275:
598:
The difference in the ratio of the sample relative to CHUR can give information on a model age of extraction from the mantle (for which an assumed evolution has been calculated relative to CHUR) and to whether this was extracted from a granitic source (depleted in radiogenic Nd), the mantle, or an
458:
Radiogenic isotopes provide powerful tracers for studying the ages and origins of Earth systems. They are particularly useful to understand mixing processes between different components, because (heavy) radiogenic isotope ratios are not usually fractionated by chemical processes.
332:(Faure, 2004). The C/C ratio is also an indicator of paleoclimate: a change in the ratio in the remains of plants indicates a change in the amount of photosynthetic activity, and thus in how favorable the environment was for the plants. During photosynthesis, organisms using the
926:, while most of the Th remains in Atlantic sediments. As a result, there is a relationship between Pa/Th in Atlantic sediments and the rate of overturning: faster overturning produces lower sediment Pa/Th ratio, while slower overturning increases this ratio. The combination of
886:
of actinides are unique amongst radiogenic isotopes because they are both radiogenic and radioactive. Because their abundances are normally quoted as activity ratios rather than atomic ratios, they are best considered separately from the other radiogenic isotope systems.
87:
965:
in natural uranium and thorium, but due to the relatively short half-life of tritium and the relatively small quantities (compared to those from anthropogenic sources) those sources of tritium usually play only a secondary role in the analysis of groundwater.
647:
Natural isotopic variations amongst the noble gases result from both radiogenic and nucleogenic production processes. Because of their unique properties, it is useful to distinguish them from the conventional radiogenic isotope systems described above.
348:, allowing scientists not only to distinguish organic matter from abiotic carbon, but also what type of photosynthetic pathway the organic matter was using. Occasional spikes in the global C/C ratio have also been useful as stratigraphic markers for
76:
is very small; for this reason, enrichments are typically reported in "per mil" (‰, parts per thousand). These enrichments (δ) represent the ratio of heavy isotope to light isotope in the sample over the ratio of a
518:
on a variety of materials. Because the lead isotopes are created by decay of different transuranic elements, the ratios of the four lead isotopes to one another can be very useful in tracking the source of melts in
462:
Radiogenic isotope tracers are most powerful when used together with other tracers: The more tracers used, the more control on mixing processes. An example of this application is to the evolution of the
270:{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{sample}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{standard}}}-1\right)\times 1000}
587:
This initial ratio is modelled relative to CHUR (the
Chondritic Uniform Reservoir), which is an approximation of the chondritic material which formed the solar system. CHUR was determined by analysing
417:. Typically, the VPDB oxygen reference is used for paleoclimate, while VSMOW is used for most other applications. Oxygen isotopes appear in anomalous ratios in atmospheric ozone, resulting from
639:
an initial osmium ratio of the sample at the time of the melting event. Osmium–osmium initial ratios are used to determine the source characteristic and age of mantle melting events.
1347:
Drake, Henrik; Roberts, Nick M. W.; Reinhardt, Manuel; Whitehouse, Martin; Ivarsson, Magnus; Karlsson, Andreas; Kooijman, Ellen; Kielman-Schmitt, Melanie (2021-06-03).
1214:
Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M.; Janssen, C.; Kaiser, J.; Röckmann, T.; Rhee, T. S.; Assonov, S. S. (2003). "Isotope effects in the chemistry of atmospheric trace compounds".
409:(VSMOW) or Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB). Variations in oxygen isotope ratios are used to track both water movement, paleoclimate, and atmospheric gases such as
78:
378:. Nitrogen ratios are frequently linked to agricultural activities. Nitrogen isotope data has also been used to measure the amount of exchange of air between the
2272:
1948:
635:
more readily than osmium. Hence, during melting of the mantle, rhenium is stripped out, and prevents the osmium–osmium ratio from changing appreciably. This
436:
has four stable isotopes, with the following abundances: S (0.9502), S (0.0075), S (0.0421) and S (0.0002). These abundances are compared to those found in
1623:
Arne D.; Bierlein F. P.; Morgan J. W.; Stein H. J. (2001). "Re-Os dating of sulfides associated with gold mineralisation in central
Victoria, Australia".
1109:"Carbon isotope (d13C) stratigraphy across the Silurian-Devonian transition in North America: evidence for a perturbation of the global carbon cycle"
2574:
444:
and the temperature of formation of sulfur–bearing minerals as well as a biosignature that can reveal presence of sulfate reducing microbes.
