156:" — was ordinarily viewed in the late seventeenth century as synonymous with or as a subset of chemistry." He therefore proposes that the early spelling of chemistry as "chymistry" refers to a unified science including both alchemy and early chemistry. Principe goes on to argue that, "ll their chymical activities were unified by a common focus on the analysis, synthesis, transformation, and production of material substances." Therefore, there is not a defined contrast between the two fields until the early 18th century. Though Principe's discussion is centered on the Western practice of alchemy and chemistry, this argument is supported in the context of Islamic science as well when considering the similarity in methodology and
209:, as well as by mystical aspects it is also important to note that cultural and religious boundaries remained. The mystical and religious elements discussed previously in the article distinguished Islamic alchemy from that of its Western counterpart, given that the West had predominantly Christian ideals on which to base their beliefs and results, while the Islamic tradition differed greatly. While the motives differed in some ways, as did the calculations, the practice and development of alchemy and chemistry was similar given the contemporaneous nature of the fields and the ability with which scientists could transmit their beliefs.
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145:- that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the Arabic language." This definition of Arabic science provides a sense that there are many distinguishing factors to contrast with science of the Western hemisphere regarding physical location, culture, and language, though there are also several similarities in the goals pursued by scientists of the Middle Ages, and in the origins of thinking from which both were derived.
30:
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550:. For example, fire is a substance that is hot and dry, as shown in the table. According to Jābir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry but internally hot and moist; gold, on the other hand, was externally hot and moist but internally cold and dry. He believed that metals were formed in the Earth by fusion of
202:
expansion of the
Islamic empire was an important factor in diminishing political barriers between such areas, there was still a wide range of religions, beliefs, and philosophies that could move freely and be translated throughout the regions. This development made way for contributions to be made on behalf of the East towards the Western conception of sciences such as alchemy.
340:, died c. 806−816), is the supposed author of an enormous number and variety of works in Arabic often called the Jabirian corpus. Popularly known as the father of chemistry, Jabir's works contain the oldest known systematic classification of chemical substances, and the oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (
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Hermetists did, also giving "a greater emphasis on the coniunctio motif", i.e. images of the union of male and female, sun and moon, king and queen etc. "The mystical masters of Islam understood alchemy as a transformative process of the alchemist's psyche. The fire which promoted this transformation was the love of God."
128:
writes in his article entitled, "Situating Arabic
Science: Location versus Essence," "the term Arabic (or Islamic) science denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that roughly extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and
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texts without changing them. Gradually they began "'confronting' their content with the
Islamic religion" and began "to think independently and experiment themselves in the realm of alchemy". Thus they added "an emphasis on the monotheistic outlook" (tawḥīd) and more and more creating a synopsis of
164:
The transmission of these sciences throughout the
Eastern and Western hemispheres is also important to understand when distinguishing the sciences of both regions. The beginnings of cultural, religious, and scientific diffusion of information between the Western and Eastern societies began with the
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inspirations, as noted in other sections of this article. This distinction between alchemy and early chemistry is one that lies predominantly in semantics, though with an understanding of previous uses of the words, we can better understand the historical lack of distinct connotations regarding the
123:
In considering
Islamic sciences as a distinct, local practice, it is important to define words such as "Arabic," "Islamic," "alchemy," and "chemistry" in order to gain an understanding of what these terms mean historically. This may also help to clear up any misconceptions regarding the possible
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inner psychic experience, namely the God-image" and that stone, water, prima materia etc. were "all aspects of the inner mystery through which the alchemist unites with the transcendent God". Secondly, they added "a passionate feeling tone" by using much more a poetic language than the antique
558:(giving the cold and moist.) These elements, mercury and sulfur, should be thought of as not the ordinary elements but ideal, hypothetical substances. Which metal is formed depends on the purity of the mercury and sulfur and the proportion in which they come together. The later alchemist
201:
describes as "the centerpiece of
Islamic education." After the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam was extended throughout the Arabian peninsula, parts of Byzantium, Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine by means of military conquest, solidifying the region as a predominantly Muslim one. While the
169:(334-323 B.C). By establishing territory throughout the East, Alexander the Great allowed greater communication between the two hemispheres that would continue throughout history. A thousand years later, those Asian territories conquered by Alexander the Great, such as
617:(a process for making solids pasty or fusible.) Some of these operations (calcination, solution, filtration, crystallization, sublimation and distillation) are also known to have been practiced by pre-Islamic Alexandrian alchemists.
