1603:
82:, with its emphasis on rationality, order, and careful organization in statecraft. Viewing the often confused and complex morass of Habsburg administration in the crownlands of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, Joseph was deeply dissatisfied. He inherited the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in 1765, on the death of his father, but ruled the Habsburg lands only as the junior co-regent to his mother, the matriarch Maria Theresa, until 1780. During the co-regency the deeply pious Maria Theresa acquiesced to numerous reforms, especially when pushed by Joseph and her trusted chancellor
190:
31:
1880:
118:
punishment imposed upon serfs, and abolishing lords' control over serfs' marriage, freedom of movement, and choice of occupation. The patents also allowed peasants to purchase hereditary ownership of the land that they worked. The nobility were hesitant to support Joseph's edicts, however, and they were inconsistently applied.
633:
As early as 1785 the
Viennese ecclesiastical order of services was made obligatory, "in accordance with which all musical litanies, novenas, octaves, the ancient touching devotions, also processions, vespers, and similar ceremonies, were done away with." Numerous churches and chapels were closed and
138:
In
February 1781, Joseph issued an edict drastically reducing the power of state censorship over the press. Censorship was limited only to expression that (a) blasphemed against the church, (b) subverted the government, or (c) promoted immorality. Censorship was also taken out of the hands of local
671:
to Vienna. These were symbolic acts, meant to emphasize a new unity between the
Habsburg crownlands, wherein they were to be seen as a singular entity. German replaced Latin as the official language of administration in Hungary. In 1785, Joseph extended his abolition of serfdom to Hungary, and a
102:
It was on the death of his mother in 1780 that Joseph II had the opportunity, free of any dominating hand, to pursue his own agenda. He intended a complete remodelling of
Habsburg society in several different arenas. Issuing decrees and Patents, Joseph's reforms were a conscious attempt to reorder
688:
Josephinism made many enemies inside the empire—from disaffected ecclesiastical authorities to noblemen. By the later years of his reign, disaffection with his sometimes radical policies was at a high, especially in the
Austrian Netherlands and Hungary. Popular revolts and protests—led by nobles,
172:
In May and
October 1781, Joseph issued Edicts which removed restrictions against the practice of Protestant and Orthodox Christian religion. In communities with large Protestant or Orthodox minorities, churches were allowed to be built, and social restrictions on vocations, economic activity, and
98:
law limiting some of the feudal obligations of peasants to their lords in
Bohemia. These measures, although influenced by Joseph, were largely directed by Maria Theresa and Kaunitz, demonstrating that Josephinism as a political force predated its eponymous creator, albeit in a less radical form.
176:
In 1782, Joseph dismantled many of the legal barriers against Jews performing certain professions, and lifted Jewish dress laws, Jewish-only taxes, and some restrictions on the movement of Jews. Nevertheless, he remained of the belief that Jews possessed "repellent characteristics". His decrees
117:
For many centuries, the majority of the population of
Central Europe had lived as serfs, labouring under feudal obligations to Lords. On November 1, 1781, Joseph issued two Patents pertaining to Bohemia, which changed the serf–lord relationship there by abolishing the use of fines and corporal
617:
in
Austria was annulled, and the tithes and revenues were restored to it. In return Passau gave up its diocesan rights and authority in Austria, including the provostship of Ardagger, and bound itself to pay 400,000 florins ($ 900,000), afterwards reduced by the emperor to one-half toward the
696:
Before his death in 1790, Joseph was forced to rescind many of his administrative reforms. He returned the crown of St. Stephen to Buda in
Hungary and promised to abide by the Hungarian constitution. Before he could actually be officially crowned "King of Hungary", he died at the age of 49.
103:
the rule of his lands using Enlightenment principles. At the heart of this "Josephinism" lay the idea of the unitary state, with a centralized, efficient government, rational and mostly secular society, with greater degrees of equality and freedom, and fewer arbitrary feudal institutions.
58:(1780–1790), he attempted to legislate a series of drastic reforms to remodel Austria in the form of what liberals saw as an ideal Enlightened state. This provoked severe resistance from powerful forces within and outside his empire, but ensured that he would be remembered as an "
142:
Joseph was remarkably tolerant of dissenting speech—his censors banned only about 900 tracts published each year (down from 4,000 a year banned before his reign). One tract that even criticized him specifically, titled "The 42-Year-Old Ape", was not banned.