1022:
659:
was trapped in the planet when it formed. Some He is being added by meteoric dust, primarily collecting on the bottom of oceans (although due to
1335:
1066:
1719:
755:) from the mantle, which happens at depths of less than 60 km. However, He is transported to the surface primarily trapped in the
2066:
2267:
1863:
1903:
406:
287:
946:
was released to the atmosphere during atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs. Radioactive decay of tritium produces the noble gas
1166:
1012:
39:
1546:
Kirstein L., Timmerman M. (2000). "Evidence of the proto-Iceland lume in northwestern
Ireland at 42Ma from helium isotopes".
1017:
786:
has become enriched with those elements relative to the mantle and thus more He is produced in the crust than in the mantle.
418:
2313:
1475:
558:
42:, and can reveal information about the ages and origins of rock, air or water bodies, or processes of mixing between them.
2061:
2056:
1688:
Reference information on isotopes, and coordination and management of isotope production, availability, and distribution
2246:
2116:
1389:
2456:
2436:
608:
2446:
2418:
2030:
437:
73:
871:
2513:
1712:
919:
2401:
2451:
2188:
2035:
744:
2351:
2152:
1898:
1797:
1349:"Biosignatures of ancient microbial life are present across the igneous crust of the Fennoscandian shield"
992:
702:
atom, creating a He and a He ion. This requires significant lithium to adversely affect the He/He ratio.
2564:
1953:
955:
69:
49:
2386:
710:
480:
910:
on settling particles, but not at equal rates. Pa has a residence equivalent to the residence time of
574:
of geological materials, and various other materials including archaeological finds (pots, ceramics).
2327:
2303:
1657:
1596:
1555:
1526:
1293:
1258:
1175:
1123:
571:
528:
1108:
549:
to fingerprint bullets, because each batch of ammunition has its own peculiar Pb/Pb vs Pb/Pb ratio.
2569:
2413:
2308:
2251:
2226:
2216:
1991:
1888:
1878:
1705:
959:
628:
to produce osmium. The ratio of non-radiogenic osmium to radiogenic osmium throughout time varies.
621:
705:
All degassed helium is lost to space eventually, due to the average speed of helium exceeding the
2538:
2518:
2396:
2381:
2366:
2288:
2087:
2051:
1853:
1571:
1309:
1193:
1007:
1002:
987:
515:
453:
35:
1694:
U.S. Department of Energy program for isotope production and production research and development
667:
are younger than continental plates). However, He will be degassed from oceanic sediment during
724:
samples. How He is stored in the planet is under investigation, but it is associated with the
374:
has two stable isotopes, N and N. The ratio between these is measured relative to nitrogen in
2346:
2142:
2137:
1981:
1817:
1424:
1370:
1331:
1231:
1062:
1058:
1051:
827:
783:
625:
496:
468:
349:
2543:
2492:
2408:
2356:
2132:
2110:
1976:
1873:
1665:
1632:
1604:
1600:
1563:
1534:
1360:
1301:
1266:
1223:
1183:
1131:
950:. Comparing the ratio of tritium to helium-3 (H/He) allows estimation of the age of recent
899:
779:
760:
725:
676:
546:
464:
31:
2391:
1485:
2476:
2441:
2428:
2338:
2196:
2091:
2025:
1986:
1823:
1584:
1479:
962:
815:
706:
664:
581:
975:
1661:
1559:
1530:
1297:
1262:
1179:
1127:
866:
2376:
2174:
2162:
2106:
2101:
2095:
2020:
1943:
1868:
930:
and Pa/Th can therefore provide a more complete insight into past circulation changes.
923:
752:
414:
329:
307:
48:
geochemistry is largely concerned with isotopic variations arising from mass-dependent
45:
1608:
1538:
1135:
16:
Aspect of geology studying variations in isotope abundances in the natural environment
2558:
2293:
2211:
2206:
2157:
2147:
1908:
1787:
1670:
1645:
1575:
1197:
1087:
721:
539:
387:
57:
847:, estimate groundwater flow rates, track water pollution, and provide insights into
2371:
2169:
1883:
1858:
1843:
1809:
1769:
1441:
1313:
997:
951:
911:
848:
695:
584:
of several minerals within a rock specimen. The initial Nd/Nd ratio is determined.
