M. V.; Delone, N. B.; Krainov, V. P. (1986).
5975:"Ionization of Atoms in an Alternating Electric Field"
5337:
Janev, R.K.; Presnyakov, L.P.; Shevelko, V.P. (1985).
3141:
5314:
Charge Exchange and the Theory of Ion-Atom Collisions
5237:
Stolterfoht, N; DuBois, R.D.; Rivarola, R.D. (1997).
4890:
4856:
4829:
4778:
4748:
4714:
4687:
4667:
4574:
4537:
4505:
4449:
4309:
4197:
4118:
4091:
4044:
3990:
3850:
3793:
3726:
3652:
3631:
3529:
3499:
3430:
3403:
3376:
3356:
3340:
incorporates the Coulomb correction in the SFA model.
3258:
3222:
3061:
3017:
2955:
2926:
2870:
2818:
2556:
2500:
2223:
2200:
1893:
1645:
1600:
1149:
1102:
1073:
1043:
993:
971:
956:{\displaystyle n^{*}={\frac {\sqrt {2E_{i}}}{Z^{2}}}}
910:
856:
481:
458:
431:
425:
The rate of MPI on atom with an ionization potential
108:, collisions with other atoms, molecules, electrons,
7713:
7667:
7539:
7453:
7427:
7371:
7322:
7213:"Atomic stabilization in superintense laser fields"
6057:Larochelle, S.; Talebpour, A.; Chin, S. L. (1998).
4489:{\displaystyle \alpha _{0}\equiv E_{0}\omega ^{-2}}
148:Everyday examples of gas ionization occur within a
6252:Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics
5264:Electron correlation dynamics in atomic collisions
4903:
4876:
4842:
4815:
4764:
4731:
4700:
4673:
4649:
4557:
4522:
4488:
4432:
4289:
4131:
4104:
4066:
4030:
3973:
3824:
3779:
3682:
3637:
3614:
3512:
3485:
3416:
3389:
3362:
3332:
3228:
3208:
3126:
3045:
3001:
2939:
2912:
2855:
2798:
2535:Strong field approximation for the ionization rate
2519:
2483:
2206:
2178:
1873:
1628:
1583:
1132:
1088:
1059:
1025:
977:
955:
894:
836:
464:
444:
244:in a gaseous medium that can be ionized, such as
49:alters the movements of charged particles in the
3486:{\displaystyle \Gamma (t)=\Gamma _{m}I(t)^{m/2}}
3236:the angle between the momentum of the electron,
2913:{\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {osc} }=U_{p}/\omega }
4816:{\displaystyle V_{0}(\alpha _{0},\mathbf {r} )}
3250:is the three-dimensional Fourier transform, and
5239:Electron Emission in Heavy Ion-Atom Collisions
347:solution for the ionization rate is possible.
7295:
5009:
3683:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} W/\mathrm {d} t=0}
2214:approaches zero. The rate of QST is given by
452:in a linearly polarized laser with frequency
256:, while the free electron drifts towards the
8:
5409:Waring, M. S.; Siegel, J. A. (August 2011).
5316:. Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press.
325:Quantum mechanical description of ionization
6209:Journal of the Optical Society of America B
985:is the peak electric field of the laser and
229:to form an ion in its lowest energy state.
7302:
7288:
7280:
5814:Barna, I.F.; GrĂźn, N.; Scheid, W. (2003).
5016:
5002:
4031:{\displaystyle W_{ADK}\left(A^{i+}\right)}
3780:{\displaystyle A+L->A^{+}+L->A^{++}}
120:and ions, or through the interaction with
6746:Kuchiev, M. Yu (1987). "Atomic antenna".
6552:
5886:
5637:
5543:
5426:
5312:Bransden, B.H.; McDowell, M.R.C. (1992).
4895:
4889:
4860:
4855:
4834:
4828:
4805:
4796:
4783:
4777:
4753:
4747:
4715:
4713:
4692:
4686:
4666:
4630:
4622:
4607:
4602:
4591:
4579:
4573:
4541:
4536:
4506:
4504:
4477:
4467:
4454:
4448:
4416:
4407:
4398:
4392:
4352:
4346:
4341:
4327:
4310:
4308:
4266:
4248:
4238:
4230:
4217:
4202:
4196:
4123:
4117:
4096:
4090:
4049:
4043:
4015:
3995:
3989:
3958:
3938:
3917:
3901:
3890:
3871:
3855:
3849:
3813:
3792:
3768:
3746:
3725:
3666:
3661:
3653:
3651:
3630:
3596:
3591:
3583:
3575:
3570:
3557:
3534:
3528:
3504:
3498:
3473:
3469:
3450:
3429:
3408:
3402:
3381:
3375:
3355:
3324:
3305:
3293:
3283:
3263:
3257:
3221:
3178:
3165:
3164:
3158:
3146:
3140:
3110:
3090:
3089:
3068:
3060:
3022:
3016:
2983:
2982:
2969:
2954:
2931:
2925:
2902:
2896:
2876:
2875:
2869:
2842:
2836:
2823:
2817:
2773:
2772:
2766:
2757:
2742:
2737:
2727:
2708:
2689:
2660:
2651:
2633:
2632:
2607:
2591:
2580:
2561:
2555:
2505:
2499:
2468:
2457:
2429:
2425:
2409:
2401:
2393:
2384:
2376:
2360:
2349:
2326:
2314:
2301:
2285:
2279:
2267:
2257:
2252:
2228:
2222:
2199:
2159:
2150:
2128:
2122:
2094:
2078:
2054:
2012:
2004:
1999:
1989:
1979:
1966:
1953:
1948:
1936:
1928:
1902:
1894:
1892:
1841:
1820:
1818:
1808:
1771:
1761:
1750:
1737:
1720:
1714:
1703:
1695:
1689:
1674:
1650:
1644:
1605:
1599:
1565:
1552:
1527:
1514:
1498:
1485:
1477:
1471:
1458:
1453:
1444:
1434:
1429:
1420:
1394:
1381:
1357:
1344:
1331:
1305:
1268:
1260:
1243:
1235:
1229:
1212:
1204:
1174:
1158:
1150:
1148:
1122:
1112:
1107:
1101:
1072:
1048:
1042:
1011:
998:
992:
970:
945:
934:
924:
915:
909:
878:
869:
863:
855:
807:
796:
773:
769:
744:
728:
711:
706:
695:
667:
659:
651:
642:
634:
618:
607:
584:
572:
559:
543:
537:
525:
515:
510:
486:
480:
457:
436:
430:
4992:
2539:The calculations of PPT are done in the
407:is the ionization potential of the atom.
301:Semi-classical description of ionization
36:
5140:
3240:, and the electric field of the laser,
5387:
5181:Kirchner, Tom; Knudsen, Helge (2011).
4877:{\displaystyle -\mathbf {\alpha } (t)}
4558:{\displaystyle -\mathbf {\alpha } (t)}
1629:{\displaystyle A_{m}(\omega ,\gamma )}
312:of the atom can qualitatively explain
4732:{\displaystyle \mathbf {\alpha } (t)}
4523:{\displaystyle \mathbf {\alpha } (t)}
4067:{\displaystyle \alpha _{n}(\lambda )}
240:in a region with a sufficiently high
7:
6516:Morishita, Toru; Lin, C. D. (2013).
5902:Schultz, D.R.; Krstic, P.S. (2003).
5682:Abrines, R.; Percival, I.C. (1966).
2856:{\displaystyle n_{i}=E_{i}/\omega ,}
5688:Proceedings of the Physical Society
5658:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
5580:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
4531:centered on the oscillating point
3715:Non-sequential multiple ionization
3667:
3654:
3597:
3584:
3447:
3431:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3097:
3094:
3091:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2701:
2665:
2661:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2592:
1762:
1542:
1504:
207:Kinematically complete experiments
168:) and in medical treatment (e.g.,
25:
4496:for a monochromatic plane wave.
