Ravensbrück concentration camp

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ironed, the message would appear. Cyż communicated this with her brother by referring to a children's book. It instructed him to look for a message using the first letter of every line. It spelled out: "list modem" which translates to "letter in urine". From there the women delivered intelligence about the medical experiments. In 1943, one of the many letters read "Further details of operations. Up to 16 January 1943, 70 people in total have been operated on. From this, 56 from the Lublin September transport, of which 36 were infection operations (without incision), 20 bone operations. ... In bone operations, each cut is reopened. Bones are operated on both legs or just one." and "We are worried that they will want to get rid of the ones who have been operated on as living proof. Bear in mind that in the course of 20 months about a quarter of all the Polish women from political transports have been shot. On 30 April, five more were shot under the guise of being sent to Oświęcim." Not only did they detail medical experiments but brothel work as well. These letters and their information made their way into the Polish Underground, the International Red Cross, the Vatican, and the Polish government-in-exile in London. Eventually, these letters would be used as evidence for the trials. These artifacts give records and witness accounts from Ravensbrück and are now being preserved.

1312: 910: 347: 1424: 1179: 1131: 2275:. "SS had no fabric for the production of new prison clothing. Instead, they drove truckloads of coats, dresses, underwear, and shoes that had once belonged to those gassed in the east, to Ravensbrück. / ... / The clothes of the people were sorted, and at first, crosses were cut out, and fabric of another color sewn underneath. The prisoners walked around as sheep marked for slaughter. The crosses would impede escape. Later they spared themselves this cumbersome procedure and painted with oil paint broad, white crosses on the coats." (translated from the Swedish edition: Margarete Buber-Neumann 1470:

Janina and Krystyna Iwańska, Wanda Wójtasik, and Krystyna Czyż were sent to Ravensbrück for their assistance of the Polish Underground. In 1942, medical experimentation was introduced and began with a group of 86 women, including the four letter-writers. As detailed in the letters, their legs were sliced open with glass or wood before the doctors introduced bacteria and test medicine. If the wounds did not heal, they later found out that it would result in execution. The four survived and lived to write the letters.

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largely punishable. In an interview done just after liberation in Sweden, Interview 420 describes: "The smallest infractions were elevated to the level of 'sabotage', which brought the highest possible sentences: whipping, the bunker, and even execution by shooting. For making toe-warmers with camp wool for her stockings in the winter, a prisoner would get 25 blows and two weeks in the bunker". Many of the items were made of spare bits of plastic, wood, or cloth.

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that had once been part of their urns. The urns had since broken down in the soil but the plaques still have the identities of those who were buried there. Previously in 1989, a mass grave was found by the cemetery accidentally. In more recent excavations, archaeologists have found human body parts that were never fully burned in cremation. Ravensbrück archaeology is hard to come by from the actual site itself, as most of its artifacts escaped with its survivors.

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transports to Ravensbrück. Its central exhibit is a refurbished goods wagon. The exhibition's information boards describe the origins of the transports and how they developed over time and explain the different types of trains, where they arrived, and the part played by the local residents. It is probably the only exhibition so far at a German memorial which is dedicated solely to the subject of the transports to the camp.

3612: 1067: 1059: 1207:. Some 2,500 ethnic German prisoners remaining were released, and 500 women were handed over to officials of the Swedish and Danish Red Cross shortly after the evacuation. On 30 April 1945, fewer than 3,500 malnourished and sickly prisoners were discovered alive at the camp when it was liberated by the Red Army. The survivors of the death march were liberated in the following hours by a Soviet scout unit. 921:) that identified her by category, with a letter sewn within the triangle indicating the prisoner's nationality. For example, Polish women wore red triangles, denoting a political prisoner, with a letter "P" (by 1942, Polish women became the largest national component at the camp). Soviet prisoners of war, and German and Austrian Communists, wore red triangles; common criminals wore green triangles; and 857: 1203:'s rapid approach in the spring of 1945, the SS leadership decided to remove as many prisoners as they could, in order to avoid leaving live witnesses behind who could testify as to what had occurred in the camp. At the end of March, the SS ordered all physically capable women to form a column and exit the camp in the direction of northern Mecklenburg, forcing over 24,500 prisoners on a 3624: 1394:. They were controlled by the Ministry of Culture and served as places of identification and legitimisation of the GDR. According to historian Anne-Kathleen Tillack-Graf the political instrumentalisation of these memorials, especially for the current needs of the GDR, became particularly clear during the major celebrations of the liberation of the concentration camps. 1292:. Up to his death in 1957, the artist created a large number of sculpted models of women. On 12 September 1959, the Ravensbrück National Memorial was inaugurated outside the former concentration camp on an area of 3.5 ha between the former camp wall and the shore of the Schwedtsee Lake. Rosa Thälmann, a former concentration camp inmate and widow of the politician 3652: 724:(January 1945 – March 1945). Regular Aufseherinnen were not usually granted access to the internees' compound unless they supervised inside work details. Most of the SS women met their prisoner work gangs at the gate each morning and returned them later in the day. The treatment by the female guards in Ravensbrück was normally brutal. Elfriede Muller, an 562: 570: 1457:

German influence. We had been too naïve and unsuspecting. Inseams, hems, and waistbands, many had with great effort and danger for life during internment in camp managed to save personal souvenirs and treasures. Now, when liberation was a fact, they lost these very last objects from their original lives.