520:
511:
440:. Variations in sulfur isotope ratios are used to study the origin of sulfur in an
422:
379:
538:
from the Arctic shelf, and provides information on the source of atmospheric lead
1472:
2071:
1968:
1930:
1913:
1848:
1829:
1762:
1742:
1514:
906:
at a constant activity ratio (0.093). The decay products are rapidly removed by
903:
883:
859:
844:
405:
has three stable isotopes, O, O, and O. Oxygen ratios are measured relative to
383:
360:
1691:
1365:
1348:
970:
1838:
1833:
1728:
907:
767:
691:
683:
668:
660:
592:
341:
333:
53:
1374:
2528:
2508:
2241:
2201:
1938:
1747:
1270:
672:
588:
567:
353:
325:
311:
1395:
1249:
Mauersberger, K. (1987). "Ozone isotope measurements in the stratosphere".
1235:
1692:
Isotope
Development & Production for Research and Applications (IDPRA)
1567:
2523:
2361:
2005:
1918:
1188:
1157:
947:
915:
656:
624:
which are present at very low abundances in the crust. Rhenium undergoes
563:
535:
524:
371:
27:
26:
based upon the study of natural variations in the relative abundances of
1496:
Stable
Isotopes and Mineral Resource Investigations in the United States
1284:
Emiliani, C.; Edwards, G. (1953). "Tertiary ocean bottom temperatures".
570:
is an isotope system which can be utilised to provide a date as well as
2533:
1757:
1752:
943:
927:
895:
855:
852:
775:
771:
756:
717:
699:
687:
632:
613:
504:
500:
489:
318:
298:
23:
1636:
1227:
1305:
818:
736:
732:
617:
433:
402:
303:
1495:
918:
basin (around 1000 yrs) but Th is removed more rapidly (centuries).
709:
for the Earth. Thus, it is assumed the helium content and ratios of
363:
ratio has been used to track ocean circulation, among other things.
1958:
748:
740:
410:
797:
usually is given as a multiple of the present atmospheric ratio (
690:
spallation reactions which generally occur in the crust. Lithium
328:(VPDB). The stable carbon isotopes are fractionated primarily by
1892:
1774:
1499:
1328:
Using
Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation
485:
1701:
68:
For most stable isotopes, the magnitude of fractionation from
56:
isotope geochemistry is concerned with the products of natural
1792:
1088:"USGS -- Isotope Tracers -- Resources -- Isotope Geochemistry"
441:
375:
1697:
577:
Sm decays to produce Nd with a half life of 1.06x10 years.
1587:(2001). "The core as a possible source of mantle helium".
954:. A small amount of tritium is also produced naturally by
425:
have been used to deduce the temperature of ancient seas.
1646:"Osmium isotopic characteristics of mantle-derived rocks"
872:
USGS: Helium
Discharge at Mammoth Mountain Fumarole (MMF)
671:, so cosmogenic He is not affecting the concentration or
793:) of He to He is often used to represent He content.
340:
show different enrichments compared to those using the
1685:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1209:
1207:
867:(U-Th)/He dating of apatite as a thermal history tool
743:
chemistry, outgassing of helium requires the loss of
90:
728:
and is used as a marker of material of deep origin.
2501:
2485:
2469:
2427:
2337:
2326:
2281:
2273:
Global
Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
2260:
2234:
2225:
2187:
2125:
2080:
2044:
2013:
2004:
1967:
1929:
1808:
1783:
1735:
898:is well mixed in the ocean, and its decay produces
580:Dating is achieved usually by trying to produce an
1050:
922:effectively exports Pa from the Atlantic into the
269:
1488: (C. Kendall & E.A. Caldwell, chap.2 in
1116:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
545:Lead–lead isotopes has been successfully used in
1515:"Multiple fluid pulses in a Samoan harzburgite"
1513:Burnard P. G.; Farley K. A.; Turner G. (1998).
1156:Park, S.; Atlas, E. L.; Boering, K. A. (2004).
843:He/He isotope chemistry is being used to date
1713:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
8:
1394:. Cambridge University Press. Archived from
824:Spreading ridge rocks: 9.1 plus or minus 3.6
716:It has been observed that He is present in
2334:
2231:
2010:
1805:
1720:
1706:
1698:
495:Lead is created in the Earth via decay of
1669:
1548:Journal of the Geological Society, London
1460:Principles of Stable Isotope Geochemistry
1364:
1187:
221:
201:
187:
185:
159:
139:
125:
123:
116:
94:
89:
2268:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
836:Sedimentary formation water: less than 1
310:, C and C, and one radioactive isotope,
1034:
1490:Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology
1353:Communications Earth & Environment
1057:. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp.