7362:
7265:
5428:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00696.x
4915:high-frequency Floquet theory.
4806:
4623:
4603:
4417:
4353:
4249:
4231:
4179:of optical isomers is required.
2709:
92:acquires a negative or positive
5963:Volkov D M 1934 Z. Phys. 94 250
2947:being the ponderomotive energy,
7251:Atoms in Intense Laser Fields,
6178:10.1088/0953-4075/43/15/155601
5545:11858/00-001M-0000-0011-8F36-A
5339:Physics of Highly Charged Ions
5266:. Cambridge University Press.
5199:10.1088/0953-4075/44/12/122001
4871:
4865:
4810:
4789:
4726:
4720:
4644:
4641:
4635:
4619:
4552:
4546:
4517:
4511:
4427:
4421:
4413:
4385:
4368:
4357:
4321:
4315:
4284:
4278:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4227:
4061:
4055:
3880:
3864:
3825:{\displaystyle A+L->A^{++}}
3702:superposition of these states.
3466:
3459:
3440:
3434:
3203:
3197:
3116:
3076:
3053:is the double Bessel function,
3040:
3028:
2996:
2962:
2402:
2394:
2190:Quasi-static tunnel ionization
2072:
2066:
2032:
2026:
1986:
1959:
1914:
1908:
1862:
1850:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1775:
1704:
1696:
1668:
1656:
1623:
1611:
1571:
1545:
1539:
1507:
1454:
1421:
1375:
1369:
1295:
1289:
1273:
1269:
1261:
1251:
1244:
1236:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1195:
1192:
1177:
1133:{\displaystyle C_{n^{*}l^{*}}}
1083:
1077:
762:
750:
660:
652:
1:
7751:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
7270:The dictionary definition of
7211:Gavrila, Mihai (2002-09-28).
7050:10.1016/S0009-2614(99)01075-1
5497:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.01.001
5394:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1026:{\displaystyle l^{*}=n^{*}-1}
7761:Order and disorder (physics)
5450:University, Colorado State.
5158:10.1007/978-3-030-73893-8_51
4765:{\displaystyle \omega ^{-1}}
2531:(ATI) peaks, is remarkable.
7229:10.1088/0953-4075/35/18/201
7092:10.1088/0953-4075/33/21/307
7000:10.1088/0953-4075/32/14/101
6957:10.1103/PhysRevLett.73.1227
6834:10.1103/PhysRevLett.71.1994
6787:10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.1599
6723:10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.2642
6495:10.1088/0953-4075/29/23/015
6409:10.1103/PhysRevLett.68.2747
5820:European Physical Journal D
5801:10.1088/0953-4075/32/16/201
4701:{\displaystyle \alpha _{0}}
191:electron capture ionization
7858:
6885:10.1088/0953-4075/29/6/005
6676:10.1088/0953-4075/31/6/008
6545:10.1103/PhysRevA.87.063405
6086:10.1088/0953-4075/31/6/009
5928:10.1103/PhysRevA.67.022712
5879:10.1103/PhysRevA.96.022702
5840:10.1140/epjd/e2003-00206-6
5700:10.1088/0370-1328/88/4/306
4946:Above threshold ionization
4919:Dissociation â distinction
3836:interacting with a 1
3046:{\displaystyle J_{n}(u,v)}
2529:above threshold ionization
1089:{\displaystyle g(\gamma )}
268:Ionization energy of atoms
140:causing it to be ejected.
29:
7360:
7135:10.1007/s00340-008-3038-y
6272:10.1088/0022-3700/6/4/011
5783:Martin, Fernando (1999).
4183:KramersâHenneberger frame
3787:there is another channel
902:is the Keldysh parameter,
126:Heterolytic bond cleavage
122:electromagnetic radiation
7786:Thermo-dielectric effect
7685:Enthalpy of vaporization
7379:BoseâEinstein condensate
7030:Chemical Physics Letters
6633:10.1103/PhysRevA.52.R917
6598:10.1103/PhysRevA.27.2503
6452:10.1103/PhysRevA.37.3000
6358:10.1103/PhysRevA.50.1607
6315:10.1103/PhysRevA.22.1786
5762:10.1088/1361-6455/ab894a
5731:10.1103/PhysRevA.40.2330
5510:Schulz, Michael (2003).
5362:Schulz, Michael (2019).
3397:. The minimum distance,
7680:Enthalpy of sublimation
6937:Physical Review Letters
6814:Physical Review Letters
6767:Physical Review Letters
6703:Physical Review Letters
6389:Physical Review Letters
6229:10.1364/JOSAB.14.000425
5941:Keldysh, L. V. (1965).
5671:10.1351/goldbook.I03196
5639:10.1351/pac199163101541
5620:Todd, J. F. J. (1991).
5593:10.1351/goldbook.A00143
5214:Atomic Collision Theory
5212:Brandsen, B.H. (1970).
4674:{\displaystyle \omega }
3229:{\displaystyle \theta }
2520:{\displaystyle W_{PPT}}
2207:{\displaystyle \gamma }
465:{\displaystyle \omega }
7695:Latent internal energy
7445:Color-glass condensate
6808:Corkum, P. B. (1993).
6748:Soviet Phys. JETP Lett
5713:Schultz, D.R. (1989).
5262:McGuire, J.H. (1997).
4905:
4878:
4844:
4817:
4766:
4733:
4702:
4675:
4651:
4559:
4524:
4490:
4434:
4291:
4147:
4133:
4106:
4068:
4032:
3975:
3912:
3826:
3781:
3703:
3684:
3639:
3616:
3514:
3487:
3418:
3391:
3364:
3334:
3230:
3210:
3128:
3047:
3003:
2941:
2914:
2857:
2800:
2596:
2521:
2485:
2208:
2180:
1875:
1766:
1630:
1585:
1134:
1090:
1061:
1060:{\displaystyle f_{lm}}
1027:
979:
957:
896:
838:
466:
446:
408:
277:
186:
130:substitution reactions
74:
7505:Magnetically ordered
7059:on November 21, 2014.
6103:on November 21, 2014.
5663:ionization efficiency
5372:10.1515/9783110580297
4906:
4904:{\displaystyle V_{0}}
4879:
4845:
4843:{\displaystyle V_{0}}
4818:
4767:
4734:
4703:
4676:
4652:
4560:
4525:
4491:
4435:
4292:
4145:
4134:
4132:{\displaystyle U_{p}}
4107:
4105:{\displaystyle U_{p}}
4069:
4033:
3976:
3886:
3827:
3782:
3700:
3685:
3640:
3617:
3515:
3513:{\displaystyle P_{g}}
3488:
3419:
3417:{\displaystyle V_{m}}
3392:
3390:{\displaystyle I_{r}}
3365:
3335:
3231:
3211:
3129:
3048:
3004:
2942:
2940:{\displaystyle U_{p}}
2915:
2858:
2801:
2576:
2522:
2486:
2209:
2181:
1876:
1746:
1631:
1586:
1135:
1091:
1062:
1028:
980:
958:
897:
839:
467:
447:
445:{\displaystyle E_{i}}
414:is ionization due to
358:
275:
183:
158:Geiger-MĂźller counter
138:inner-shell electrons
96:by gaining or losing
40:
7384:Fermionic condensate
7162:Analytical Chemistry
5585:adiabatic ionization
5499:– via 157-313.
5287:Eichler, J. (2005).