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Ravensbrück was the main supplier of women for the brothels set up at many major Nazi camps toward the end of the war. Although women often volunteered for these positions, hoping they would be spared the most difficult physical labour and perhaps receive better rations, most in fact died quickly due

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in July 1942. Later the children in the camp represented almost all nations of Europe occupied by Germany. Between April and October 1944, their number increased considerably, consisting of two groups. One group was composed of Romani children brought into the camp with their mothers or sisters after

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Bundesarchiv Berlin, NS 19, No. 968, "Communication on the creation of the barracks for the Siemens & Halske, the planned production and the planned expansion for 2,500 prisoners 'after direct discussions with this company'": Economic and Administrative Main Office of the SS (WVHA), Oswald Pohl,

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Ravensbrück did not have its own burial site, so most of the bodies were kept nearby at the site of their cremation. In 2019, the archaeological remains of Polish women were found in the Fürstenberg cemetery. Nine urns and two plaques were discovered. Their ashes were found buried with metal plaques

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For the women in the camp, it was important to retain some of their dignity and sense of humanity. Therefore, they made necklaces, bracelets, and other personal items, like small dolls and books, as keepsakes. These personal effects were of great importance to the women and many of them risked their

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In 2017, 27 secret letters were gifted to the Museum of Martyrology in Lublin. These letters describe the camp in detail, including the doctors practicing medical experimentation. Concealed in the sofa of Krystyna Czyż, they spent decades hidden away until their donation. In September 1941, sisters

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The clothes one was to take care of proved to be dirty rags, infested with lice, which were according to Swedish standards too worn down to be worth cleaning. The consequence was that it was all burned. Many survivors protested, but few dared to say why. They dared not believe we were fully without

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They didn't shoot the women. We were to die of misery, hunger and exhaustion...when we arrived at Ravensbrück, it was the worst. The first thing I saw was a cart with all the dead piled on it. Their arms and legs hanging out, and mouths and eyes wide open. They reduced us to nothing. We didn't even

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In 1939 and 1940, camp living conditions were acceptable: laundry and bed linen were changed regularly and the food was adequate, although in the first winter of 1939/40, limitations began to be noticeable. The German Communist, Margarete Buber-Neumann, came to Ravensbrück as an inmate after nearly

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These were things secretly made in the camp. Prisoners could be punished if caught but many disregarded camp rules and continued to make art in secret, such as dolls for orphaned or lost children. Chances were not good for children at Ravensbrück. Many lost their mothers, and as a result lost what

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Many of these artifacts were lost once some of the survivors reached Sweden. Survivors kept them hidden in the waistbands and hems of their clothes. As the women were being cleaned, their clothes were burned. While the women showed hesitation in getting rid of their clothes, no one voiced why they

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On 16 and 17 April 2005, a ceremony was held to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the camp's liberation. Among those invited were approximately 600 survivors from all over the world, mostly eastern Europe. At the same time a new, permanent outdoor exhibition was opened, on the theme of the train

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was replaced by two new permanent exhibitions: "Women of Ravensbrück", which displays the biographies of 27 former prisoners, and "Ravensbrück. Topography and History of the Women's Concentration Camp", which provides information about the origins of the camp, describes daily life in the camp, and

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were labelled with lavender triangles. Prostitutes, Romani, homosexuals, and women who refused to marry were lumped together, with black triangles. Jewish women wore yellow triangles but sometimes, unlike the other prisoners, they wore a second triangle for the other categories. For example, quite

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Although the inmates came from every country in German-occupied Europe, the largest single national group in the camp were Polish. In the spring of 1941, the SS authorities established a small men's camp adjacent to the main camp. The male inmates built and managed the gas chambers for the camp in

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I looked across the great square, and could not believe my eyes. It was surrounded by manicured lawns, covered by flower beds on which bloomed bright red flowers. A wide street, which led to a large open area, was flanked by two rows of wooden barracks, on both sides stood rows of young trees and

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Some detainees had their hair shaved, such as those from Czechoslovakia and Poland, but other transports did not. In 1943, for instance, a group of Norwegian women came to the camp (Norwegians/Scandinavians were ranked by the Nazis as the purest of all Aryans). None of them had their hair shaved.

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Once a month, prisoners were allowed to write letters to their families. These messages were monitored by the guards. The women wrote a message in visible ink, and then in between the lines, they wrote in their own urine. This worked as a version of invisible ink. When held over a heat source or

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The creation of art or personal belongings in the camp was strictly prohibited. Despite this, there are still artifacts found today that display resistance. A sprig of the lily of the valley is a prime example. While only a piece of plastic, if caught could be considered an act of "sabotage" and

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Some of these women went on to serve as chief wardresses in other camps. Several dozen block overseers (Blockführerinnen), accompanied by dogs, SS men and whips oversaw the prisoners in their living quarters in Ravensbrück, at roll call and during food distribution. At any single time, a report

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along the roadside ran straight flower beds as far as the eye could see. The square and the streets seemed freshly raked. To the left towards the watchtower, I saw a white wooden barrack and beside it a large cage, the size of a birdhouse the like you see at a zoo. Within it paraded peacocks (

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Wanda Kiedrzy'nska, in National Library of Poland, Warsaw, Manuscript Division, Sign. AKC 12013/1 and archive of the memorial I/6-7-139 RA: see also: "Woman Ravensbruck concentration camp. An overall presentation", State Justice Administration in Ludwigsburg, IV ART 409-Z 39/59, April 1972,

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Karl-Heinz Roth: "Forced labor in the Siemens Group", with a summary table, page 157. See also Ursula Krause-Schmitt: "The road to Siemens stock led past the crematorium," pp. 36f, where, according to the catalogs of the International Tracing Service Arolsen and Martin Weinmann (eds.).