1446:Isotopes: Principles and Applications
324:, is measured against Vienna Pee Dee
7:
1486:Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry
1330:Longman Scientific & Technical.
1162:O isotopologues in the stratosphere"
386:using data from the greenhouse gas
1686:National Isotope Development Center
1589:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
976:Hydrologic Isotope Tracers - Helium
2067:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
1053:The Geochemistry of Natural Waters
812:Old continental crust: less than 1
713:have remained essentially stable.
527:and even the origin of people via
14:
878:Isotopes in actinide decay chains
317:The stable carbon isotope ratio,
531:of their teeth, skin and bones.
421:. Isotope ratios in fossilized
407:Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
288:Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry
2575:Geochronological dating methods
1949:English and British regnal year
1650:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1167:Journal of Geophysical Research
1013:Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry
448:Radiogenic isotope geochemistry
40:isotope-ratio mass spectrometry
1023:Urey–Bigeleisen–Mayer equation
1018:Sulfur isotope biogeochemistry
833:Ocean and terrestrial water: 1
475:Lead–lead isotope geochemistry
419:mass-independent fractionation
1:
2062:Old Style and New Style dates
1609:10.1016/s0012-821x(01)00418-6
1539:10.1016/s0009-2541(97)00175-7
1438:(Cambridge University Press).
1431:(Cambridge University Press).
1136:10.1016/s0031-0182(02)00510-2
839:Thermal spring water: 3 to 11
2014:Pre-Julian / Julian
1671:10.1016/0016-7037(91)90318-y
1482: (University of Ottawa)
1251:Geophysical Research Letters
1107:Saltzman, Matthew R (2002).
971:USGS Tritium/Helium-3 Dating
891:Protactinium/Thorium – Pa/Th
2247:Geological history of Earth
2117:Astronomical year numbering
1453:Stable Isotope Geochemistry
759:lattice of minerals within
64:Stable isotope geochemistry
2593:
1436:Radiogenic Isotope Geology
1391:Radiogenic Isotope Geology
1366:10.1038/s43247-021-00170-2
694:is the process by which a
606:
556:
478:
451:
296:
285:
2419:Thermoluminescence dating
2314:Samarium–neodymium dating
631:Rhenium prefers to enter
559:Samarium–neodymium dating
534:It has been used to date
471:through geological time.
213:
199:
151:
137:
106:
74:equilibrium fractionation
2133:Chinese sexagenary cycle
1448:(John Wiley & Sons).
1444:, Mensing T. M. (2004),
1326:Rollinson, H.R. (1993).
920:Thermohaline circulation
770:production (by decay of
514:is useful for providing
352:, especially during the
208:
202:
194:
188:
146:
140:
132:
126:
101:
95:
2347:Amino acid racemisation
1601:2001E&PSL.192...45P
1271:10.1029/GL014i001p00080
766:Helium-4 is created by
731:Due to similarities in
682:Helium-3 is created by
529:isotopic fingerprinting
2352:Archaeomagnetic dating
1864:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
1473:Environmental Isotopes
1049:Drever, James (2002).
993:Environmental isotopes
934:Anthropogenic isotopes
492:: Pb, Pb, Pb, and Pb.
271:
2252:Geological time units
1568:10.1144/jgs.157.5.923
1388:Dickin, A.P. (2005).
956:cosmic ray spallation
609:Rhenium–osmium dating
572:isotopic fingerprints
438:Cañon Diablo troilite
272:
50:isotope fractionation
2304:Law of superposition
2299:Isotope geochemistry
1434:Dickin A.P., 2005.
1189:10.1029/2003JD003731
686:bombardment, and by
622:siderophile elements
88:
20:Isotope geochemistry
2437:Fluorine absorption
2414:Luminescence dating
2309:Luminescence dating
2217:Milankovitch cycles
2057:Proleptic Gregorian
1889:Hindu units of time
1662:1991GeCoA..55.1421M
1560:2000JGSoc.157..923K
1531:1998ChGeo.147...99B
1298:1953Natur.171..887E
1263:1987GeoRL..14...80M
1180:2004JGRD..109.1305P
1128:2002PPP...187...83S
988:Cosmogenic isotopes
745:volatile components
696:high-energy neutron
2539:Terminus post quem
2519:Synchronoptic view
2486:Linguistic methods
2447:Obsidian hydration
2382:Radiometric dating
2367:Incremental dating
2289:Chronostratigraphy
1478:2007-02-08 at the
1455:(Springer Verlag).