151:
describes the relationship between alchemy and chemistry in his article entitled, "Alchemy
Restored," in which he states, "The search for metallic transmutation — what we call "alchemy" but that is more accurately termed
1202:, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the
224:'s "Book of the Explanation of the Symbols — Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz" the contributions of Islamic alchemy as follows: In the 7th to 8th century, Islamic scholars were mainly concerned with translating ancient
418:, where his work is found under different names, mainly as Senior or as Zadith. His "Silvery Water" e.g. was reprinted as "The Chemical Tables of Senior Zadith" in the collection of alchemical texts:
189:, which all involve sacred texts as a basis, thus encouraging literacy, scholarship, and the spread of ideas. Aristotelian logic was soon included in the curriculum a center for higher education in
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352:(such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the
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1047:, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W.P. Heinrichs, Brill, 2011. Brill Online. Accessed 20 January 2011. <
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the diverse antique traditions. Thus unifying their meaning, the
Islamic scholars arrived at the idea, that the secret and aim of alchemy were the achievement of "
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whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
205:
While this transmission of information and practices allowed for the further development of the field, and though both were inspired by
Aristotelian logic and
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1769:
3259:
2581:
2383:
2207:
2603:
1526:
The
Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450
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Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque
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Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the
3655:
3461:
1645:
1638:
Book of the Explanation of the Symbols. Kitāb Ḥall ar-Rumūz by Muḥammad ibn Umail. Psychological commentary by Marie-Louise von Franz
1072:
Delva, Thijs 2017. "The Abbasid Activist Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār as the Father of Jābir b. Ḥayyān: An Influential Hypothesis Revisited" in:
193:, located east of the Persian border, and was used to enhance the philosophical discussion of theology taking place at the time. The
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Ibn Umail describes a statue of a sage holding the tablet of ancient alchemical knowledge. Illustration from a transcript of
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Book of the Explanation of the Symbols - Kitāb Hall ar-Rumūz by Muhammad ibn Umail. Psychological Commentary by Theodor Abt.
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3646:
3641:
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3182:
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2200:
559:
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1020:(Unabridged and unaltered republ. of the work 1. publ. by Penguin Books ed.). New York: Dover Publ. pp. 63–66.
3127:
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34:
263:. The historicity of this story is not clear; according to M. Ullmann, it is a legend. According to Ibn al-Nadīm and
3719:
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and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan.
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Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies: Practices from the 2nd/8th to the 13th/19th Centuries
1719:
Routledge Handbook on the Sciences in Islamicate Societies: Practices from the 2nd/8th to the 13th/19th Centuries
89:
65:
368:
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Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma",
3616:
2936:
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2014:
1958:
1896:
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197:, the holy book of Islam, became an important source of "theology, morality, law, and cosmology," in what
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1989:
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was a 10th-century Egyptian alchemist of the symbolic-mystical branch. One of his surviving works is
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1927:
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1093:. New York: Charles Scribners’s Sons, vol. 7, pp. 39–43; Forster, Regula 2018. “Jābir B. Ḥayyān” in:
590:
100:
1640:. Corpus Alchemicum Arabicum (CALA) IA. Zurich: Living Human Heritage Publications. pp. 15–58.
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Hearts of Gold and Silver: The Production of Alchemical Knowledge in the Early Modern Ottoman World
610:
426:. They both also give his (modified) image of the sage holding a chemical table (see image above).
166:
1211:
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448:(The Lanterns of Wisdom and the Keys of Mercy) is one of the earliest works of material sciences.
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2083:
1621:
1613:
1573:
1435:
1398:
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375:, was mainly known as a Persian physician. He wrote a number of alchemical works, including the
112:
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Corpus Alchemicum Arabicum (CALA) IB, Living Human Heritage Publications, Zurich 2009, p. 59-64.
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414:) and contains numerous quotations from ancient authors. Ibn Umayl had important influence on
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1963:
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562:(c. 865–925) followed Jābir's mercury-sulfur theory, but added a third, salty, component.
138:
1173:, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences",
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differences between alchemy and early chemistry in the context of medieval times. As
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The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical edition, translation and study
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name "Geber". In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as
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Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry
17:
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1984:
1979:
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1700:. A Cultural History of Chemistry. Vol. 2. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
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1948:
1932:
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804:
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441:
372:
360:, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.
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Theodor Abt: "The Transmission of Ibn Umail's Vision to the Occident" in:
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Kanz al-ikhtisas fi ma'rifat al-khawas by Abu 'l-Qasim Aydamir al-Jildaki
1381:
Ragai, Jehane (1992). "The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry".
3561:
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1465:, James Riddick Partington, 3rd ed., Courier Dover Publications, 1989,
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415:
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57:
46:
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1416:
Holmyard, E. J. (1924). "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim".