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One form of resistance was the secret education programmes organised by prisoners for their fellow inmates. All national groups had some sort of programme. The most extensive were among Polish women, wherein various high school-level classes were taught by experienced teachers.

287:, an estimated total of 5,000 women were imprisoned, who were fed gradually decreasing hunger rations. By the end of 1942, the inmate population of Ravensbrück had grown to about 10,000. The greatest number of prisoners at one time in Ravensbrück was probably about 45,000. 1166:

The bodies of those perished or killed in the camp were cremated in the nearby Fürstenberg crematorium until 1943 when SS authorities constructed a crematorium at a site near the camp prison. In January 1945, the SS also transformed a hut near the crematorium into a

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In January 1945, prior to the liberation of the remaining camp survivors, an estimated 45,000 female prisoners and over 5,000 male prisoners remained at Ravensbrück, including children and those transported from satellite camps only to be murdered in the

1356:) monument also has its origins in Lammert's models. Other statues, which were also originally created for Ravensbrück, have been on display at the Old Jewish Cemetery in Berlin Mitte since 1985, in commemoration of the Jewish victims of fascism. 2626: 1462:

little protection they did have. Many were medically experimented on or killed. Children on their own would not survive in the camp but women would step forward and behave as surrogate/adoptive mothers, making dolls and taking care of them.

1643:, p. 12 "Construction began in November 1938 using the slave labor of about five hundred male inmates from nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp. According to SS records, it was originally planned to hold three thousand female inmates." 708:

overseer (Rapportführerin) handled the roll calls and general discipline of the internees. Rosel Laurenzen originally served as head of the labour pool at the camp (Arbeitdienstführerin) along with her assistant Gertrud Schoeber. In 1944

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Besides the male Nazi administrators, the camp staff included over 150 female guards assigned to oversee the prisoners at some point during the camp's operational period. The technical term for a female guard in a Nazi camp was an

1103:, or "Rabbits" by the experimenters, five died as a result of the experiments, six with unhealed wounds were executed, and (with assistance from other inmates) the rest survived with permanent physical damage. Four such survivors— 1087:

drugs. These experiments involved deliberate cutting into and infecting of leg bones and muscles with virulent bacteria, cutting nerves, introducing substances like pieces of wood or glass into tissues, and fracturing bones.

553:, the former German Minister of Defense (1919–1920), stayed in Ravensbrück concentration camp after his arrest by the Gestapo in 1944. Later Noske was freed by advancing Allied troops from a Gestapo prison in Berlin. 527:, and of several deportations, hiding in homes and in the forest, undergoing torture, and witnessing murder in Ravensbrück before her final liberation. Approximately 500 women from Ravensbrück were transferred to 2872: 2765:(Social studies, H. 34), Opladen 1996, pp. 149–168; Wilfried Feldenkirchen: 1918–1945 Siemens, Munich 1995, Ulrike Fire, Claus Füllberg-Stolberg, Sylvia Kempe: "Work at Ravensbrück concentration camp", in 205:. More than 20,000 (15 percent) of the total were Jewish. Eighty-five percent were from other races and cultures. More than 80 percent were political prisoners. Many prisoners were employed as slave laborer by 296:, about 50,000 of them perished from disease, starvation, overwork and despair; some 2,200 were murdered in the gas chambers. On 29–30 April 1945, some 3,500 prisoners were still alive in the main camp. 1998: 512:, French painter and member of the French Resistance, painted works illustrating prisoners and the terrible conditions of the camps; these were recreations of works she had created while in the camps. 2101: 1263:. The trial and appeal took place from February to May 1950. The jury was composed of representatives from the French, Dutch and Luxembourg governments, presided by the chief justice officer of the 2546: 3557: 1083:

were conducted without consent on 86 women; 74 of them were Polish inmates. Two types of experiments were conducted on the Polish political prisoners. The first type tested the efficacy of

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Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung „Neues Deutschland“ über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen.

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Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung "Neues Deutschland" über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen

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Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung "Neues Deutschland" über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen

1999:"The Violence of Female Guards in Nazi Concentration Camps (1939-1945): Reflections on the Dynamics and Logics of Power | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network" 1267:. Several dozens of former prisoners were subpoenaed. Suhren and Pflaum were accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity. They were sentenced to death and executed on 12 June 1950. 1122:

in the camp in January 1945. All had been deceived into signing the consent form, having been told by the camp overseers that the German authorities would release them if they complied.

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Today, the former accommodation blocks for the female guards are a youth hostel and youth meeting center. In the course of the reorganization, which took place in the early 1990s, the

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The second set of experiments studied bone, muscle, and nerve regeneration, and the possibility of transplanting bones from one person to another. Out of the 74 Polish victims, called

3347: 1311: 3516: 2773:. German Resistance Study Group, Frankfurt / Main, 18 Jg, No. 37/38, Nov. 1993, pp. 38–46; Sigrid Jacobeit: "Working at Siemens in Ravensbrück", in Dietrich Eichholz (eds) 909: 2878: 1452:

were upset about it. They didn't yet trust the people taking care of them after all they had endured. Karin Landgren Blomqvist helped the survivors but regrets this detail:

2943: 874: 1580:, p. 24 "Between the camp's initiation of 18 May 1939 and the day of liberation, an estimated 117,000 of the 132,000 women who passed through the camp had been murdered". 346: 2813: 1731: 1158:

lives to keep these possessions. Some of these types of effects can be seen at the exhibition "Voices from Ravensbrück" (hosted by Lund University Library, Sweden).