1158:"Measurements of N
1008:Radiometric dating
1003:Isotopic signature
804:Common values for
711:Earth's atmosphere
643:Noble gas isotopes
553:Samarium–neodymium
454:Radiometric dating
267:
36:isotopic abundance
2552:
2551:
2465:
2464:
2322:
2321:
2183:
2182:
2138:Geologic Calendar
2000:
1999:
1644:Martin C (1991).
1637:10.2113/96.6.1455
1336:978-0-582-06701-1
1292:(4359): 887–888.
1228:10.1021/cr020644k
1222:(12): 5125–5161.
1068:978-0-13-272790-7
784:continental crust
626:radioactive decay
599:enriched source.
497:actinide elements
350:chemostratigraphy
248:
215:
209:
207:
206:
205:
195:
193:
192:
191:
153:
147:
145:
144:
143:
133:
131:
130:
129:
102:
100:
99:
98:
2582:
2544:ASPRO chronology
2493:Glottochronology
2409:Tephrochronology
2357:Dendrochronology
2335:
2232:
2031:Proleptic Julian
2021:Pre-Julian Roman
2011:
1806:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1699:
1675:
1673:
1656:(5): 1421–1434.
1640:
1631:(6): 1455–1459.
1625:Economic Geology
1612:
1579:
1542:
1519:Chemical Geology
1462:(Prentice Hall).
1458:Sharp Z., 2006.
1451:Hoefs J., 2004.
1407:
1406:
1404:
1403:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1368:
1344:
1338:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1306:10.1038/171887c0
1281:
1275:
1274:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1216:Chemical Reviews
1211:
1202:
1201:
1191:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1113:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1073:
1072:
1056:
1046:
939:Tritium/helium-3
882:Isotopes in the
761:fluid inclusions
547:forensic science
523:, the source of
488:has four stable
481:Lead–lead dating
276:
274:
273:
268:
260:
256:
249:
247:
246:
220:
216:
214:
203:
200:
189:
186:
179:
178:
158:
154:
152:
141:
138:
127:
124:
117:
107:
96:
38:are measured by
34:. Variations in
22:is an aspect of
2592:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2497:
2481:
2477:Molecular clock
2470:Genetic methods
2461:
2442:Nitrogen dating
2429:Relative dating
2423:
2392:Potassium–argon
2339:Absolute dating
2329:
2318:
2277:
2256:
2221:
2197:Cosmic Calendar
2189:Astronomic time
2179:
2121:
2076:
2040:
2026:Original Julian
1996:
1963:
1925:
1824:Ab urbe condita
1802:
1779:
1731:
1726:
1682:
1643:
1622:
1619:
1585:Halliday, A. N.
1582:
1545:
1525:(1–2): 99–114.
1512:
1509:
1480:Wayback Machine
1469:
1467:Stable isotopes
1429:Isotope Geology
1421:
1416:
1411:
1410:
1401:
1399:
1387:
1386:
1382:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1325:
1321:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1213:
1212:
1205:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1140:
1138:
1122:(1–2): 83–100.
1111:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1076:
1069:
1048:
1047:
1036:
1031:
984:
963:ternary fission
941:
936:
893:
880:
816:mid-ocean ridge
707:escape velocity
665:tectonic plates
654:
645:
611:
605:
561:
555:
483:
477:
456:
450:
431:
400:
391:
369:
345:
337:
308:stable isotopes
301:
295:
290:
284:
181:
180:
119:
118:
115:
111:
86:
85:
66:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2590:
2589:
2586:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2557:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2514:New Chronology
2511:
2505:
2503:
2502:Related topics
2499:
2498:
2496:
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2377:Paleomagnetism
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2199:
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2175:New Earth Time
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2036:Revised Julian
2033:
2028:
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2017:
2015:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1995:
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1989:
1984:
1979:
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1954:Lists of kings
1951:
1946:
1944:Canon of Kings
1941:
1935:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1896:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1869:Before present
1866:
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1767:
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1755:
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1681:
1680:External links
1678:
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1554:(5): 923–927.