1402:
1320:
259:, who is said to have studied alchemy under the Christian Marianos of
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1210:. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available
832:
681:
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28:
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was introduced to Western alchemy. Jābir developed an elaborate
174:
170:
2673:
2189:
1758:
1049:
http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-4151
1713:
Forster, Regula (2023). "Alchemy and the Chemical Crafts". In
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M. Ullmann, "Ḵh̲ālid b. Yazīd b. Muʿāwiya, abū hās̲h̲im.", in
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161:
terms despite their altered connotations in modern contexts.
876:, J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989,
1175:
Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences de l’Institut de France
64:(the early chemical investigation of nature in general) by
1297:"A Lost Text By Zosimos Reproduced in an Old Alchemy Book"
119:
Definition and relationship with medieval western sciences
1194:
Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber",
177:, became a center of religious movements with a focus on
1112:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."
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919:
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213:
Contributions of Islamic alchemists to mystical alchemy
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Moureau, Sébastien (2023). "Alchemical Equipment". In
1670:. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. pp. 853–885.
1506:. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. pp. 853–885.
1140:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
581:Al-Rāzī mentions the following chemical processes:
297:
The Book of his Testament to his Son about the Craft
3700:
Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world
3549:
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2002:
1972:
1941:
1915:
1879:
1838:
1822:
1801:
1792:
1696:Burnett, Charles; Moureau, Sébastien, eds. (2023).
1389:(Metaphor and Allegory in the Middle Ages): 58–77.
1177:, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula.
107:, the focus of alchemical development moved to the
1698:A Cultural History of Chemistry in the Middle Ages
1662:Anawati, Georges C. (1996). "Arabic Alchemy". In
1498:Anawati, Georges C. (1996). "Arabic Alchemy". In
3448:Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1008:
1006:
819:in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating
406:). This work is a commentary on his poem, the
3225:Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth
1636:(2006). "Introduction". In Theodor Abt (ed.).
791:pots varnished on the inside with their lids (
129:geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and
2685:
2201:
1770:
1668:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
1504:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
463:alchemist who urged in his book the need for
8:
2856:pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)
1039:
1037:
892:
890:
723:): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (
624:, Al-Rāzī mentions the following equipment:
335:
1268:Julius Ruska, "Senior Zadith = Ibn Umail."
412:The Epistle of the Sun to the Crescent Moon
400:Kitāb al-māʿ al-waraqī wa-l-arḍ al-najmiyya
267:, he is the author of the alchemical works
3187:
2972:John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)
2713:
2692:
2678:
2670:
2208:
2194:
2186:
1798:
1777:
1763:
1755:
1528:. Chicago: U of Chicago. pp. 163–92.
1198:, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R.
735:), blind still (without evacuation tube) (
422:, and commented upon by Pseudo Aquinas in
404:The Book on Silvery Water and Starry Earth
3260:Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz
1742:. New York: Routledge. pp. 512–522.
1721:. New York: Routledge. pp. 154–165.
1256:
997:
985:
973:
467:chemistry and mentioned many experiments
2091:al-ʿIlm al-muktasab fī zirāʿat al-dhahab
1115:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
1110:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927).
961:
949:
937:
925:
554:(giving the hot and dry qualities) with
478:
1482:
1244:
1223:
1060:
896:
865:
3048:George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)
3715:Science in the medieval Islamic world
3128:Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)
1786:Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world
1270:Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 31,
1076:, 4(1), pp. 35–61, pp. 36−37, note 6.
908:
293:Kitāb Waṣīyatihi ilā bnihi fī-ṣ-ṣanʿa
54:Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world
7:
719:Tools for the preparation of drugs (
446:Masabih al-hikma wa-mafatih al-rahma
371:(Latin: Rhazes), born around 865 in
323:15th-century artistic impression of
3279:De consideratione quintae essentiae
2070:Masāʾil Khālid li-Maryānus al-rāhib
1959:Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Nabātī (pharmacist)
1691:(PhD thesis). Princeton University.
336:
2173:Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba
1091:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
25:
1171:Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin
1089:in: Gillispie, Charles C. (ed.).
307:), but again, these works may be
255:, the first Muslim alchemist was
220:describes in her introduction to
3674:
3673:
3246:Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit
2384:Reception in early modern Europe
2379:Contributions to Medieval Europe
2063:al-Burhān fī asrār ʿilm al-mīzān
416:medieval Western (Latin) alchemy
3213:Liber de compositione alchemiae
2937:(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova
2896:pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)
2744:Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)
1809:pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)
480:Elemental scheme used by Jābir
251:According to the bibliographer
3462:Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine
1383:Journal of Comparative Poetics
628:Tools for melting substances (
475:Alchemical and chemical theory
369:Abū Bakr ibn Zakariyā’ al-Rāzī
1:
3529:Theatrum chemicum Britannicum
1301:Journal of Chemical Education
1183:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
1095:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
874:The Oxford English Dictionary
664:(in Arabic, from Persian) or
408:Risālat al-shams ilā al-hilāl
2620:Arab Agricultural Revolution
2124:One Hundred and Twelve Books
1546:(2011). "Alchemy Restored".