4888:
4854:
4827:
4776:
4746:
4712:
4685:
4665:
4572:
4535:
4503:
4447:
4307:
4195:
4116:
4089:
4042:
3988:
3848:
3791:
3724:
3650:
3629:
3527:
3497:
3428:
3401:
3374:
3354:
3256:
3220:
3139:
3059:
3015:
2953:
2924:
2868:
2816:
2554:
2498:
2221:
2198:
1891:
1643:
1598:
1147:
1100:
1071:
1041:
991:
969:
908:
854:
479:
456:
429:
213:Adiabatic ionization
199:ionization potential
154:electrical discharge
61:, and the resulting
7599:Chemical ionization
7491:Programmable matter
7481:Quantum spin liquid
7349:Supercritical fluid
7127:2008ApPhB..91..579M
7084:2000JPhB...33.4615T
7042:1999CPL...313..789T
6992:1999JPhB...32L.335B
6949:1994PhRvL..73.1227W
6877:1996JPhB...29L.197B
6826:1993PhRvL..71.1994C
6779:1993PhRvL..70.1599S
6715:1992PhRvL..69.2642F
6668:1998JPhB...31.1201L
6625:1995PhRvA..52..917A
6590:1983PhRvA..27.2503L
6537:2013PhRvA..87f3405M
6487:1996JPhB...29.5725T
6444:1988PhRvA..37.3000H
6401:1992PhRvL..68.2747D
6350:1994PhRvA..50.1607S
6307:1980PhRvA..22.1786R
6264:1973JPhB....6L..89F
6221:1997JOSAB..14..425K
6170:2010JPhB...43o5601S
6132:1986JETP...64.1191A
6078:1998JPhB...31.1215L
6033:1967JETP...24..207P
5991:1966JETP...23..924P
5920:2003PhRvA..67b2712S
5871:2017PhRvA..96b2702A
5832:2003EPJD...25..239B
5536:10.1038/nature01415
5528:2003Natur.422...48S
5489:2004PhR...394..157A
5241:. Springer-Verlag.
5024:
4956:Electron ionization
4951:Chemical ionization
4351:
3580:
3345:Population trapping
2747:
1958:
252:drifts towards the
134:internal conversion
106:subatomic particles
45:moving through the
32:Ionisation (Varèse)
7832:Physical chemistry
7746:Leidenfrost effect
7675:Enthalpy of fusion
7440:Quarkâgluon plasma
4993:
4982:Townsend avalanche
4977:Thermal ionization
4961:Ionization chamber
4901:
4874:
4840:
4813:
4762:
4729:
4698:
4671:
4647:
4555:
4520:
4486:
4430:
4337:
4287:
4148:
4129:
4102:
4064:
4028:
3971:
3822:
3777:
3704:
3680:
3635:
3612:
3566:
3510:
3483:
3414:
3387:
3360:
3330:
3226:
3206:
3124:
3043:
3002:{\displaystyle N=}
2999:
2937:
2910:
2853:
2796:
2733:
2517:
2481:
2204:
2176:
2174:
1944:
1871:
1626:
1581:
1579:
1130:
1086:
1057:
1023:
975:
953:
892:
834:
462:
442:
409:
278:
234:Townsend discharge
187:
176:Production of ions
162:ionization chamber
75:
7842:Mass spectrometry
7837:Quantum chemistry
7822:Molecular physics
7807:Phase transitions
7794:
7793:
7776:Superheated vapor
7771:Superconductivity
7741:Equation of state
7589:Flash evaporation
7541:Phase transitions
7526:String-net liquid
7419:Photonic molecule
7389:Degenerate matter
7223:(18): R147âR193.
7174:10.1021/ac300743k
7168:(13): 5633â5640.
7115:Applied Physics B
6820:(13): 1994â1997.
6773:(11): 1599â1602.
6709:(18): 2642â2645.
6613:Physical Review A
6578:Physical Review A
6525:Physical Review A
6432:Physical Review A
6395:(18): 2747â2750.
6338:Physical Review A
6295:Physical Review A
6120:Soviet Phys. JETP
6021:Soviet Phys. JETP
5979:Soviet Phys. JETP
5947:Soviet Phys. JETP
5908:Physical Review A
5795:(16): R197âR231.
5632:(10): 1541â1566.
5348:978-3-642-69197-3
5248:978-3-642-08322-8
5167:978-3-030-73892-1
5133:
5132:
4995:Phase transitions
4599:
4335:
4246:
4225:
3638:{\displaystyle W}
3605:
3363:{\displaystyle m}
3318:
3186:
3119:
2789:
2476:
2442:
2417:
2368:
2334:
2295:
2294:
2165:
2137:
2101:
2100:
1865:
1848:
1847:
1744:
1712:
1687:
1575:
1409:
1400:
1351:
1318:
1280:
1037:The coefficients
978:{\displaystyle F}
951:
940:
890:
884:
815:
781:
736:
719:
675:
626:
592:
553:
552:
416:quantum tunneling
412:Tunnel ionization
351:Tunnel ionization
332:quantum mechanics
319:tunnel ionization
306:Classical physics
286:Mendeleev's table
282:ionization energy
280:The trend in the
170:radiation therapy
166:mass spectrometry
16:(Redirected from
7849:
7731:Compressed fluid
7366:
7311:States of matter
7304:
7297:
7290:
7281:
7269:
7254:
7247:
7241:
7240:
7208:
7202:
7201:
7153:
7147:
7146:
7110:
7104:
7103:
7067:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7052:. Archived from
7027:
7018:
7012:
7011:
6975:
6969:
6968:
6943:(9): 1227â1230.
6932:
6926:
6925:
6911:
6905:
6904:
6871:(6): L197âL202.
6860:
6854:
6853:
6805:
6799:
6798:
6762:
6756:
6755:
6741:
6735:
6734:
6694:
6688:
6687:
6651:
6645:
6644:
6619:(2): R917âR919.
6608:
6602:
6601:
6573:
6567:
6566:
6556:
6522:
6513:
6507:
6506:
6470:
6464:
6463:
6438:(8): 3000â3005.
6427:
6421:
6420:
6384:
6378:
6377:
6344:(2): 1607â1617.
6333:
6327:
6326:
6301:(5): 1786â1813.
6290:
6284:
6283:
6247:
6241:
6240:
6204:
6198:
6197:
6153:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6143:
6134:. Archived from
6111:
6105:
6104:
6102:
6096:. Archived from
6063:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6045:
6044:
6035:. Archived from
6012:
6006:
6005:
6003:
6002:
5993:. Archived from
5970:
5964:
5961:
5955:
5954:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5899:
5893:
5892:
5890:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5811:
5805:
5804:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5725:(5): 2330â2334.
5710:
5704:
5703:
5679:
5673:
5650:
5644:
5643:
5641:
5617:
5611:
5601:
5595:
5572:
5566:
5565:
5547:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5483:(4â5): 157â313.