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924:Southern Ocean
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841:
840:
837:
834:
831:
830:rocks: 5 to 42
825:
822:
821:(MORB): 7 to 9
813:
753:carbon dioxide
720:emissions and
675:ratios of the
663:, all oceanic
653:
650:
644:
641:
607:Main article:
604:
603:Rhenium–osmium
601:
557:Main article:
554:
551:
516:isotopic dates
479:Main article:
476:
473:
469:Earth's mantle
452:Main article:
449:
446:
430:
427:
415:carbon dioxide
399:
396:
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330:photosynthesis
297:Main article:
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46:Stable isotope
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2294:Geochronology
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2228:
2227:Geologic time
2224:
2218:
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2212:Metonic cycle
2210:
2208:
2207:Galactic year
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
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2186:
2176:
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2171:
2168:
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2148:ISO week date
2146:
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1810:Calendar eras
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1583:Porcelli D.;
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1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
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989:
986:
985:
981:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
967:
964:
961:
957:
953:
952:ground waters
949:
945:
938:
933:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
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729:
727:
723:
722:oceanic ridge
719:
714:
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697:
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573:
569:
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560:
552:
550:
548:
543:
541:
537:
532:
530:
526:
522:
521:igneous rocks
517:
513:
510:Lead isotope
508:
506:
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:
482:
474:
472:
470:
466:
465:Earth's crust
460:
455:
447:
445:
443:
439:
435:
428:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
397:
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366:
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217:
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196:
182:
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134:
120:
112:
108:
103:
91:
84:
83:
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80:
75:
71:
63:
61:
59:
58:radioactivity
55:
51:
47:
43:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
2565:Geochemistry
2457:Stratigraphy
2402:Uranium–lead
2372:Lichenometry
2298:
2170:Winter count
2153:Mesoamerican
2081:Astronomical
1899:Mesoamerican
1884:Sothic cycle
1859:Seleucid era
1844:Bosporan era
1832: /
1822:
1770:Paleontology
1653:
1649:
1628:
1624:
1595:(1): 45–56.
1592:
1588:
1551:
1547:
1522:
1518:
1489:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1435:
1428:
1425:Allègre C.J.
1400:. Retrieved
1396:the original
1390:
1383:
1356:
1352:
1342:
1327:
1322:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1257:(1): 80–83.
1254:
1250:
1244:
1219:
1215:
1171:
1165:
1151:
1139:. Retrieved
1119:
1115:
1102:
1091:. Retrieved
1052:
998:Geochemistry
942:
894:
884:decay chains
881:
849:hydrothermal
845:groundwaters
842:
805:
803:
798:
794:
790:
788:
765:
730:
715:
704:
681:
655:
646:
636:
630:
612:
597:
595:meteorites.
586:
579:
576:
562:
544:
533:
512:geochemistry
509:
499:, primarily
494:
484:
461:
457:
432:
423:foraminifera
401:
380:stratosphere
370:
358:
319:
316:
302:
81:. That is,
67:
44:
19:
18:
2397:Radiocarbon
2072:Dual dating
1931:Regnal year
1909:Short Count
1849:Bostran era
1830:Anno Domini
1763:Big History
1743:Archaeology
1359:(1): 1–13.
960:spontaneous
860:ore genesis
851:processes,
789:The ratio (
698:bombards a
384:troposphere
376:ambient air
30:of various
2570:Geophysics
2559:Categories
1992:Vietnamese
1904:Long Count
1839:Anno Mundi
1834:Common Era
1736:Key topics
1729:Chronology
1414:References
1402:2013-10-10
1093:2009-01-18
912:deep water
908:adsorption
768:radiogenic
692:spallation
684:cosmic ray
669:subduction
661:subduction
593:achondrite
54:radiogenic
52:, whereas
2529:Year zero
2509:Chronicle
2452:Seriation
2387:Lead–lead
2261:Standards
2242:Deep time
2202:Ephemeris
2088:Lunisolar
2052:Gregorian
2045:Gregorian
2006:Calendars
1969:Era names
1939:Anka year
1818:Human Era
1748:Astronomy
1576:128600558
1427:, 2008.