1463:A short history of chemistry
1360:On Generation and Corruption
396:Muḥammad ibn Umayl al-Tamīmī
103:and the Islamic conquest of
35:Muhammed ibn Umail al-Tamimi
3501:Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum
3487:Bibliotheca chemica curiosa
2110:al-Miṣbāḥ fī ʿilm al-miftāḥ
1524:(2007). "Islamic Science".
534:'s four basic qualities of
56:refers to both traditional
3736:
3380:Rosary of the Philosophers
3366:Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis
3305:Liber Hermetis de alchemia
1964:Ḥasan al-Rammāḥ (engineer)
1954:Ibn al-Bayṭār (pharmacist)
1814:pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana
1074:Journal of Abbasid Studies
289:The Small Book of the Roll
3669:
3043:pseudo-Bernard of Treviso
2876:Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)
2846:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)
2572:Geography and cartography
2278:Influences on Western art
1907:Ibn al-Wāfid (pharmacist)
1851:Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)
1846:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)
1349:Holmyard 1990, pp. 21-22.
1340:pp. 74-82, Holmyard 1990.
1295:El Khadem, H. S. (1995).
1235:pp. 86-92, Holmyard 1990.
437:was an 11th–12th century
285:Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-saghīr
2891:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)
2724:Agathodaemon (legendary)
1830:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)
1748:10.4324/9781315170718-46
1727:10.4324/9781315170718-14
281:The Big Book of the Roll
277:Kitāb al-ṣaḥīfa al-kabīr
165:successful conquests of
3083:Jan Baptist van Helmont
2823:Stephanus of Alexandria
1634:von Franz, Marie-Louise
1085:Plessner, Martin 1981.
577:Processes and equipment
2916:al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)
1990:Abū l-Ashbā ibn Tammām
1902:Aḥmad ibn ʿImād al-Dīn
1892:al-Khawārizmī al-Kāthī
1871:al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)
1866:Abū Manṣūr al-Muwaffaq
328:
305:The Paradise of Wisdom
218:Marie-Louise von Franz
99:After the fall of the
50:
3352:Nabataean Agriculture
3239:Books of the Balances
3088:Johann Rudolf Glauber
3058:Giovanni da Correggio
2555:Alchemy and chemistry
2117:Nabataean Agriculture
2056:Books of the Balances
1706:10.5040/9781474203777
1544:Principe, Lawrence M.
1452:p. 89, Holmyard 1990.
1371:Holmyard 1990, p. 88.
1045:Encyclopedia of Islam
731:), receiving matras (
322:
207:Hellenic philosophies
86:may ultimately derive
76:was derived from the
41:(The Silvery Water),
32:
3705:History of chemistry
3597:In art/entertainment
3007:(pseudo-)Roger Bacon
2769:Zosimos of Panopolis
2764:Paphnutia the Virgin
1685:Artun, Tuna (2013).
872:"alchemy", entry in
721:li-tadbīr al-ʿaqāqīr
528:Aristotelian element
526:Jābir analyzed each
381:Secretum secretorum;
242:Alchemists and works
113:Islamic civilization
101:Western Roman Empire
60:and early practical
3617:Philosophers' stone
3612:Pill of Immortality
3508:Fasciculus chemicus
3455:Turba philosophorum
3373:Physika kai mystika
3103:Michael Sendivogius
2982:pseudo-Michael Scot
2818:pseudo-Olympiodorus
2759:Ostanes (legendary)
2465:Early social change
2364:Early social change
2166:Turba Philosophorum
2015:Philosopher's stone
1897:al-Muʿizz ibn Bādīs
1602:1996Isis...87..654S
1313:1995JChEd..72..774E
1247:, pp. 870–872.
1226:, pp. 867–879.
1160:vol. II, pp. 41–42.
1108:Stapleton, Henry E.
1014:Holmyard, Eric John
622:Secretum secretorum
567:philosopher's stone
481:
167:Alexander the Great
3720:Islamic Golden Age
3515:Musaeum Hermeticum
3441:Summa perfectionis
3420:(pseudo-Aristotle)
3410:Secret of Creation
3359:Ordinal of Alchemy
3002:pseudo-Ramon Llull
2906:Maslama al-Qurṭubī
2158:Secret of Creation
2140:(pseudo-Aristotle)
2084:Five Hundred Books
1861:Maslama al-Qurṭubī
1522:Lindberg, David C.