489:
129:
system by the division of landed estates (including the demesne) among rent-paying tenants". In 1783, Joseph's advisor Franz Anton von Raab was instructed to extend this system to all lands owned directly by the Habsburg crown in Bohemia and Moravia.
675:
In 1787, the "administrative streamlining" that had been applied to the rest of the Empire was nominally applied to Austrian possessions in the Netherlands, but this was fiercely opposed by Belgian nobles, and would be a major contribution to the
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to do but to give his consent, even though unwillingly, to the emperor's authoritarian act. The papal sanction of the agreement between Vienna and Passau was issued on 8 November 1784, and on 28 January 1785, appeared the Bull of Erection,
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1602:
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The education of priests was taken from the Church as well. Joseph established six state-run "General Seminaries". In 1783, a Marriage Patent treated marriage as a civil contract rather than a religious institution.
560:
1337:
1117:
704:, reversed the course of the Empire by rescinding some Josephine reforms, but managed to preserve the unity of the Habsburg lands by showing a respect and sensitivity for local demands that Joseph lacked.
573:
Regarding the Catholic Church, Joseph was virulently opposed to what he called "contemplative" religious institutions—reclusive institutions that were seen as doing nothing positive for the community.
169:
While himself a Catholic—and certainly no advocate of unlimited religious freedom—Joseph was willing to tolerate a level of religious diversity in his domain that had been unthinkable not long before.
90:, then an Austrian possession, an increase of the minimum age for monks to 24, a prohibition of further gifts of land to the Church unless permitted by the government, the effective dissolution of the
1110:
594:
In 1783, the cathedral chapter of Passau opposed the nomination of a Josephinist bishop and sent, first, an appeal to the emperor himself, which naturally was rejected, then an appeal to the
553:
1330:
546:
1323:
777:"In Germany and Austria, Freemasonry during the eighteenth century was a powerful ally of the so-called 'party of Enlightenment' (Aufklaerung), and of Josephinism" (
610:, an adherent of Josephinism. The bishop of Passau and the majority of his cathedral chapter finally yielded in order to save the secular property of the diocese.
334:
295:
1920:
728:
83:
1925:
1350:
1935:
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1812:
152:
121:
Throughout his reign, Joseph's ultimate goal was one shared originally with his mother regarding policy toward the serfs. Robin Okey, in
1577:
664:
1049:
641:
was repeatedly obliged to complain to the emperor of the tutelage in which the Church was kept, but the complaints bore little fruit.
1915:
1910:
1905:
1832:
1244:
580:
anymore. More than 500 of 1,188 monasteries in Austro-Slav lands (and a hundred more in Hungary) were dissolved, and 60 million
1930:
1789:
690:
425:
1155:
701:
1346:
75:
51:
35:
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put to secular uses; the greater part of the old religious foundations and monasteries were suppressed as early as 1784.
595:
1654:
24:
718:
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71:
627:
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1150:
581:
527:
457:
164:
1884:
1827:
723:
607:
602:, from which body, however, help could scarcely be expected. Assistance offered by Prussia was refused by
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regarding that community did not include Galicia, the Habsburg province with the largest Jewish minority.
59:
1859:
1029:
738:
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By an agreement of 4 July 1784, the confiscation of all the properties and rights belonging to the
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Nevertheless there could be no durable peace with the bureaucratic civil authorities, and Bishop
327:
283:
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1023:
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of Hungary. Joseph was reluctant to include Hungary in most of his reforms early in his reign.
591:
When the Pope visited Austria in 1782, Joseph refused to rescind the majority of his decisions.
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taken by the state. This wealth was used to create 1,700 new parishes and welfare institutions.
1732:
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1394:
1289:
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268:
55:
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Catholic historians said there was an alliance between Joseph and anti-clerical Freemasons.
603:
368:
289:
219:
1565:
1555:
672:
census of the Crown land was ordered, to prepare it for an Austrian-style military draft.
228:
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40:
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by seizing their properties and removing their long held dominance in education, and an
1822:
1799:
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87:
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693:—stirred throughout the Empire, prompting Joseph to tighten censorship of the press.