1379:, which up to 1993 had been using parts of the former camp for military purposes, it became possible to incorporate more areas of the camp into the memorial site. 704:, 'overseer'. Ravensbrück also served as a training camp for over 4,000 female overseers. The women either stayed in the camp or eventually served in other camps. 3677: 2012: 1182:

Surviving female prisoners gathered when the Red Cross arrived at Ravensbrück in April 1945. The white paint camp crosses show they were prisoners, not civilians.

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and was unusual in that it was intended exclusively to hold female inmates. Ravensbrück first housed prisoners in May 1939, when the SS moved 900 women from the

3682: 1178: 985:(racial defilement) 0.78%, other 0.20%. The list is one of the most important documents, preserved in the last moments of the camp operation by members of the 2761:, No. 1/1991, pp. 12–24; Karl-Heinz Roth: "Forced labor in the Siemens Group (1938–1945). Facts, controversies, problems", in Hermann Kaienburg (ed.): 1423: 1130: 3094: 485:, also survived and is the subject of several biographies documenting her ordeals. Among the Communist survivors of the camp was French Resistance member 3697: 3511: 3239: 3692: 3089: 1171:, where they murdered several thousand prisoners before the camp's liberation in April 1945; in particular, they executed some 3,600 prisoners from the 1666: 951:), documenting 25,028 names of women sent by Nazis to the camp, it is estimated that the Ravensbrück prisoner population's ethnic structure comprised: 3462: 228:

in January 1945. Of the female prisoners who passed through the Ravensbrück camp, about 50,000 perished; some 2,200 were killed in the gas chambers.

3702: 3342: 1510: 3472: 3146: 1500: 478: 3658: 843:, an 84-year-old woman who had lived in San Francisco since 1959. It was discovered that she had been a guard at Ravensbrück from 1944 to 1945. 3141: 2936: 2486: 1515: 399: 2892: 1030:) and on a climbing tree dangled monkeys and a parrot which always screamed the same word, "Mama". I wondered, "this is a concentration camp"? 2822: 2748: 2713: 2695: 2635: 2470: 2433: 1808: 279:. Eight months after the start of World War II the camp's maximum capacity was already exceeded. It underwent major expansion following the 3383: 3296: 1954: 3640: 2246: 324:

was closed. The other group included mostly children who were brought with Polish mothers sent to Ravensbrück after the collapse of the

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Buber-Nuemann wrote how her first meal in Ravensbrück exceeded her expectations, when she was served sweet porridge with dried fruit (

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our comradeship, our loyalty, our humility, our courage, our generosity, the greatness of heart which has grown out of all this,

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But do not remember all the suffering they have inflicted on us; remember the fruits we have borne, thanks to this suffering:

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guards, and former prisoner-functionaries with administrative positions at the camp were arrested at the end of the war by the

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and tried at the Hamburg Ravensbrück trials from 1946 to 1948. Sixteen of the accused were found guilty of war crimes and

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Between 1939 and 1945, some 130,000 to 132,000 female prisoners passed through the Ravensbrück camp system. According to

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in the camp was so harsh that the prisoners nicknamed her "The Beast of Ravensbrück". Other guards in the camp included

717: 669: 447: 355: 321: 173:). The camp memorial's estimated figure of 132,000 women who were in the camp during the war includes about 48,500 from 2547:"Extraordinary story of secret 'letter-writing group' who used own URINE as invisible ink to reveal death camp horrors" 2016: 3395: 3194: 3101: 1920: 729: 979:

further categorised the inmates as: political 83.54%, anti-social 12.35%, criminal 2.02%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.11%,

508:, a Ravensbrück survivor from France who published her own eyewitness account of the camp in 1975. After liberation, 3070: 2769:, Bremen, 1994, pp. 55–69; Ursula Krause-Schmitt: "The path to the Siemens stock led past the crematorium", in 2038: 3602: 3206: 3053: 3012: 1080: 292: 210: 2083: 993:" (The Walls). The rest of the camp documents were burned by escaping SS overseers in pits or in the crematorium. 3400: 3218: 3211: 3082: 3058: 3007: 2166: 1150:. The SS also built several factories near Ravensbrück for the production of textiles and electrical components. 528: 474: 1605: 3117: 3077: 2952: 2867: 1119: 799: 157: 3457: 2216: 638: 1863: 1750: 1175:

for "deviant" girls and women, which was taken under the control of the Ravensbrück SS at the start of 1945.

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incarcerated in the camp or were born to imprisoned women. There were few children early on, including a few

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A monument to the French victims of Ravensbruck is one of the memorials to several concentration camps in

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which won France's Prix Verité in 1948. Other survivors who wrote memoirs about their experiences include

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See Carola Sachse: "Jewish forced labor and non-Jewish women and men at Siemens from 1940 to 1945", in

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Among the thousands executed at Ravensbrück were four members of the British World War II organization

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exclusively for women from 1939 to 1945, located in northern Germany, 90 km (56 mi) north of

2817:. in association with United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2653:

Ces Dames de Ravensbrück, Contribution au mémorial belge des femmes déportées à Ravensbrück, 1939-1945