1362:, II.3, 330a-330b.
1087:“Jābir Ibn Hayyān”
479:
350:organic substances
329:
273:The Book of Pearls
51:
3687:
3686:
3545:
3544:
3522:Theatrum chemicum
3338:Mirror of Alchimy
3290:Tabula Smaragdina
3267:Clavis sapientiae
3206:Aurora consurgens
3177:
3176:
3113:Pierre-Jean Fabre
3063:Heinrich Khunrath
2977:Magister Salernus
2952:Guido di Montanor
2739:pseudo-Democritus
2701:Alchemy (general)
2667:
2666:
2635:elementary school
2253:Geometric pattern
2183:
2182:
2102:Clavis sapientiae
1998:
1997:
1535:978-0-226-48205-7
1321:10.1021/ed072p774
1272:1928, pp. 665-666
1179:"Jābir b. Ḥayyān"
1147:978-3-487-09115-0
988:, pp. 26–27.
524:
523:
444:. whose work the
424:Aurora Consurgens
420:Theatrum Chemicum
385:Secret of Secrets
346:ammonium chloride
334:(Arabic/Persian:
309:pseudepigraphical
269:Kitāb al-kharazāt
199:David C. Lindberg
149:Lawrence Principe
96:, meaning black.
43:Islamic miniature
16:(Redirected from
3727:
3677:
3676:
3391:Step of the Sage
3331:Mappae clavicula
3298:Leyden papyrus X
3199:Atalanta fugiens
3188:
3169:Mary Anne Atwood
3154:Eugène Canseliet
3033:Andreas Libavius
3012:Taddeo Alderotti
2787:Fang (alchemist)
2734:pseudo-Cleopatra
2714:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2671:
2542:Medieval science
2210:
2203:
2196:
2187:
2098:Mifthāḥ al-ḥikma
1799:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1756:
1751:
1730:
1709:
1692:
1681:
1651:
1629:
1581:
1539:
1517:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1459:
1453:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1378:
1372:
1369:
1363:
1356:
1350:
1347:
1341:
1338:
1325:
1324:
1292:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1215:
1192:
1186:
1167:
1161:
1159:
1130:
1104:
1098:
1083:
1077:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1041:
1032:
1031:
1010:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
912:
906:
900:
894:
885:
870:
737:al-anbīq al-aʿmā
482:
364:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī
339:
338:
332:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān
325:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān
315:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān
301:Firdaws al-ḥikma
257:Khālid ibn Yazīd
247:Khālid ibn Yazīd
137:valley and from
90:ancient Egyptian
68:in the medieval
39:Al-mâ' al-waraqî
21:
3735:
3734:
3730:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3665:
3660:Suns in alchemy
3541:
3467:
3406:Sirr al-khalīqa
3387:Rutbat al-ḥakīm
3271:Miftāḥ al-ḥikma
3173:
3159:Frater Albertus
3137:
3133:Wilhelm Homberg
3038:Basil Valentine
3021:
2992:Paul of Taranto
2957:Hugh of Evesham
2932:pseudo-Albertus
2920:
2866:pseudo-Avicenna
2832:
2806:
2779:Ancient Chinese
2773:
2749:Mary the Jewess
2703:
2698:
2668:
2663:
2608:
2536:
2525:Early sociology
2474:
2438:decision-making
2388:
2369:Early conquests
2340:
2282:
2219:
2217:Islamic studies
2214:
2184:
2179:
2154:Sirr al-khalīqa
2034:
1994:
1968:
1937:
1911:
1887:pseudo-Avicenna
1875:
1834:
1818:
1788:
1783:
1736:Brentjes, Sonja
1733:
1715:Brentjes, Sonja
1712:
1695:
1684:
1678:
1661:
1658:
1656:Further reading
1648:
1632:
1584:
1542:
1536:
1520:
1514:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1328:
1294:
1293:
1289:
1280:
1276:
1267:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1218:
1196:Sudhoffs Archiv
1193:
1189:
1168:
1164:
1148:
1132:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1042:
1035:
1028:
1012:
1011:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
972:
968:
960:
956:
948:
944:
936:
932:
924:
915:
907:
903:
895:
888:
871:
867:
863:
855:Islamic science
850:Chinese alchemy
846:
729:anbīq dhū khatm
599:crystallization
579:
477:
454:
432:
393:
366:
317:
249:
244:
215:
139:southern Arabia
121:
80:word كيمياء or
66:Muslim scholars
23:
22:
18:Islamic alchemy
15:
12:
11:
5:
3733:
3731:
3723:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3692:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3681:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3592:Iatrochemistry
3589:
3584:
3582:Elixir of life
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3518:
3511:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3483:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3458:
3451:
3444:
3437:
3434:Splendor solis
3430:
3422:
3414:
3402:
3395:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3320:
3313:
3301:
3294:
3286:Emerald Tablet
3282:
3275:
3263:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3209:
3202:
3194:
3192:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2871:Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2842:
2840:
2838:Arabic-Islamic
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2783:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2720:
2718:
2717:Greco-Egyptian
2711:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2674:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2622:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2552:
2546:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2495:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2433:use of analogy
2425:
2420:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2402:
2400:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2359:Historiography
2356:
2350:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2205:
2198:
2190:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2169:
2162:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2127:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2094:
2087:
2080:
2077:Emerald Tablet
2073:
2066:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2006:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1928:Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs
1925:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1817:
1816:
1811:
1805:
1803:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1731:
1710:
1693:
1682:
1676:
1664:Rashed, Roshdi
1657:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1647:978-3952260838
1646:
1630:
1610:10.1086/357651
1582:
1562:10.1086/660139
1540:
1534:
1518:
1512:
1500:Rashed, Roshdi
1493:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1485:, p. 868.