5472:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5462:
5447:
5441:
5440:
5430:
5406:
5400:
5399:
5393:
5385:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5334:
5328:
5327:
5309:
5303:
5302:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5259:
5253:
5252:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5178:
5172:
5171:
5145:
5025:
5018:
5011:
5004:
4923:A substance may
4910:
4908:
4907:
4902:
4900:
4899:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4864:
4849:
4847:
4846:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4801:
4800:
4788:
4787:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4738:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4719:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4697:
4696:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4656:
4654:
4653:
4648:
4634:
4626:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4600:
4592:
4587:
4586:
4564:
4562:
4561:
4556:
4545:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4510:
4495:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4485:
4484:
4472:
4471:
4459:
4458:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4420:
4412:
4411:
4402:
4397:
4396:
4381:
4367:
4356:
4350:
4345:
4336:
4328:
4314:
4296:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4271:
4270:
4252:
4247:
4239:
4234:
4226:
4218:
4213:
4212:
4138:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4127:
4111:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4073:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4054:
4053:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4006:
4005:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3949:
3948:
3933:
3922:
3921:
3911:
3900:
3879:
3878:
3863:
3862:
3831:
3829:
3828:
3823:
3821:
3820:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3751:
3750:
3689:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3670:
3665:
3657:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3587:
3581:
3579:
3574:
3558:
3539:
3538:
3519:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3477:
3455:
3454:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3329:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3317:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3284:
3274:
3273:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3159:
3151:
3150:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3114:
3102:
3101:
3100:
3069:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3027:
3026:
3008:
3006:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2974:
2973:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2900:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2862:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2846:
2841:
2840:
2828:
2827:
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2767:
2762:
2761:
2746:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2700:
2699:
2664:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2612:
2611:
2595:
2590:
2572:
2571:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2443:
2441:
2430:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2410:
2405:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2375:
2371:
2370:
2369:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2335:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2309:
2308:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2262:
2261:
2239:
2238:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2151:
2138:
2133:
2132:
2123:
2107:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2083:
2079:
2062:
2061:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2008:
1994:
1993:
1984:
1983:
1971:
1970:
1957:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1907:
1906:
1880:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1830:
1829:
1821:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1803:
1802:
1765:
1760:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1725:
1724:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1699:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1675:
1655:
1654:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1610:
1609:
1594:The coefficient
1590:
1588:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1557:
1556:
1532:
1531:
1519:
1518:
1503:
1502:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1472:
1463:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1424:
1415:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1399:
1398:
1383:
1382:
1365:
1364:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1332:
1319:
1317:
1306:
1281:
1279:
1272:
1264:
1247:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1175:
1166:
1165:
1139:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1066:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1015:
1003:
1002:
984:
982:
981:
976:
962:
960:
959:
954:
952:
950:
949:
939:
938:
926:
925:
920:
919:
901:
899:
898:
893:
891:
886:
885:
883:
882:
870:
864:
843:
841:
840:
835:
833:
832:
831:
817:
816:
808:
806:
802:
801:
800:
782:
774:
749:
748:
739:
738:
737:
729:
724:
720:
712:
705:
701:
700:
699:
678:
677:
676:
668:
663:
655:
647:
646:
633:
629:
628:
627:
619:
617:
613:
612:
611:
593:
585:
577:
576:
567:
566:
554:
545:
544:
542:
541:
536:
532:
531:
530:
529:
520:
519:
497:
496:
471:
469:
468:
463:
451:
449:
448:
443:
441:
440:
406:
397:
384:
371:
203:few-body problem
150:fluorescent lamp
128:and heterolytic
21:
7857:
7856:
7852:
7851:
7850:
7848:
7847:
7846:
7797:
7796:
7795:
7790:
7721:Baryonic matter
7709:
7663:
7634:Saturated fluid
7574:Crystallization
7535:
7509:Antiferromagnet
7449:
7423:
7367:
7358:
7318:
7308:
7262:
7257:
7248:
7244:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7155:
7154:
7150:
7112:
7111:
7107:
7069:
7068:
7064:
7056:
7025:
7020:
7019:
7015:
6977:
6976:
6972:
6934:
6933:
6929:
6915:
6912:
6908:
6862:
6861:
6857:
6807:
6806:
6802:
6764:
6763:
6759:
6745:
6742:
6738:
6696:
6695:
6691:
6653:
6652:
6648:
6610:
6609:
6605:
6575:
6574:
6570:
6520:
6515:
6514:
6510:
6472:
6471:
6467:
6429:
6428:
6424:
6386:
6385:
6381:
6335:
6334:
6330:
6292:
6291:
6287:
6249:
6248:
6244:
6206:
6205:
6201:
6155:
6154:
6150:
6141:
6139:
6113:
6112:
6108:
6100:
6061:
6056:
6055:
6051:
6042:
6040:
6014:
6013:
6009:
6000:
5998:
5972:
5971:
5967:
5962:
5958:
5940:
5939:
5935:
5901:
5900:
5896:
5852:
5851:
5847:
5813:
5812:
5808:
5782:
5781:
5777:
5743:
5742:
5738:
5712:
5711:
5707:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5651:
5647:
5626:Pure Appl. Chem
5619:
5618:
5614:
5602:
5598:
5573:
5569:
5522:(6927): 48â51.
5509:
5508:
5504:
5477:Physics Reports
5474:
5473:
5469:
5460:
5458:
5449:
5448:
5444:
5408:
5407:
5403:
5386:
5382:
5361:
5360:
5356:
5349:
5336:
5335:
5331:
5324:
5311:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5286:
5285:
5281:
5274:
5261:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5236:
5235:
5231:
5224:
5211:
5210:
5206:
5180:
5179:
5175:
5168:
5147:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5033:
5030:
5022:
4991:
4972:Photoionization
4942:
4930:sodium chloride
4921:
4891:
4886:
4885:
4852:
4851:
4830:
4825:
4824:
4792:
4779:
4774:
4773:
4749:
4744:
4743:
4710:
4709:
4688:
4683:
4682:
4663:
4662:
4601:
4575:
4570:
4569:
4533:
4532:
4501:
4500:
4473:
4463:
4450:
4445:
4444:
4403:
4388:
4374:
4360:
4305:
4304:
4262:
4198:
4193:
4192:
4185:
4161:
4119:
4114:
4113:
4092:
4087:
4086:
4045:
4040:
4039:
4011:
4007:
3991:
3986:
3985:
3954:
3950:
3934:
3923:
3913:
3867:
3851:
3846:
3845:
3809:
3789:
3788:
3764:
3742:
3722:
3721:
3717:
3648:
3647:
3627:
3626:
3582:
3559:
3553:
3549:
3530:
3525:
3524:
3500:
3495:
3494:
3465:
3446:
3426:
3425:
3404:
3399:
3398:
3377:
3372:
3371:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3301:
3300:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3259:
3254:
3253:
3218:
3217:
3160:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3106:
3085:
3057:
3056:
3018:
3013:
3012:
2978:
2965:
2951:
2950:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2892:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2832:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2768:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2704:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2673:
2669:
2668:
2628:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2603:
2557:
2552:
2551:
2537:
2501:
2496:
2495:
2494:As compared to
2453:
2449:
2445:
2444:
2434:
2421:
2380:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2310:
2297:
2263:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2224:
2219:
2218:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2173:
2172:
2155:
2143:
2139:
2124:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2090:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2035:
2020:
2019:
2000:
1995:
1985:
1975:
1962:
1932:
1924:
1917:
1898:
1889:
1888:
1837:
1822:
1814:
1804:
1767:
1733:
1726:
1716:
1694:
1679:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1578:
1577:
1561:
1548:
1523:
1510:
1494:
1493:
1481:
1473:
1464:
1452:
1440:
1430:
1425:
1417:
1416:
1401:
1390:
1353:
1340:
1336:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1298:
1283:
1282:
1225:
1224:
1176:
1167:
1154:
1145:
1144:
1118:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1097:
1069:
1068:
1044:
1039:
1038:
1007:
994:
989:
988:
967:
966:
941:
930:
911:
906:
905:
874:
865:
852:
851:
821:
792:
788:
784:
783:
765:
740:
707:
691:
684:
680:
679:
638:
603:
599:
595:
594:
583:
579:
578:
568:
555:
521:
511:
506:
502:
501:
482:
477:
476:
454:
453:
432:
427:
426:
405:
399:
396:
386:
383:
373:
370:
360:
353:
327:
314:photoionization
303:
290:atomic orbitals
270:
215:
178:
146:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7855:
7853:
7845:
7844:
7839:
7834:
7829:
7827:Atomic physics
7824:
7819:
7814:
7809:
7799:
7798:
7792:
7791:
7789:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7773:
7768:
7763:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7743:
7738:
7733:
7728:
7723:
7717:
7715:
7711:
7710:
7708:
7707:
7702:
7700:Trouton's rule
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7671:
7669:
7665:
7664:
7662:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7626:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7606:
7601:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7581:
7576:
7571:
7569:Critical point
7566:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7545:
7543:
7537:
7536:
7534:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7522:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7471:Liquid crystal
7468:
7463:
7457:
7455:
7451:
7450:
7448:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7431:
7429:
7425:
7424:
7422:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7404:Strange matter
7401:
7399:Rydberg matter
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7375:
7373:
7369:
7368:
7361:
7359:
7357:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7337:
7332:
7326:
7324:
7320:
7319:
7309:
7307:
7306:
7299:
7292:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7261:
7260:External links
7258:
7256:
7255:
7242:
7203:
7148:
7105:
7062:
7013:
6970:
6927:
6906:
6855:
6800:
6757:
6736:
6689:
6646:
6603:
6568:
6508:
6465:
6422:
6379:
6328:
6285:
6258:(4): L89âL92.