469:, who was a prisoner in 1944 before being transferred to another work camp and escaping. Englishwoman 3494: 3301: 2808: 832: 683: 627: 592: 284: 170: 77: 60: 1021:. She described her first impressions of Ravensbrück in comparison to the Soviet camp in Karaganda: 242: 3577: 3521: 2723:. Erinnerungen an die Todesmärsche aus dem Frauen-Konzentrationslager Ravensbrück Ende April 1945. 2603:

The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries Who Assisted the SS in Running the Concentration Camp System

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took over this command. Other high ranking female guards included Christel Jankowsky, Ilse Göritz,

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Collection of testimonies concerning KL Ravensbrück in "Chronicles of Terror" testimony database

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When Ravensbrück was liberated a note was found on the body of a dead girl. It read as follows:

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All inmates were required to do heavy labor ranging from strenuous outdoor jobs to building the

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When a new prisoner arrived at Ravensbrück she was required to wear a colour-coded triangle (a

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The Brilliant Code Used by Concentration Camp Inmates to Tell the World About Nazi Experiments

2818: 2744: 2728: 2709: 2691: 2670: 2656: 2631: 2606: 2592: 2466: 2429: 2280: 2268: 2242: 2063: 1926: 1890: 1870: 1804: 1674: 1293: 1108: 1042: 786: 763: 418:. The largest single group of women executed at the camp were 200 young Polish members of the 387: 3552: 3279: 2868:"Voices from Ravensbrück – a unique collection of sources from the survivors of Ravensbrück" 2518: 2294: 1859: 1782: 741: 688: 632: 505: 268: 2241:(Kindle ed. by Farrar, Straus and Giroux ed.). New York City: Macmillan. p. 568. 1359: 3616: 3532: 3428: 3371: 3361: 2614: 840: 824: 816: 713: 544: 540: 536: 442: 434: 423: 395: 325: 2843: 2367: 1280:

On the site of the former concentration camp, there is a memorial. In 1954, the sculptor

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In 2005, Ravensbrück survivor Judith Sherman published a book of prose and poetry titled

411: 1732:"Remembering the Lesbians, Prostitutes, and Resisters of Ravensbrück Concentration Camp" 1490:

and when they come to judgement, let all the fruits we have borne be their forgiveness."

1481:"O Lord, remember, not only the men and women of good will, but also those of ill will. 3628: 3452: 1391: 709: 524: 492:

Maisie Renault, sister of Gilbert Renault, wrote about her captivity in Ravensbrück in

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Mostly female political prisoners, 48,500 Polish; 28,000 Soviet Union, 20,000-plus Jews

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Between 1942 and 1943, almost all Jewish women from the Ravensbrück camp were sent to

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There were children in the camp as well. At first, they arrived with mothers who were

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established a small adjacent camp for male inmates, who built and managed the camp's

202: 3376: 3327: 2838: 2613:. Source of the information on female guards, with the exceptions of Suze Arts and 1339: 1315: 1305: 1281: 1245: 721: 679: 661: 642: 610: 550: 470: 367: 359: 235: 182: 178: 89: 819:(January 1945 – April), with deputy wardress (Stellvertrende Oberaufseherin) 2681: 1049:, was a prisoner at Ravensbrück from 1943 to 1945. She described the conditions: 3337: 3274: 1520: 1376: 1330:

For the inaugural opening of the National Memorial site, a scaled-up version of

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of Ravensbrück", stands atop a stele on the peninsula in Lake Schwedtsee. The

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If This Is A Woman: Inside Ravensbruck: Hitler's Concentration Camp for Women

1678: 3588: 3388: 2487:"Remains of Polish women slaughtered in Nazi's Ravensbrück death camp found" 940: 790: 419: 391: 2921: 422:. A number of lesbians were imprisoned and murdered at the camp, including 461:, was imprisoned there from 1943 until 1945. SOE agents who survived were 2855:

Site created in conjunction with a group of Dutch survivors from the camp

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Memorial to Ravensbruck Concentration Camp, Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris

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used to poison the sick to avoid having to carry them to the gas chambers

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secretly, to Reichsführer SS (RFSS), Heinrich Himmler, dated 20.10.1942.

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Gesetzblatt der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik vom 4. September 1961

1874: 1147: 976: 964: 881: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 569: 438: 340: 194: 186: 64: 2561:"A prayer from a Jewish victim at Ravensbrück – St Thomas and St Bede" 1757:. Center for Holocaust & Genocide Studies: University of Minnesota 613:

from August 1942 until the camp's liberation at the end of April 1945

520: 451:, which was eventually produced as a motion picture. Polish Countess 316: 312: 276: 190: 174: 166: 261:

Construction of the camp began in November 1938 by the order of the

1667:"The hidden horrors of Ravensbrück, a concentration camp for women" 947:(cleansed of Jews). Based on the Nazis' incomplete transport list ( 2846:

from Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project: "Forget You Not"

1865:

Ravensbrück: An eyewitness account of a women's concentration camp

1436: 1422: 1358: 1342:) and exhibited. This central symbolic figure, also known as the " 1310: 1214: 1177: 1129: 1065: 1057: 1018: 1003: 995: 908: 568: 560: 441:, the Netherlands. She documented her ordeal alongside her sister 345: 241: 230: 2724: 2465:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 2–3, 88–91. 2414:

Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve, 1AJ/6339-6344.

3499: 1259:

were caught by the American troops in 1949 and were sent to the

990: 437:, arrested with her family for harbouring Jews in their home in 2925: 693:

around January 1945. He introduced the gas chamber in the camp.