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20:
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By Joseph's decree, Austrian bishops could not communicate directly with the
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54:(1765–1790). During the ten years in which Joseph was the sole ruler of the
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1669:
1436:
1409:
1404:
1377:
95:
1466:
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The pace of reform in Joseph's empire was uneven, especially in the
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authorities and centralized under the Habsburg imperial government.
150:
29:
86:. These included the suppression of 71 of the 467 monasteries in
1319:
1106:
19:"Josephists" redirects here. For the medieval heretics, see
977:
975:
50:
is a name given collectively to the domestic policies of
689:
seminary students, writers, and agents of Prussian King
410:
16:
Policies of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1780–90)
1347:
Beliefs condemned as heretical by the Catholic Church
1096:
Enlightenment and Reform in Eighteenth-Century Europe
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840:
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1237:
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1133:
Intermediates between Catholicism and Protestantism
1087:
Joseph II: In the Shadow of Maria Theresa 1741–1780
1033:. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
667:, to Vienna. Similarly, he brought the Bohemian
269:Apiarius of Sicca § Appeal to the bishop of Rome
336:To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation
62:" by historians from then to the present day.
1331:
1118:
1062:, Los Angeles: University of California Press
554:
339:§ The Third Wall: Authority to Call a Council
8:
528:Josip Juraj Strossmayer § Catholic diplomacy
516:Old Catholic Church § First Vatican Council,
1060:A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918
1014:A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1700–1918
239:First Vatican Council § Papal infallibility
78:. He was given a rigorous education in the
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284:Gregory II Youssef § First Vatican Council
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648:Hungarian Crown lands and the Netherlands
125:, describes it as the replacement of the
1044:, New York: Cambridge University Press,
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930:
906:
795:
729:Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg
492:Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox
1089:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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428:bishops § Centralization of papal power
196:
993:
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659:In 1784, Joseph brought the Hungarian
490:Ecclesiastical differences between the
274:Pentarchy § After the East–West Schism
1187:Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau
639:Ernest Johann Nepomuk von Herberstein
499:Ignaz von Döllinger § Papal authority
7:
1813:Community of the Lady of All Nations
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846:
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107:Serfs, lords, and forced serf labour
70:Born in 1741, Joseph was the son of
1069:The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1765–1918
323:Conciliarism § Modern conciliarism
14:
181:Catholic Church in Habsburg lands
1921:History of Catholicism in Europe
1878:
1601:
1214:Crypto-Catholic or Crypto-Papist
1041:The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815
1027:. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
700:Joseph's brother and successor,
511:Papal infallibility § Objections
188:
1206:Individuals with hidden beliefs
1197:(Lutheran and crypto-Calvinist)
1181:(Lutheran and crypto-Calvinist)
328:Ecumenical council § Acceptance
264:Episcopal see § Catholic Church
1926:Eponymous political ideologies
1098:, London: I.B Tauris & Co.
1071:, New York: Palgrave MacMillan
618:equipment of the new diocese.
155:The Edict of Tolerance of 1781
1:
1936:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
1024:"Masonry (Freemasonry)"
518:Old Catholic Union of Utrecht
76:Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor
52:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
1238:Movements within Catholicism
1145:Movements predating Luther:
504:Ultramontanism § Position of
1038:Ingrao, Charles W. (2000),
1016:, Edinburgh: Addison Wesley
663:from Pressburg, capital of
621:There was nothing left for
356:Catholic episcopal councils
296:Eastern Orthodox opposition
1952:
1885:Catholic Church portal
719:Suppression of the Jesuits
484:Objections and controversy
464:Cum ex apostolatus officio
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18:
1873:
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1173:Diet of Regensburg (1541)
1076:Blanning, T.C.W. (1994),
1916:18th-century Catholicism
1911:Enlightenment philosophy
1021:Gruber, Hermann (1909).
669:Crown of Saint Wenceslas
506:other apostolic churches
494:Church § Papal authority
471:Pascendi Dominici gregis
173:education were removed.