1475:
1454:
1445:
1432:10.1086/358238
1426:(3): 293–305.
1408:
1395:10.2307/521636
1373:
1364:
1351:
1342:
1326:
1287:
1274:
1261:
1257:von Franz 2006
1249:
1237:
1228:
1216:
1187:
1162:
1146:
1121:(6): 317–418.
1099:
1078:
1065:
1063:, p. 864.
1053:
1033:
1026:
1002:
998:von Franz 2006
990:
986:von Franz 2006
978:
974:von Franz 2006
966:
964:, p. 166.
954:
952:, p. 164.
942:
940:, p. 163.
930:
928:, p. 306.
913:
911:, p. 655.
901:
899:, p. 854.
886:
864:
862:
859:
858:
857:
852:
845:
842:
841:
840:
717:
666:botus barbatus
578:
575:
522:
521:
518:
515:
509:
508:
505:
502:
496:
495:
490:
485:
476:
473:
453:
450:
431:
428:
392:
389:
365:
362:
316:
313:
248:
245:
243:
240:
214:
211:
187:Zoroastrianism
120:
117:
45:probably from
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3732:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3680:
3672:
3671:
3668:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3622:Prima materia
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3538:
3537:
3536:Tripus aureus
3533:
3531:
3530:
3526:
3524:
3523:
3519:
3517:
3516:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3480:Aureum vellus
3477:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3438:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3429:
3427:
3426:Sirr al-asrār
3423:
3421:
3419:
3418:Sirr al-asrār
3415:
3413:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3399:Seventy Books
3396:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3363:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3354:
3353:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3309:Liber dabessi
3306:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3232:Book of Mercy
3229:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3180:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Samuel Norton
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3098:Michael Maier
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3017:Thomas Norton
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:Johann of Laz
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2947:George Ripley
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2925:Late medieval
2923:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2881:Ibn Waḥshiyya
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2690:
2688:
2683:
2681:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2592:ophthalmology
2590:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2428:Jurisprudence
2426:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2176:
2175:(al-Nabarawi)
2174:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2146:Sirr al-asrār
2143:
2141:
2139:
2138:Sirr al-asrār
2135:
2133:
2132:
2131:Seventy Books
2128:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2051:
2050:
2049:Book of Mercy
2046:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1985:Ibn al-Rassām
1983:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1856:Ibn Waḥshiyya
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1683:
1679:
1677:9780415020633
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1596:(4): 654–70.
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1556:(2): 305–12.
1555:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1513:9780415020633
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1471:0-486-65977-1
1468:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1412:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1259:, p. 55.
1258:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1136:(1942–1943).
1135:
1131:pp. 338–340;
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1027:0-486-26298-7
1023:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1007:
1003:
1000:, p. 39.
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
976:, p. 26.