335:

used for slave labour that were spread across an area from the

1869:

Transl. by Gerald Satterwhite. Anchor Press, 1975. 256 pages.

1054:

feel like we had the value of cattle. You worked and you died.

960: 850: 308: 197:, and thousands from other countries including a few from the 3634: 2854: 2849: 2775:

War and economy. Studies on German economic history 1939–1945

2706:

Trains to Ravensbrück. Transports by the Reichsbahn 1939–1945

2102:"The Secrets of the Second World War Comet Line are revealed" 1304:, it was the smallest of the three National Memorials of the 1038:), plus a generous portion of bread, margarine, and sausage. 943:

in several transports, following Nazi policy to make Germany

1988:

Centre des archives diplomatiques de La Courneuve, 1AJ/6340.

1154:

to sexual abuse and the rampant spread of venereal disease.

2784:

Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2012, ISBN 978-3-631-63678-7.

2320: 2318: 2316: 1368: 263: 221: 1537:

Across the Lake: A Novel of the Holocaust and Ravensbrück

1284:

was commissioned to design the memorial site between the

2767:

Women in Concentration Camps. Bergen-Belsen. Ravensbrück

2428:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 94. 2327:"Ravensbrück Concentration Camp: History & Overview" 1909:. Deutsches Historisches Museum. Retrieved 12 June 2013. 213:

on Ravensbrück prisoners to test the effectiveness of

3600: 1558: 1556: 2861:

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia

2763:

Concentration Camps and the German Economy 1939–1945

2339:

Sources: Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies;

2301:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. a 328:

of 1944. Most of these children died of starvation.