134:Censorship and the press
72:Maria Theresa of Austria
1906:18th century in Austria
1300:Evangelical Catholicism
1295:High Church Lutheranism
1094:Beales, Derek. (2005),
1085:Beales, Derek. (1987),
458:Development of doctrine
426:Appointment of Catholic
165:1782 Edict of Tolerance
1931:Enlightened absolutism
1151:Renaissance evangelism
724:Enlightened absolutism
608:Joseph Franz Auersperg
156:
44:
23:. For other uses, see
1860:Positive Christianity
1058:Kann, Robert (1974),
1030:Catholic Encyclopedia
739:First Vatican Council
714:Josef Vratislav Monse
606:'s successor, Bishop
154:
123:The Habsburg Monarchy
113:Serfdom Patent (1781)
33:
1067:Okey, Robin (2002),
661:Crown of St. Stephen
438:Papal deposing power
378:The Ratzinger Report
279:Pope John XIX § Life
161:Patent of Toleration
80:Age of Enlightenment
1828:Jehovah's Witnesses
1700:Spanish Adoptionism
1195:Liturgical struggle
1167:Six Articles (1539)
1147:Proto-Protestantism
684:Domestic resistance
310:Ecumenical councils
234:Papal infallibility
147:Edicts of Tolerance
1395:Antidicomarianites
996:, pp. 209–11.
984:, pp. 208–09.
921:, p. 223-224.
678:Brabant Revolution
298:to papal supremacy
157:
45:
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1733:Consubstantiation
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1290:Anglo-Catholicism
1278:
1277:
1221:Crypto-Protestant
1080:, London: Longman
834:, pp. 41–42.
759:Concordat of 1855
691:Frederick William
615:Diocese of Passau
571:
570:
452:compared to popes
393:compared to popes
358:compared to popes
312:compared to popes
253:compared to popes
127:forced serf labor
60:enlightened ruler
56:Habsburg monarchy
1943:
1883:
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1865:Reincarnationism
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1588:Subordinationism
1573:Pneumatomachians
1504:Melchisedechians
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604:Cardinal Firmian
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433:Concordat § List
391:Political rulers
370:Christus Dominus
290:Ravenna Document
220:Primacy of Peter
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1556:Patripassianism
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229:Papal supremacy
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1823:Indifferentism
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1004:
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998:
986:
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969:, p. 105.
959:
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945:, p. 185.
935:
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909:, p. 102.
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885:, p. 199.
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861:, p. 198.
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135:
132:
111:Main article:
108:
105:
67:
64:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1948:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1901:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
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1816:
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1805:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1765:
1764:
1763:Protestantism
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1728:Antinomianism
1726:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
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1648:
1646:
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1633:
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1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
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1615:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1536:Monothelitism
1534:
1532:
1531:Monophysitism
1529:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1514:Monarchianism
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1494:Macedonianism
1492:
1490:
1489:Luciferianism
1487:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1388:Semi-Arianism
1386:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1329:
1327:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1137:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1053:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1006:
1002:
995:
990:
987:
983:
978:
976:
972:
968:
967:Berenger 1990
963:
960:
957:, p. 46.
956:
951:
948:
944:
939:
936:
932:
931:Blanning 1994
927:
924:
920:
915:
912:
908:
907:Berenger 1990
903:
900:
897:, p. 44.
896:
891:
888:
884:
879:
876:
873:, p. 43.
872:
867:
864:
860:
855:
852:
849:, p. 42.
848:
843:
841:
837:
833:
828:
825:
821:
816:
813:
809:
804:
801:
798:, p. 99.