1375:2662-4435
1198:140545969
673:noble gas
589:chondrite
568:neodymium
540:pollution
536:ice cores
525:sediments
354:Paleozoic
326:Belemnite
262:×
251:−
92:δ
2524:Timeline
2362:Ice core
2235:Concepts
1982:Japanese
1914:Tzolk'in
1879:Egyptian
1476:Archived
1442:Faure G.
1236:14664646
982:See also
948:helium-3
916:Atlantic
782:). The
780:elements
778:-series
657:Helium-3
652:Helium-3
637:locks in
633:sulfides
582:isochron
564:Samarium
490:isotopes
372:Nitrogen
367:Nitrogen
306:has two
282:Hydrogen
79:standard
32:elements
28:isotopes
2534:Floruit
2282:Methods
2143:Iranian
2111:Islamic
1977:Chinese
1788:Periods
1758:History
1753:Geology
1658:Bibcode
1597:Bibcode
1556:Bibcode
1527:Bibcode
1498: (
1492:, 1998)
1419:General
1314:4239689
1294:Bibcode
1259:Bibcode
1176:Bibcode
1124:Bibcode
1059:311–322
944:Tritium
914:in the
896:Uranium
856:geology
853:igneous
828:Hotspot
776:thorium
772:uranium
757:crystal
718:volcano
700:lithium
688:lithium
614:Rhenium
505:thorium
501:uranium
442:orebody
346:pathway
338:pathway
70:kinetic
24:geology
2330:dating
2126:Others
2092:Hebrew
1987:Korean
1798:Epochs
1574:
1373:
1334:
1312:
1286:Nature
1234:
1196:
1065:
819:basalt
737:carbon
733:helium
726:mantle
677:mantle
618:osmium
434:Sulfur
429:Sulfur
403:Oxygen
398:Oxygen
304:Carbon
293:Carbon
2163:Aztec
2107:Lunar
2102:Solar
2096:Hindu
1959:Limmu
1919:Haab'
1874:Hijri
1617:Re–Os
1572:S2CID
1507:He/He
1310:S2CID
1194:S2CID
1141:7 Jan
1112:(PDF)
1029:Notes
749:water
741:magma
411:ozone
2158:Maya
1893:Yuga
1793:Eras
1775:Time
1500:USGS
1371:ISSN
1332:ISBN
1232:PMID
1143:2017
1063:ISBN
958:and
902:and
858:and
806:R/Ra
735:and
620:are
616:and
591:and
503:and
486:Lead
467:and
413:and
382:and
359:The
299:δ13C
265:1000
72:and
1666:doi
1633:doi
1605:doi
1593:192
1564:doi
1552:157
1535:doi
1523:147
1361:doi
1302:doi
1290:171
1267:doi
1224:doi
1220:103
1184:doi
1172:109
1132:doi
1120:187
862:.
801:).
739:in
2561::
2094:,
1664:.
1654:55
1652:.
1648:.
1629:96
1627:.
1603:.
1591:.
1570:.
1562:.
1550:.
1533:.
1521:.
1517:.
1369:.
1355:.
1351:.
1308:.
1300:.
1288:.
1265:.
1255:14
1253:.
1230:.
1218:.
1206:^
1192:.
1182:.
1170:.
1164:.
1130:.
1118:.
1114:.
1077:^
1061:.
1037:^
928:δC
904:Th
900:Pa
808::
799:Ra
763:.
751:,
679:.
542:.
507:.
394:.
356:.
314:.
211:12
197:13
149:12
135:13
104:13
60:.
2113:)
2109:(
2098:)
2090:(
1895:)
1891:(
1721:e
1714:t
1707:v
1674:.
1668::
1660::
1639:.
1635::
1611:.
1607::
1599::
1578:.
1566::
1558::
1541:.
1537::
1529::
1502:)
1405:.
1377:.
1363::
1357:2
1316:.
1304::
1296::
1273:.
1269::
1261::
1238:.
1226::
1200:.
1186::
1178::
1160:2
1145:.
1134::
1126::
1096:.
1071:.
795:R
791:R
774:/
747:(
566:–
392:O
390:2
388:N
361:C
344:4
342:C
336:3
334:C
322:C
320:δ
312:C
277:‰
258:)
254:1
244:d
241:r
238:a
235:d
232:n
229:a
226:t
223:s
218:)
204:C
190:C
183:(
176:e
173:l
170:p
167:m
164:a
161:s
156:)
142:C
128:C
121:(
113:(
109:=
97:C
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