3570: 3483: 3440: 3320: 3267: 3227: 2959: 2167:"1933–1945: National Socialism and the war economy" 169:at a site near the village of Ravensbrück (part of 139: 131: 123: 115: 107: 99: 70: 56: 32: 2683:The Jewish Women of Ravensbrück Concentration Camp 2655:, Bruxelles, Archives générales du Royaume, 2024, 2396:. Cyber encyclopedia of Jewish history and culture 2329:. Cyber encyclopedia of Jewish history and culture 2265:Under Two Dictators. Prisoner of Stalin and Hitler 1000:Barracks on the grounds of the former women's camp 2839:"Medical Experiments Conducted on Polish Inmates" 2741:Black Earth. The Holocaust as History and Warning 831:In 1973, the United States government extradited 2665:Sherman, Judith, & Carrasco, Davíd. (2005). 1885:Sherman, Judith, & Carrasco, Davíd. (2005). 1404:Museum des antifaschistischen Widerstandskampfes 1373:Museum des antifaschistischen Widerstandskampfes 2669:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 2511:International Journal of Historical Archaeology 1889:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 1479: 531:, where they were assigned as labourers to the 433:Among the survivors of Ravensbrück was author 135:Unknown; 30,000 to 90,000 died or were killed. 2937: 2648:, Akademie der Künste, Berlin 1968. In German 2589:Remembering Ravensbrück. Holocaust to Healing 2239:Kl: a history of the Nazi concentration camps 2039:"Sweet lady surprise: Nazi prison-guard past" 1843:Fiorello's Sister: La Guardia's Gluck's Story 1219:The first Ravensbrück trial, 1947: sentencing 716:, and Elisabeth Kammer. Head wardress at the 539:devices for bombs, artillery ammunition, and 8: 2814:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 1849:(1961) ed.). Syracuse University Press. 1696: 1694: 1573: 1571: 1922:Vier Stückchen Brot: Ein Hymne an das Leben 1800:Queer in Europe during the Second World War 283:. By the summer of 1941 with the launch of 3487: 3240:SS Main Economic and Administrative Office 2944: 2930: 2922: 2299:Ravensbrück: Liberation and Postwar Trials 2084:"KZ Ravensbrück-Women Incarcerated-Part 2" 2037:Serrano, Richard A. (September 21, 2006). 519:. Sherman writes of her childhood home in 29: 27:Women's concentration camp in Nazi Germany 2796:, Frankfurt / Main 1990 and Feldkirchen: 2522: 2056:Buber-Neumann, Margarete (January 2008). 1070:Former telephone exchange and water plant 897:Learn how and when to remove this message 414:, wife of the Brazilian Communist leader 209:. From 1942 to 1945, the Nazis undertook 2844:"Ravensbrück Women's Concentration Camp" 1511:Holocaust memorial landscapes in Germany 1338:) was created (under the supervision of 481:in France, survived. Another SOE agent, 3647: 3607: 2759:International Scientific Correspondence 1955:"Sie waren Mörderinnen aus Gelegenheit" 1845:(New Expanded, originally published as 1601:"History and Overview of Ravensbruck," 1552: 1501:List of Nazi-German concentration camps 1296:, held the opening speech. Compared to 2725:Dr. Hildegard Hansche Stiftung Berlin. 2189: 1797:Schlagdenhauffen, Régis (2018-09-18). 1717: 1652: 1640: 1577: 1196:, which was being performed in haste. 1062:Camp (external view), with guard house 1045:, a young Belgian who worked with the 400:Princess Anne de Bauffremont-Courtenay 3678:Buildings and structures in Oberhavel 2500: 2498: 2496: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 617:The other male officers were : 156: 7: 3683:Medical experimentation on prisoners 2591:, Oegstgeest: Amsterdam Publishers. 2461:Tillack-Graf, Anne-Kathleen (2012). 2424:Tillack-Graf, Anne-Kathleen (2012). 2347:NY: Berkley Publishing Group, 1998; 1961:(in German). Die Hyäne von Auschwitz 1730:Tucker, Karen Iris (16 April 2015). 1589: 1562: 879:adding citations to reliable sources 802:(née Plaubel), with deputy wardress 1516:International Ravensbrück Committee 1953:Möller, Barbara (30 August 2014). 795:August 1943 – September 1944 604:from January 1940 till August 1942 25: 3698:World War II memorials in Germany 3583:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 2505:Rydén, Johanna Bergqvist (2018). 2368:"1945: Liberation and Rebuilding" 2355:; Simon Wiesenthal Center Online. 1776:Ozick, Cynthia (April 11, 2014). 1041:Conditions quickly deteriorated. 808:September 1944 – April 1945 585:Camp commandants included : 455:, an art historian and author of 3650: 3622: 3610: 3235:Concentration Camps Inspectorate 2719:Delia Müller, Madlen Lepschies: 2708:, Metropol Verlag, Berlin 2009, 2345:The Theory And Practice Of Hell. 2062:. Random House UK. p. 162. 1841:La Guardia Gluck, Gemma (2007). 1306:German Democratic Republic (GDR) 1079:Starting in the summer of 1942, 855: 785:October 1942 – August 1943 668:, bringing 8,000 prisoners from 257:List of prisoners of Ravensbrück 45: 3703:World War II museums in Germany 2721:Tage der Angst und der Hoffnung 2394:"Ravensbrück Trial (1946–1947)" 2392:Jewish Virtual Library (2014). 2325:Jewish Virtual Library (2014). 2293:Holocaust Encyclopedia (2014). 1919:Hollander-Lafon, Magda (2013). 1008:Site of the former women's camp 866:needs additional citations for 3693:Ravensbrück concentration camp 3637:Ravensbrück concentration camp 1187:The death march and liberation 1017:two years in a Russian Soviet 987:Polish underground girl guides 664:, arrived at Ravensbrück with 273:Lichtenburg concentration camp 1: 2850:Homepage Memorial Ravensbrück 2688:University of Wisconsin Press 2353:Encyclopedia of the Holocaust 1382:The three National Memorials 1371:headquarters have housed the 624:, chief of political section. 374:. Other victims included the 86:(January 1940 to August 1942) 3251:Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe 3245:German Earth and Stone Works 2780:Anne-Kathleen Tillack-Graf: 2680:Saidel, Rochelle G. (2006). 1708:. Retrieved 26 January 2015. 1419:Monuments outside of Germany 759:May 1939 – March 1942: 747:The female chief overseers ( 744:, and Margarethe de Hueber. 595:from May 1939 to August 1939 394:), Russian Orthodox nun St. 356:Special Operations Executive 3396:Disciplinary and Penal Code 2739:Snyder, Timothy D. (2015). 