975:
970:
967:
963:
962:Lindberg 2007
958:
955:
951:
950:Lindberg 2007
946:
943:
939:
938:Lindberg 2007
934:
931:
927:
926:Principe 2011
922:
920:
918:
914:
910:
905:
902:
898:
893:
891:
887:
883:
882:0-19-861213-3
879:
875:
869:
866:
860:
856:
853:
851:
848:
847:
843:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
626:
625:
623:
618:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
576:
574:
572:
568:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
519:
516:
514:
511:
510:
506:
503:
501:
498:
497:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
483:
474:
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
451:
449:
447:
443:
440:
436:
429:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
390:
388:
386:
382:
378:
377:Sirr al-asrār
374:
370:
363:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
333:
326:
321:
314:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
265:Ḥajjī Khalīfa
262:
258:
254:
246:
241:
239:
236:
231:
227:
223:
219:
212:
210:
208:
203:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
162:
159:
155:
150:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
118:
116:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
70:Islamic world
67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
44:
40:
36:
31:
27:
19:
3679:All articles
3534:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3506:
3499:
3492:
3485:
3478:
3472:Compilations
3460:
3453:
3446:
3439:
3432:
3425:
3417:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3390:
3386:
3378:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3350:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3322:
3317:Liber ignium
3315:
3308:
3304:
3296:
3289:
3285:
3277:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3212:
3204:
3197:
3118:Robert Boyle
3073:Isaac Newton
3068:Hennig Brand
3053:Gerhard Dorn
3026:Early modern
2997:Petrus Bonus
2942:pseudo-Geber
2754:pseudo-Moses
2642:Sufi studies
2613:Other fields
2493:Contemporary
2416:consultation
2238:Architecture
2172:
2164:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2137:
2129:
2122:
2116:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2062:
2054:
2047:
1973:14th century
1942:13th century
1916:12th century
1880:11th century
1839:10th century
1785:
1739:
1718:
1697:
1687:
1667:
1637:
1593:
1589:
1586:Sabra, A. I.
1553:
1547:
1525:
1503:
1492:Sources used
1483:Anawati 1996
1478:
1462:
1457:
1448:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1367:
1359:
1354:
1345:
1304:
1300:
1290:
1282:
1277:
1269:
1264:
1252:
1245:Anawati 1996
1240:
1231:
1224:Anawati 1996
1219:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1137:
1118:
1114:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1081:
1073:
1068:
1061:Anawati 1996
1056:
1044:
1017:
993:
981:
969:
957:
945:
933:
904:
897:Anawati 1996
873:
868:
824:
816:
812:
808:
796:
792:
784:
780:
773:mā’ wardiyya
772:
764:
760:
752:
744:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
713:
705:
697:
689:
685:
677:
673:
668:(in Latin),
665:
661:
657:
649:
645:
637:
629:
621:
619:
611:amalgamation
583:distillation
580:
564:
547:
543:
539:
535:
530:in terms of
525:
512:
499:
492:
487:
468:
465:experimental
455:
445:
433:
411:
407:
403:
399:
394:
384:
380:
376:
367:
358:pseudo-Geber
342:sal ammoniac
337:جابر بن حیان
330:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
253:Ibn al-Nadīm
250:
234:
216:
204:
179:Christianity
163:
158:Aristotelian
147:
131:North Africa
122:
98:
93:
81:
73:
53:
52:
49:, 608H/1211.
38:
26:
3602:Magnum opus
3572:Chrysopoeia
3494:De alchemia
3345:Mutus liber
3324:Liber lucis
3191:Major Works
3078:Jakob Böhme
2967:John Dastin
2911:al-Ṭughrāʾī
2797:Master Geng
2582:Mathematics
2243:Calligraphy
1923:al-Ṭughrāʾī
1823:9th century
1802:8th century
1358:Aristotle,
1134:Kraus, Paul
815:in Arabic,
789:earthenware
662:būt bar būt
603:sublimation
595:evaporation
587:calcination
154:Chrysopoeia
143:Caspian Sea
126:A. I. Sabra
105:Roman Egypt
72:. The word
3694:Categories
3647:Substances
3587:Homunculus
3253:Cantong Qi
3164:Fulcanelli
3108:Paracelsus
2901:al-Jildakī
2802:Wei Boyang
2709:Alchemists
2657:philosophy
2604:Psychology
2577:Inventions
2530:solidarity
2480:Philosophy
2460:Secularism
2374:Golden Age
2311:Capitalism
2258:Literature
1980:al-Jildakī
1794:Alchemists
1307:(9): 774.
909:Sabra 1996
861:References
801:water bath
630:li-tadhwīb
607:filtration
571:numerology
457:Al-Jildaki
452:Al-Jildaki
435:Al-Tughrai
430:Al-Tughrai
261:Alexandria
183:Manicheism
3642:Processes
3607:Ouroboros
3428:(al-Rāzī)
3149:Carl Jung
2987:Ortolanus
2886:al-ʿIrāqī
2861:Artephius
2851:Alphidius
2811:Byzantine
2652:cosmology
2647:mysticism
2625:Education
2565:cosmology
2560:Astronomy
2520:Astrology
2503:dialectic
2411:consensus
2406:Democracy
2321:Socialism
2288:Economics
2233:Arabesque
2148:(al-Rāzī)
1949:al-Simāwī
1933:Artephius
1626:144596511
1440:144175388
1156:468740510
1127:706947607
825:mustawqid
813:al-tannūr
811:), oven (
805:sand bath
769:rosewater
763:, plural
548:moistness
532:Aristotle
442:physician
391:Ibn Umayl
383:English:
354:Latinized
222:Ibn Umail
109:Caliphate
88:from the
62:chemistry
3637:Yliaster
3217:Morienus
3183:Writings
3093:John Dee
2828:Synesius
2587:Medicine
2550:Timeline
2498:Theology
2455:Quietism
2423:Feminism
2398:politics
2354:Timeline
2020:al-iksīr
2003:Concepts
1578:23581980
1570:21874690
1016:(1990).