6242:
6199:
6164:(15): 155601.
6148:
6106:
6049:
6007:
5965:
5956:
5933:
5894:
5845:
5826:(3): 239â246.
5806:
5775:
5756:(14): 145201.
5736:
5705:
5694:(4): 861â872.
5674:
5645:
5612:
5596:
5567:
5502:
5467:
5442:
5421:(4): 267â276.
5401:
5380:
5366:. De Gruyter.
5354:
5347:
5329:
5322:
5304:
5297:
5279:
5272:
5254:
5247:
5229:
5222:
5204:
5193:(12): 122001.
5173:
5166:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5115:
5114:
5109:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5085:
5083:
5078:
5074:
5073:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5031:
5028:
5021:
5020:
5013:
5006:
4998:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4941:
4938:
4920:
4917:
4898:
4894:
4873:
4870:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4837:
4833:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4786:
4782:
4759:
4756:
4752:
4728:
4725:
4722:
4718:
4695:
4691:
4670:
4658:
4657:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4598:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4582:
4578:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4509:
4483:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4457:
4453:
4441:
4440:
4429:
4426:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4401:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4384:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4370:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4344:
4340:
4334:
4331:
4326:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4298:
4297:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4208:
4205:
4201:
4184:
4181:
4176:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4160:
4157:
4126:
4122:
4099:
4095:
4063:
4060:
4057:
4052:
4048:
4026:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3994:
3982:
3981:
3969:
3964:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3920:
3916:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3899:
3896:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3882:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3805:
3802:
3799:
3796:
3774:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3760:
3757:
3754:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3738:
3735:
3732:
3729:
3716:
3713:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3634:
3623:
3622:
3610:
3603:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3578:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3520:, is given by
3507:
3503:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3411:
3407:
3384:
3380:
3359:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3327:
3322:
3316:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3251:
3245:
3225:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3174:
3171:
3168:
3163:
3157:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3134:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3067:
3064:
3054:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3010:
2998:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2958:
2948:
2934:
2930:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2874:
2863:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2807:
2806:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2745:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2642:
2639:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2536:
2533:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2492:
2491:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2416:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2367:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2293:
2290:
2282:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2203:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2170:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1882:
1881:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1817:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1764:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1719:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1685:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1592:
1591:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1111:
1106:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1035:
1034:
1022:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1001:
997:
986:
974:
964:
948:
944:
937:
933:
929:
923:
918:
914:
903:
889:
881:
877:
873:
868:
862:
859:
845:
844:
830:
827:
824:
820:
814:
811:
805:
799:
795:
791:
787:
780:
777:
772:
768:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
747:
743:
735:
732:
727:
723:
718:
715:
710:
704:
698:
694:
690:
687:
683:
674:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
645:
641:
637:
632:
625:
622:
616:
610:
606:
602:
598:
591:
588:
582:
575:
571:
565:
562:
558:
551:
548:
540:
535:
528:
524:
518:
514:
509:
505:
500:
495:
492:
489:
485:
461:
439:
435:
403:
394:
381:
368:
352:
349:
340:close coupling
326:
323:
302:
299:
269:
266:
242:electric field
225:in its lowest
214:
211:
177:
174:
145:
142:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7854:
7843:
7840:
7838:
7835:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7804:
7802:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7772:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7762:
7759:
7757:
7756:Mpemba effect
7754:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7744:
7742:
7739:
7737:
7736:Cooling curve
7734:
7732:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7722:
7719:
7718:
7716:
7712:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7672:
7670:
7666:
7660:
7659:Vitrification
7657:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7624:Recombination
7622:
7620:
7619:Melting point
7617:
7615:
7612:
7610:
7607:
7605:
7602:
7600:
7597:
7595:
7592:
7590:
7587:
7585:
7582:
7580:
7577:
7575:
7572:
7570:
7567:
7565:
7564:Critical line
7562:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7554:Boiling point
7552:
7550:
7547:
7546:
7544:
7542:
7538:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7486:Exotic matter
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7458:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7432:
7430:
7426:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7374:
7370:
7365:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7325:
7321:
7316:
7312:
7305:
7300:
7298:
7293:
7291:
7286:
7285:
7282:
7276:at Wiktionary
7275:
7274:
7268:
7264:
7263:
7259:
7252:
7246:
7243:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7222:
7218:
7214:
7207:
7204:
7199:
7195:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7149:
7144:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7109:
7106:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7066:
7063:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7024:
7017:
7014:
7009:
7005:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6974:
6971:
6966:
6962:
6958:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6931:
6928:
6923:
6919:
6914:
6910:
6907:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6859:
6856:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6804:
6801:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6784:
6780:
6776:
6772:
6768:
6761:
6758:
6753:
6749:
6744:
6740:
6737:
6732:
6728:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6693:
6690:
6685:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6650:
6647:
6642:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6607:
6604:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6572:
6569:
6564:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6519:
6512:
6509:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6466:
6461:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6426:
6423:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6383:
6380:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6332:
6329:
6324:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6289:
6286:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6246:
6243:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6203:
6200:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6152:
6149:
6138:on 2021-03-01
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6110:
6107:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6060:
6053:
6050:
6039:on 2021-03-03
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6011:
6008:
5997:on 2021-03-18
5996:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5969:
5966:
5960:
5957:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5937:
5934:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5917:
5914:(2): 022712.
5913:
5909:
5905:
5898:
5895:
5889:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5865:(2): 022702.
5864:
5860:
5856:
5849:
5846:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5810:
5807:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5779:
5776:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5737:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5709:
5706:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5678:
5675:
5672:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5646:
5640:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5616:
5613:
5610:
5609:0-471-07338-5
5606:
5600:
5597:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5568:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5506:
5503:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5471:
5468:
5457:
5453:
5446:
5443:
5438:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5405:
5402:
5397:
5391:
5383:
5381:9783110579420
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5358:
5355:
5350:
5344:
5340:
5333:
5330:
5325:
5323:9780198520207
5319:
5315:
5308:
5305:
5300:
5298:9780444520470
5294:
5290:
5283:
5280:
5275:
5273:9780521480208
5269:
5265:
5258:
5255:
5250:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5230:
5225:
5223:9780805311808
5219:
5215:
5208:
5205:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5177:
5174:
5169:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5144:
5141:
5135:
5129:
5127:
5126:Recombination
5124:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5027:
5026:
5019:
5014:
5012:
5007:
5005:
5000:
4999:
4996:
4988:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4931:
4926:
4918:
4916:
4912:
4896:
4892:
4868:
4861:
4857:
4835:
4831:
4802:
4797:
4793:
4784:
4780:
4757:
4754:
4750:
4740:
4723:
4716:
4693:
4689:
4668:
4638:
4631:
4627:
4616:
4613:
4608:
4596:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4549:
4542:
4538:
4514:
4507:
4497:
4481:
4478:
4474:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4455:
4451:
4424:
4408:
4404:
4399:
4393:
4389:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4371:
4364:
4361:
4347:
4342:
4338:
4332:
4329:
4324:
4318:
4311:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4281:
4275:
4272:
4267:
4256:
4243:
4240:
4235:
4222:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4182:
4180:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4158:
4156:
4152:
4144:
4140:
4124:
4120:
4097:
4093:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4024:
4019:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3967:
3962:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3945:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3927:
3924:
3918:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3897:
3894:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3875:
3872:
3868:
3859:
3856:
3852:
3844:
3843:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3752:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3727:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3677:
3674:
3671:
3662:
3658:
3632:
3608:
3601:
3592:
3588:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3560:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3505:
3501:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3462:
3456:
3451:
3443:
3437:
3409:
3405:
3382:
3378:
3357:
3344:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3239:
3223:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3147:
3143:
3135:
3121:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3070:
3065:
3062:
3055:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3011:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2949:
2932:
2928:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2872:
2864:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2792:
2786:
2769:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2705:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2473:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2411:
2406:
2398:
2390:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2328:
2322:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2280:
2275:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2201:
2189:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2104:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2029:
2023:
2016:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1887:
1886:
1885:
1867:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1826:
1823:
1815:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1708:
1700:
1691:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1499:
1495:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1466:
1459:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1412:
1405:
1402:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1292:
1286:
1276:
1265:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1240:
1230:
1226:
1220:
1209:
1201:
1198:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1171:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1140:are given by
1123:
1119:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1080:
1074:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1020:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
987:
972:
965:
946:
942:
935:
931:
927:
921:
916:
912:
904:
887:
879:
875:
871:
866:
860:
857:
850:
849:
848:
828:
825:
822:
818:
812:
809:
803:
797:
793:
789:
785:
778:
775:
770:
766:
759:
756:
753:
745:
741:
733:
730:
725:
721:
716:
713:
708:
702:
696:
692:
688:
685:
681:
672:
669:
664:
656:
648:
643:
639:
635:
630:
623:
620:
614:
608:
604:
600:
596:
589:
586:
580:
573:
569:
563:
560:
556:
549:
546:
538:
533:
526:
522:
516:
512:
507:
503:
498:
493:
490:
487:
483:
475:
474:
473:
459:
437:
433:
423:
419:
417:
413:
402:
393:
389:
380:
376:
367:
363:
357:
350:
348:
344:
341:
337:
333:
324:
322:
320:
315:
311:
307:
300:
298:
296:
295:alkali metals
291:
287:
283:
274:
267:
265:
262:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
230:
228:
224:
220:
212:
210:
208:
204:
200:
194:
192:
182:
175:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
143:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
72:
71:polar regions
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
47:magnetosphere
44:
39:
33:
19:
7781:Superheating
7654:Vaporization
7649:Triple point
7644:Supercooling
7609:Lambda point
7603:
7559:Condensation
7476:Time crystal
7454:Other states
7394:Quantum Hall
7272:
7250:
7245:
7220:
7216:
7206:
7165:
7161:
7151:
7121:(3â4): 579.