797:
796:Berenger 1990
792:
789:
780:
774:
771:
764:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
711:
707:
705:
703:
698:
694:
692:
683:
681:
679:
673:
670:
666:
665:Royal Hungary
662:
657:
655:
647:
645:
642:
640:
635:
631:
629:
624:
619:
616:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
596:Imperial Diet
592:
589:
585:
583:
579:
574:
564:
559:
557:
552:
550:
545:
544:
542:
541:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
523:Sedevacantism
521:
519:
514:
512:
509:
507:
502:
500:
497:
495:
488:
487:
481:
480:
473:
472:
468:
466:
465:
461:
459:
456:
455:
447:
446:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
406:
402:
400:
397:
396:
388:
387:
380:
379:
375:
373:
372:§ Controversy
371:
367:
365:
362:
361:
353:
352:
345:
344:Ultrajectines
342:
340:
337:
333:
331:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
307:
306:
299:
294:
292:
291:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
259:Papal primacy
257:
256:
248:
247:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
224:Papal primacy
221:
218:
217:
211:
210:
207:
206:infallibility
203:
199:
198:Papal primacy
195:
191:
187:
186:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
153:
146:
144:
140:
133:
131:
128:
124:
119:
114:
106:
104:
100:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
65:
63:
61:
57:
53:
49:
42:
38:
37:
32:
26:
22:
1853:Santa Muerte
1843:Narco-saints
1752:
1738:Febronianism
1655:Free Spirits
1640:Conciliarism
1583:Sabellianism
1546:Nestorianism
1452:Paulicianism
1373:Apollinarism
1264:
1260:Febronianism
1229:(pejorative)
1216:(pejorative)
1162:preachership
1095:
1086:
1077:
1068:
1059:
1040:
1028:
1013:
989:
962:
950:
938:
926:
914:
902:
890:
878:
866:
854:
827:
815:
803:
791:
773:
734:Febronianism
699:
695:
687:
674:
658:
651:
643:
636:
632:
623:Pope Pius VI
620:
612:
593:
590:
586:
575:
572:
533:Ultrajectine
469:
462:
416:Febronianism
403:
376:
369:
364:Febronianism
335:
318:Conciliarity
288:
175:
171:
168:
141:
137:
122:
120:
116:
101:
92:Jesuit order
69:
47:
46:
34:
1808:Americanism
1783:Lutheranism
1773:Arminianism
1753:Josephinism
1743:Gallicanism
1710:Waldensians
1612:Middle Ages
1561:Pelagianism
1551:Novatianism
1447:Manichaeism
1383:Anomoeanism
1368:Adoptionism
1283:Present-day
1270:Cisalpinism
1265:Josephinism
1255:Gallicanism
1154: [
994:Ingrao 2000
982:Ingrao 2000
919:Ingrao 2000
883:Ingrao 2000
859:Ingrao 2000
820:Beales 1987
808:Beales 2005
779:Gruber 1909
754:Kulturkampf
744:Gallicanism
421:Cisalpinism
411:Josephinism
399:Gallicanism
48:Josephinism
1900:Categories
1768:Anabaptism
1680:Josephines
1675:Impanation
1660:Henricians
1650:Fraticelli
1645:Dulcinians
1625:Bogomilism
1524:Modalistic
1519:Athinganoi
1499:Marcionism
1484:Iconoclasm
1472:Sethianism
1442:Gnosticism
1227:Nicodemite
1169:(Anglican)
1139:Historical
1003:References
702:Leopold II
654:crownlands
600:Regensburg
251:Patriarchs
25:Josephites
21:Josephines
1838:Mormonism
1833:Modernism
1818:Feeneyism
1800:Modernity
1778:Calvinism
1758:Pantheism
1748:Jansenism
1705:Taborites
1695:Pasagians
1690:Migetians
1665:Humiliati
1635:Catharism
1620:Arnoldism
1541:Montanism
1462:Naassenes
1432:Ebionites
1400:Audianism
1360:Antiquity
1250:Jansenism
1245:Modernism
1078:Joseph II
955:Okey 2002
943:Kann 1974
895:Okey 2002
871:Okey 2002
847:Okey 2002
832:Okey 2002
202:supremacy
36:Joseph II
1790:Quietism
1685:Lollardy
1670:Hussites
1509:Modalism
1437:Euchites
1410:Donatism
1405:Docetism
1378:Arianism
1012:(1990),
708:See also
214:Overview
96:Urbarium
88:Lombardy
1848:MaximĂłn
1467:Ophites
1427:Dualism
582:florins
84:Kaunitz
66:Origins
1189:(1560)
1160:, and
1048:
222:&
43:, 1775
1158:]
765:Notes
578:Curia
1351:list
1046:ISBN
204:and
163:and
74:and
630:".
598:at
39:by
1902::
1156:fr
1149:,
974:^
839:^
781:).
680:.
200:,
1353:)
1349:(
1339:e
1332:t
1325:v
1126:e
1119:t
1112:v
933:.
626:"
562:e
555:t
548:v
27:.
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