844:See also
797:makabbāt
777:cauldron
771:flasks (
745:al-uthāl
706:mukassir
694:scissors
690:kalbatān
674:mighrafa
654:crucible
615:ceration
591:solution
540:coldness
461:Egyptian
379:(Latin:
226:Hermetic
111:and the
37:'s book
3710:Alchemy
3656:Unicode
3652:Symbols
3577:Element
3562:Athanor
3557:Alembic
3550:Various
2792:Ge Hong
2599:Physics
2443:schools
2346:History
2336:Welfare
2316:Poverty
2306:Banking
2296:History
2273:Pottery
2248:Gardens
2030:Athanor
2025:Alembic
1738:(ed.).
1717:(ed.).
1666:(ed.).
1598:Bibcode
1502:(ed.).
1461:p. 23,
1309:Bibcode
1018:Alchemy
837:filters
829:funnels
817:athanor
765:quwārīr
749:goblets
678:milʿaqa
660:), the
658:bawtaqa
646:minfākh
642:bellows
620:In his
560:al-Rāzī
556:mercury
544:dryness
536:hotness
459:was an
439:Persian
348:) from
327:(Geber)
299:), and
230:Gnostic
191:Nisibis
141:to the
133:to the
82:kīmiyāʾ
74:alchemy
58:alchemy
47:Baghdad
3632:Takwin
3142:Modern
2729:Chymes
2630:Ijazah
2510:Ethics
2301:Agency
2268:Poetry
2010:Takwin
1674:
1644:
1624:
1618:235197
1616:
1576:
1568:
1532:
1510:
1469:
1438:
1403:521636
1401:
1212:online
1154:
1144:
1125:
1024:
880:
839:, etc.
833:sieves
821:aludel
785:tanjīr
781:marjal
761:qārūra
757:flasks
741:aludel
733:qābila
714:mibrad
702:hammer
698:miqṭaʿ
634:hearth
613:, and
552:sulfur
546:, and
520:Water
507:Earth
195:Qur'an
185:, and
78:Arabic
3627:Rebis
3567:Azoth
2515:Logic
2488:Early
2470:State
2450:Peace
2331:Usury
2326:Trust
2263:Music
2040:Works
1622:S2CID
1614:JSTOR
1574:S2CID
1436:S2CID
1399:JSTOR
1204:Summa
793:qudūr
753:qadaḥ
686:māsik
682:tongs
670:ladle
513:Moist
504:Fire
135:Indus
92:word
2396:and
2225:Arts
1672:ISBN
1642:ISBN
1590:Isis
1566:PMID
1549:Isis
1530:ISBN
1508:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1419:Isis
1152:OCLC
1142:ISBN
1123:OCLC
1119:VIII
1051:>
1022:ISBN
878:ISBN
809:qidr
795:and
725:qarʿ
710:file
650:ziqq
517:Air
493:Cold
373:Rayy
175:Iran
173:and
171:Iraq
94:kemi
84:and
2394:Law
1744:doi
1723:doi
1702:doi
1606:doi
1558:doi
1554:102
1428:doi
1391:doi
1317:doi
827:),
803:or
799:),
787:),
783:or
775:),
767:),
755:),
747:),
739:),
727:or
708:),
700:),
692:),
688:or
680:),
676:or
652:),
648:or
640:),
638:kūr
632:):
500:Dry
488:Hot
387:.)
344:or
291:),
283:),
275:),
235:one
3696::
3658:,
1620:.
1612:.
1604:.
1594:87
1592:.
1572:.
1564:.
1552:.
1434:.
1422:.
1397:.
1387:12
1385:.
1329:^
1315:.
1305:72
1303:.
1299:.
1214:).
1181:,
1150:.
1117:.
1036:^
1005:^
916:^
889:^
835:,
831:,
716:).
609:,
605:,
601:,
597:,
593:,
589:,
585:,
542:,
538:,
471:.
311:.
181:,
115:.
3662:)
3654:(
3412:)
3408:(
3393:)
3389:(
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