7118:
7114:
7108:
7078:(21): 4615.
7075:
7071:
7065:
7054:the original
7036:(5â6): 789.
7033:
7029:
7016:
6986:(14): L335.
6983:
6979:
6973:
6940:
6936:
6930:
6921:
6917:
6909:
6868:
6864:
6858:
6817:
6813:
6803:
6770:
6766:
6760:
6751:
6747:
6739:
6706:
6702:
6692:
6659:
6655:
6649:
6616:
6612:
6606:
6581:
6577:
6571:
6531:(6): 63405.
6528:
6524:
6511:
6481:(23): 5725.
6478:
6474:
6468:
6435:
6431:
6425:
6392:
6388:
6382:
6341:
6337:
6331:
6298:
6294:
6288:
6255:
6251:
6245:
6212:
6208:
6202:
6161:
6157:
6151:
6140:. Retrieved
6136:the original
6123:
6119:
6109:
6098:the original
6069:
6065:
6052:
6041:. Retrieved
6037:the original
6024:
6020:
6010:
5999:. Retrieved
5995:the original
5982:
5978:
5968:
5959:
5950:
5946:
5936:
5911:
5907:
5897:
5888:10072/409310
5862:
5859:Phys. Rev. A
5858:
5848:
5823:
5819:
5809:
5792:
5788:
5778:
5753:
5749:
5739:
5722:
5719:Phys. Rev. A
5718:
5708:
5691:
5687:
5677:
5656:
5648:
5629:
5625:
5615:
5599:
5578:
5570:
5519:
5515:
5505:
5480:
5476:
5470:
5459:. Retrieved
5455:
5445:
5418:
5414:
5404:
5363:
5357:
5341:. Springer.
5338:
5332:
5313:
5307:
5291:. Elsevier.
5288:
5282:
5263:
5257:
5238:
5232:
5216:. Benjamin.
5213:
5207:
5190:
5186:
5176:
5152:. Springer.
5149:
5143:
5111:
5105:Condensation
5088:Vaporization
4934:electrolytic
4922:
4913:
4741:
4659:
4498:
4442:
4299:
4186:
4177:
4162:
4153:
4149:
4082:
4080:
4076:
3983:
3718:
3705:
3692:
3624:
3348:
3247:
3241:
3237:
2808:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2493:
2193:
1883:
1636:is given by
1593:
1036:
846:
472:is given by
424:
420:
410:
400:
391:
387:
378:
374:
365:
361:
345:
336:perturbative
328:
304:
279:
263:
231:
227:energy state
216:
195:
188:
147:
81:
77:
76:
62:
55:thermosphere
7690:Latent heat
7639:Sublimation
7584:Evaporation
7519:Ferromagnet
7514:Ferrimagnet
7496:Dark matter
7428:High energy
6662:(6): 1201.
6584:(5): 2503.
6126:(6): 1191.
6072:(6): 1215.
5069:Sublimation
4997:of matter (
118:antiprotons
7812:Ionization
7801:Categories
7705:Volatility
7668:Quantities
7629:Regelation
7604:Ionization
7579:Deposition
7531:Superglass
7501:Antimatter
7435:QCD matter
7414:Supersolid
7409:Superfluid
7372:Low energy
7273:ionization
6918:Laser Phys
6754:: 404â406.
6554:2097/16373
6215:(2): 425.
6142:2013-08-12
6043:2013-08-12
6027:(1): 207.
6001:2013-08-12
5985:(5): 924.
5953:(5): 1307.
5461:2023-06-28
5415:Indoor Air
5136:References
5112:Ionization
5100:Deposition
4967:Ion source
4925:dissociate
310:Bohr model
82:ionisation
78:Ionization
63:ionization
43:solar wind
7237:0953-4075
7182:0003-2700
7143:122546433
7100:250738396
7008:250766534
6901:250808704
6893:0953-4075
6684:250747225
6563:1050-2947
6503:250757252
6366:1050-2947
6323:0556-2791
6280:0022-3700
6237:0740-3224
6194:121014268
6186:0953-4075
6094:250870476
5390:cite book
4862:α
4858:−
4794:α
4755:−
4751:ω
4717:α
4690:α
4669:ω
4632:α
4543:α
4539:−
4508:α
4479:−
4475:ω
4461:≡
4452:α
4390:α
4339:∫
4325:≡
4312:α
4059:λ
4047:α
3928:λ
3915:α
3906:−
3888:∑
3804:−
3759:−
3737:−
3709:C. D. Lin
3564:π
3555:−
3547:
3448:Γ
3432:Γ
3224:θ
3201:θ
3195:
3184:ω
3104:−
3083:−
3074:ω
2908:ω
2848:ω
2702:Ψ
2666:Ω
2658:∫
2626:−
2605:ω
2601:π
2593:∞
2578:∑
2427:−
2407:−
2391:−
2386:∗
2292:π
2269:∗
2259:∗
2202:γ
2157:γ
2135:ω
2092:γ
2081:γ
2076:−
2070:γ
2064:
2056:−
2030:γ
2024:α
1973:−
1946:∫
1930:−
1857:−
1839:γ
1827:γ
1797:γ
1791:α
1782:−
1773:−
1763:∞
1748:∑
1735:γ
1718:γ
1684:π
1666:γ
1660:ω
1621:γ
1615:ω
1567:∗
1559:−
1554:∗
1543:Γ
1529:∗
1516:∗
1505:Γ
1500:∗
1487:∗
1446:∗
1436:∗
1406:γ
1392:γ
1379:−
1373:γ
1367:
1359:−
1342:γ
1315:γ
1293:γ
1258:−
1124:∗
1114:∗
1081:γ
1018:−
1013:∗
1000:∗
917:∗
867:ω
858:γ
826:γ
771:−
760:γ
754:ω
693:γ
665:−
649:−
644:∗
550:π
527:∗
517:∗
460:ω
238:electrons
185:electron.
152:or other
110:positrons
98:electrons
69:near the
59:exosphere
7766:Spinodal
7714:Concepts
7594:Freezing
7198:10780362
7190:22670784
6965:10057657
6850:29947935
6842:10054556
6795:10053336
6731:10046547
6417:10045482
5554:12621427
5456:phys.org
5437:21118308
5081:Freezing
4940:See also
4379:′
4365:′
308:and the
223:molecule
90:molecule
7726:Binodal
7614:Melting
7549:Boiling
7466:Crystal
7461:Colloid
7123:Bibcode
7080:Bibcode
7038:Bibcode
6988:Bibcode
6945:Bibcode
6873:Bibcode
6822:Bibcode
6775:Bibcode
6711:Bibcode
6664:Bibcode
6641:9912436
6621:Bibcode
6586:Bibcode
6533:Bibcode
6483:Bibcode
6460:9900034
6440:Bibcode
6397:Bibcode
6374:9911054
6346:Bibcode
6303:Bibcode
6260:Bibcode
6217:Bibcode
6166:Bibcode
6128:Bibcode
6074:Bibcode
6029:Bibcode
5987:Bibcode
5916:Bibcode
5867:Bibcode
5828:Bibcode
5770:1733342
5562:4422064
5524:Bibcode
5485:Bibcode
5118:Plasma
5077:Liquid
5064:Melting
2809:where:
847:where
254:cathode
160:or the
114:protons
67:auroras
7354:Plasma
7335:Liquid
7235:
7196:
7188:
7180:
7141:
7098:
7006:
6963:
6924:: 684.
6899:
6891:
6848:
6840:
6793:
6729:
6682:
6639:
6561:
6501:
6458:
6415:
6372:
6364:
6321:
6278:
6235:
6192:
6184:
6092:
5768:
5607:
5560:
5552:
5516:Nature
5435:
5378:
5345:
5320:
5295:
5270:
5245:
5220:
5164:
5058:Solid
5052:Plasma
5042:Liquid
4443:where
3984:where
3625:where
1884:where
94:charge
18:Ionize
7344:Vapor
7330:Solid
7323:State
7194:S2CID
7139:S2CID
7096:S2CID
7057:(PDF)
7026:(PDF)
7004:S2CID
6897:S2CID
6846:S2CID
6680:S2CID
6521:(PDF)
6499:S2CID
6190:S2CID
6101:(PDF)
6090:S2CID
6062:(PDF)
5653:IUPAC
5575:IUPAC
5558:S2CID
5037:Solid
4989:Table
4083:et al
3834:argon
3216:with
2920:with
377:>
364:<
258:anode
88:or a
51:Earth
7817:Ions
7315:list
7233:ISSN
7186:PMID
7178:ISSN
6961:PMID
6889:ISSN
6838:PMID
6791:PMID
6727:PMID
6637:PMID
6559:ISSN
6456:PMID
6413:PMID
6370:PMID
6362:ISSN
6319:ISSN
6276:ISSN
6233:ISSN
6182:ISSN
5766:OSTI
5605:ISBN
5550:PMID
5433:PMID
5396:link
5376:ISBN
5343:ISBN
5318:ISBN
5293:ISBN
5268:ISBN
5243:ISBN
5218:ISBN
5162:ISBN
5096:Gas
5032:From
4884:and
4739:).
4681:and
3807:>
3762:>
3740:>
2052:sinh
1755:>
1355:sinh
1096:and
232:The
219:atom
144:Uses
86:atom
80:(or
41:The
7340:Gas
7225:doi
7170:doi
7131:doi
7088:doi
7046:doi
7034:313
6996:doi
6953:doi
6881:doi
6830:doi
6783:doi
6719:doi
6672:doi
6629:doi
6594:doi
6549:hdl
6541:doi
6491:doi
6448:doi
6405:doi
6354:doi
6311:doi
6268:doi
6225:doi
6174:doi
6082:doi
5924:doi
5883:hdl
5875:doi
5836:doi
5797:doi
5758:doi
5727:doi
5696:doi
5667:doi
5665:".
5634:doi
5589:doi
5587:".
5540:hdl
5532:doi
5520:422
5493:doi
5481:394
5423:doi
5368:doi
5195:doi
5154:doi
5047:Gas
3544:exp
3192:cos
250:ion
246:air
221:or
102:ion
57:or
53:'s
7803::
7342:/
7231:.
7221:35
7219:.
7215:.
7192:.
7184:.
7176:.
7166:84
7164:.
7160:.
7137:.
7129:.
7119:91
7117:.
7094:.
7086:.
7076:33
7074:.
7044:.
7032:.
7028:.
7002:.
6994:.
6984:32
6982:.
6959:.
6951:.
6941:73
6939:.
6920:.
6895:.
6887:.
6879:.
6869:29
6867:.
6844:.
6836:.
6828:.
6818:71
6816:.
6812:.
6789:.
6781:.
6771:70
6769:.
6752:45
6750:.
6725:.
6717:.
6707:69
6705:.
6701:.
6678:.
6670:.
6660:31
6658:.
6635:.
6627:.
6617:52
6615:.
6592:.
6582:27
6580:.
6557:.
6547:.
6539:.
6529:87
6527:.
6523:.
6497:.
6489:.
6479:29
6477:.
6454:.
6446:.
6436:37
6434:.
6411:.
6403:.
6393:68
6391:.
6368:.
6360:.
6352:.
6342:50
6340:.
6317:.
6309:.
6299:22
6297:.
6274:.
6266:.
6254:.
6231:.
6223:.
6213:14
6211:.
6188:.
6180:.
6172:.
6162:43
6160:.
6124:64
6122:.
6118:.
6088:.
6080:.
6070:31
6068:.
6064:.
6025:24
6023:.
6019:.
5983:23
5981:.
5977:.
5951:20
5949:.
5945:.
5922:.
5912:67
5910:.
5906:.
5881:.
5873:.
5863:96
5861:.
5857:.
5834:.
5824:25
5822:.
5818:.
5793:32
5791:.
5787:.
5764:.
5754:53
5752:.
5748:.
5723:41
5721:.
5717:.
5692:88
5690:.
5686:.
5655:,
5630:63
5628:.
5624:.
5577:,
5556:.
5548:.
5538:.
5530:.
5518:.
5514:.
5491:.
5479:.
5454:.
5431:.
5419:21
5417:.
5413:.
5392:}}
5388:{{
5374:.
5191:44
5189:.
5185:.
5160:.
5029:To
5023:)
4565::
3838:Îźm
3711:.
3248:FT
1067:,
398:.
390:=
193:.
124:.
116:,
112:,
7317:)
7313:(
7303:e
7296:t
7289:v
7239:.
7227::
7200:.
7172::
7145:.
7133::
7125::
7102:.
7090::
7082::
7048::
7040::
7010:.
6998::
6990::
6967:.
6955::
6947::
6922:7
6903:.
6883::
6875::
6852:.
6832::
6824::
6797:.
6785::
6777::
6733:.
6721::
6713::
6686:.
6674::
6666::
6643:.
6631::
6623::
6600:.
6596::
6588::
6565:.
6551::
6543::
6535::
6505:.
6493::
6485::
6462:.
6450::
6442::
6419:.
6407::
6399::
6376:.
6356::
6348::
6325:.
6313::
6305::
6282:.
6270::
6262::
6256:6
6239:.
6227::
6219::
6196:.
6176::
6168::
6145:.
6130::
6084::
6076::
6046:.
6031::
6004:.
5989::
5930:.
5926::
5918::
5891:.
5885::
5877::
5869::
5842:.
5838::
5830::
5803:.
5799::
5772:.
5760::
5733:.
5729::
5702:.
5698::
5669::
5642:.
5636::
5591::
5564:.
5542::
5534::
5526::
5495::
5487::
5464:.
5439:.
5425::
5398:)
5384:.
5370::
5351:.
5326:.
5301:.
5276:.
5251:.
5226:.
5201:.
5197::
5170:.
5156::
5017:e
5010:t
5003:v
4897:0
4893:V
4872:)
4869:t
4866:(
4836:0
4832:V
4811:)
4807:r
4803:,
4798:0
4790:(
4785:0
4781:V
4758:1
4727:)
4724:t
4721:(
4694:0
4645:)
4642:)
4639:t
4636:(
4628:+
4624:r
4620:(
4617:V
4614:+
4609:2
4604:P
4597:2
4594:1
4589:=
4584:H
4581:K
4577:H
4553:)
4550:t
4547:(
4518:)
4515:t
4512:(
4482:2
4469:0
4465:E
4456:0
4428:)
4425:t
4422:(
4418:E
4414:)
4409:0
4405:E
4400:/
4394:0
4386:(
4383:=
4376:t
4372:d
4369:)
4362:t
4358:(
4354:A
4348:t
4343:0
4333:c
4330:1
4322:)
4319:t
4316:(
4285:)
4282:r
4279:(
4276:V
4273:+
4268:2
4264:)
4260:)
4257:t
4254:(
4250:A
4244:c
4241:1
4236:+
4232:P
4228:(
4223:2
4220:1
4215:=
4210:b
4207:a
4204:l
4200:H
4125:p
4121:U
4098:p
4094:U
4062:)
4056:(
4051:n
4025:)
4020:+
4017:i
4013:A
4009:(
4003:K
4000:D
3997:A
3993:W
3968:)
3963:+
3960:i
3956:A
3952:(
3946:K
3943:D
3940:A
3936:W
3931:)
3925:(
3919:n
3909:1
3903:n
3898:1
3895:=
3892:i
3884:=
3881:)
3876:+
3873:n
3869:A
3865:(
3860:S
3857:N
3853:W
3818:+
3815:+
3811:A
3801:L
3798:+
3795:A
3773:+
3770:+
3766:A
3756:L
3753:+
3748:+
3744:A
3734:L
3731:+
3728:A
3678:0
3675:=
3672:t
3668:d
3663:/
3659:W
3655:d
3633:W
3609:)
3602:t
3598:d
3593:/
3589:W
3585:d
3577:2
3572:m
3568:W
3561:2
3551:(
3541:=
3536:g
3532:P
3506:g
3502:P
3479:2
3475:/
3471:m
3467:)
3463:t
3460:(
3457:I
3452:m
3444:=
3441:)
3438:t
3435:(
3410:m
3406:V
3383:r
3379:I
3358:m
3326:n
3321:)
3315:r
3312:F
3307:2
3303:n
3295:2
3291:Z
3287:2
3281:(
3276:=
3271:R
3268:A
3265:K
3261:I
3244:,
3242:F
3238:p
3204:)
3198:(
3189:p
3180:/
3173:c
3170:s
3167:o
3162:n
3156:2
3153:=
3148:f
3144:n
3122:,
3117:)
3112:i
3108:n
3098:c
3095:s
3092:o
3087:n
3080:n
3077:(
3071:2
3066:=
3063:p
3041:)
3038:v
3035:,
3032:u
3029:(
3024:n
3020:J
2997:]
2991:c
2988:s
2985:o
2980:n
2976:+
2971:i
2967:n
2963:[
2960:=
2957:N
2933:p
2929:U
2904:/
2898:p
2894:U
2890:=
2884:c
2881:s
2878:o
2873:n
2851:,
2844:/
2838:i
2834:E
2830:=
2825:i
2821:n
2793:)
2787:2
2781:c
2778:s
2775:o
2770:n
2764:,
2759:f
2755:n
2750:(
2744:2
2739:n
2735:J
2729:2
2724:|
2719:)
2714:)
2710:r
2706:(
2697:R
2694:A
2691:K
2687:I
2682:(
2678:T
2675:F
2671:|
2662:d
2653:2
2648:)
2641:c
2638:s
2635:o
2630:n
2623:n
2619:(
2614:p
2609:2
2598:2
2588:N
2585:=
2582:n
2574:=
2569:A
2566:R
2563:K
2559:W
2545:A
2541:E
2513:T
2510:P
2507:P
2503:W
2474:2
2471:3
2465:)
2459:i
2455:E
2451:2
2447:(
2439:F
2436:3
2432:2
2423:e
2415:2
2412:3
2403:|
2399:m
2395:|
2382:n
2378:2
2373:)
2366:2
2363:3
2357:)
2351:i
2347:E
2343:2
2339:(
2332:F
2329:2
2323:(
2316:i
2312:E
2306:m
2303:l
2299:f
2289:6
2281:2
2276:|
2265:l
2255:n
2250:C
2246:|
2241:=
2236:K
2233:D
2230:A
2226:W
2169:)
2161:2
2153:2
2148:+
2145:1
2141:(
2130:i
2126:E
2120:=
2113:v
2105:)
2096:2
2088:+
2085:1
2073:)
2067:(
2059:1
2047:(
2043:2
2040:=
2033:)
2027:(
2017:y
2014:d
2006:2
2002:y
1997:e
1991:m
1987:)
1981:2
1977:y
1968:2
1964:x
1960:(
1955:x
1950:0
1938:2
1934:x
1926:e
1922:=
1915:)
1912:x
1909:(
1904:m
1900:w
1868:)
1863:)
1860:v
1854:n
1851:(
1843:2
1835:+
1832:1
1824:2
1816:(
1810:m
1806:w
1800:)
1794:(
1788:)
1785:v
1779:n
1776:(
1769:e
1758:v
1752:n
1739:2
1731:+
1728:1
1722:2
1709:!
1705:|
1701:m
1697:|
1692:1
1681:3
1677:4
1672:=
1669:)
1663:,
1657:(
1652:m
1648:A
1624:)
1618:,
1612:(
1607:m
1603:A
1572:)
1563:l
1550:n
1546:(
1540:)
1537:1
1534:+
1525:l
1521:+
1512:n
1508:(
1496:n
1483:n
1479:2
1475:2
1469:=
1460:2
1455:|
1442:l
1432:n
1427:C
1422:|
1413:)
1403:2
1396:2
1388:+
1385:1
1376:)
1370:(
1362:1
1346:2
1338:2
1334:1
1329:+
1326:1
1322:(
1312:2
1308:3
1303:=
1296:)
1290:(
1287:g
1277:!
1274:)
1270:|
1266:m
1262:|
1255:l
1252:(
1249:!
1245:|
1241:m
1237:|
1231:m
1227:2
1221:!
1218:)
1214:|
1210:m
1206:|
1202:+
1199:l
1196:(
1193:)
1190:1
1187:+
1184:l
1181:2
1178:(
1172:=
1163:m
1160:l
1156:f
1120:l
1110:n
1105:C
1084:)
1078:(
1075:g
1053:m
1050:l
1046:f
1033:.
1021:1
1009:n
1005:=
996:l
973:F
963:,
947:2
943:Z
936:i
932:E
928:2
922:=
913:n
888:F
880:i
876:E
872:2
861:=
829:)
823:(
819:g
813:2
810:3
804:)
798:i
794:E
790:2
786:(
779:F
776:2
767:e
763:)
757:,
751:(
746:m
742:A
734:4
731:3
726:+
722:|
717:2
714:m
709:|
703:)
697:2
689:+
686:1
682:(
673:2
670:3
661:|
657:m
653:|
640:n
636:2
631:)
624:2
621:3
615:)
609:i
605:E
601:2
597:(
590:F
587:2
581:(
574:i
570:E
564:m
561:l
557:f
547:6
539:2
534:|
523:l
513:n
508:C
504:|
499:=
494:T
491:P
488:P
484:W
438:i
434:E
404:i
401:E
395:c
392:R
388:r
382:0
379:r
375:r
369:0
366:r
362:r
73:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.