2295:"Liberation of Ravensbrück" 2277:Fånge hos Hitler och Stalin 730:Hermine Boettcher-Brueckner 500:, sister of New York Mayor 458:Michelangelo in Ravensbrück 220:In the spring of 1941, the 143:Soviet Union, 30 April 1945 92:(August 1942 to April 1945) 3719: 2646:Will Lammert – Ravensbrück 2171:siemens.com Global Website 2100:Shute, Joe (14 Mar 2013), 1778:"How Kafka Actually Lived" 1700:Michael Berenbaum (2015), 1665:Helm, Sarah (2015-03-14). 1506:Hamburg Ravensbrück trials 1407:explains the principle of 1398:After German reunification 1276:German Democratic Republic 1225:Hamburg Ravensbrück trials 1222: 254: 103:May 1939 – April 1945 3490: 3348:Identification of inmates 2630:. London: Little, Brown. 2524:10.1007/s10761-017-0433-2 2217:"Voices from Ravensbrück" 2013:"Simon Wiesenthal Archiv" 1905:"Biografie Gustav Noske" 1749:CHGS Exhibitions (2009). 1443:Archaeology and artifacts 839:. In 2006, they expelled 835:for trial in Germany for 658:, chief of labor section. 398:, the 25-year-old French 80:(May 1939 to August 1939) 44: 37: 2953:Nazi concentration camps 1925:. Verlag. pp. 95–. 1409:Vernichtung durch Arbeit 1244:Having fled to Bavaria, 1241:and sentenced to death. 1138:performing labor in 1939 1075:Nazi medical experiments 479:escape and evasion lines 386:(the only member of the 3558:Soviet prisoners of war 3290:SS construction brigade 2601:Brown, Daniel Patrick. 2372:The Holocaust Chronicle 2349:Encyclopædia Britannica 2262:Margarete Buber-Neumann 2221:Lund University Library 2108:, accessed 12 Oct 2019. 1825:Le Convoi du 24 janvier 1706:Encyclopædia Britannica 1603:Jewish Virtual Library, 1367:Since 1984, the former 1239:crimes against humanity 975:5.4%, other 12.4%. The 755:) in Ravensbrück were: 718:Uckermark death complex 565:Hans Pflaum (1910–1950) 384:Elisabeth de Rothschild 350:Ravensbrück crematorium 293:Encyclopædia Britannica 163:Nazi concentration camp 158:[ˌʁaːvn̩sˈbʁʏk] 3688:Museums in Brandenburg 2908:53.189000°N 13.17000°E 2147:encyclopedia.ushmm.org 2123:encyclopedia.ushmm.org 1622:encyclopedia.ushmm.org 1607:, accessed 31 Jan 2020 1492: 1459: 1433:Pere Lachaise Cemetery 1428: 1364: 1327: 1261:French occupation zone 1229:The SS guards, female 1220: 1183: 1139: 1071: 1063: 1056: 1032: 1009: 1001: 932:("racial pollution"). 914: 582: 566: 535:; the women assembled 498:Gemma La Guardia Gluck 475:Virginia d'Albert-Lake 351: 247: 239: 108:Number of gas chambers 3540:Sonder- und Ehrenhaft 3458:Schutzhaftlagerführer 2809:Megargee, Geoffrey P. 1803:. Council of Europe. 1755:Memories From My Home 1454: 1426: 1362: 1314: 1288:, the camp wall, and 1218: 1181: 1173:Uckermark police camp 1162:Murder in gas chamber 1133: 1069: 1061: 1051: 1023: 1007: 999: 912: 639:Schutzhaftlagerführer 572: 564: 453:Karolina Lanckoronska 349: 245: 234: 181:, almost 24,000 from 3495:Prisoner functionary 3302:Politische Abteilung 3257:SS-Totenkopfverbände 2794:The Nazi Camp System 2088:dachaukz.blogspot.se 1134:Female prisoners at 1114:Between 120 and 140 875:improve this article 833:Hermine Braunsteiner 772:March–October 1942: 285:Operation Barbarossa 207:Siemens & Halske 193:, almost 2,000 from 189:, nearly 8,000 from 3578:Der Ort des Terrors 3527:Political prisoners 3517:Jehovah's Witnesses 3142:Natzweiler-Struthof 2913:53.189000; 13.17000 2904: / 2235:Wachsmann, Nikolaus 2059:Under Two Dictators 1081:medical experiments 923:Jehovah's Witnesses 810:Chef Oberaufseherin 797:Chef Oberaufseherin 720:of Ravensbrück was 676:Johann Schwarzhuber 666:Johann Schwarzhuber 608:SS-Hauptsturmführer 599:SS-Hauptsturmführer 590:SS-Standartenführer 502:Fiorello La Guardia 416:Luís Carlos Prestes 331:Ravensbrück had 70 320:the Romani camp in 238:of Ravensbrück camp 211:medical experiments 2451:, Teil II, Nr. 61. 2281:Natur & Kultur 2001:. 3 December 2015. 1527:If This Is a Woman 1429: 1365: 1354:Two Women Standing 1328: 1318:, memorial statue 1221: 1211:Ravensbrück trials 1184: 1140: 1072: 1064: 1010: 1002: 915: 789:who returned from 781:Margarete Gallinat 766:and her assistant 583: 567: 510:Anna Garcin-Mayade 477:, both leaders of 352: 322:Auschwitz-Birkenau 281:invasion of Poland 248: 240: 177:, 28,000 from the 127:130,000 to 132,000 39:Concentration camp 3598: 3597: 3566: 3565: 3422:Arbeit macht frei 2824:978-0-253-35599-7 2798:Siemens 1918–1945 2750:978-1-101-90346-9 2714:978-3-940938-27-5 2704:Karolin Steinke: 2697:978-0-299-19864-0 2644:Marlies Lammert: 2637:978-1-4087-0107-2 2565:thomasandbede.com 2472:978-3-631-63678-7 2435:978-3-631-63678-7 2267:, Pimlico, 2008. 2043:Los Angeles Times 1823:Charlotte Delbo, 1810:978-92-871-8863-2 1751:"Satellite Camps" 1720:, pp. 3, 20. 1336:Woman with Burden 1324:Woman with Burden 926:often it was for 907: 906: 899: 815:, Lagerfuehrerin 787:Johanna Langefeld 764:Johanna Langefeld 753:Oberaufseherinnen 749:Lagerfuehrerinnen 593:Günther Tamaschke 581:"the Hyena", 1945 388:Rothschild family 171:Fürstenberg/Havel 147: 146: 124:Number of inmates 78:Günther Tamaschke 61:Fürstenberg/Havel 16:(Redirected from 3710: 3663: 3655: 3654: 3653: 3643: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3615: 3614: 3606: 3488: 3473:Luftwaffe guards 2946: 2939: 2932: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2914: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2828: 2754: 2701: 2641: 2575: 2574: 2572: 2571: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2526: 2502: 2491: 2490: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2439: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2389: 2383: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2343:. 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Crown. 2533:149174714 2400:6 January 2341:Holocaust 2333:6 January 2305:6 January 2223:. Sweden. 1938:4 January 1679:0319-0781 1590:Helm 2015 1563:Helm 2015 1111:in 1946. 1093:Kaninchen 945:Judenrein 941:Auschwitz 887:July 2016 791:Auschwitz 670:Auschwitz 547:rockets. 420:Home Army 392:Holocaust 333:sub-camps 251:Prisoners 3617:Politics 3417:Slogans 3384:Language 3228:Agencies 3212:subcamps 3200:subcamps 3195:Stutthof 3188:subcamps 3176:subcamps 3159:subcamps 3147:subcamps 3135:subcamps 3123:subcamps 3107:subcamps 3102:Majdanek 3095:subcamps 3083:subcamps 3071:subcamps 3059:subcamps 3048:subcamps 3037:subcamps 3025:subcamps 3013:subcamps 3001:subcamps 2989:subcamps 2977:subcamps 2624:(2015). 2237:(2015). 1959:Die Welt 1847:My Story 1831:188-189. 1495:See also 1332:Tragende 1320:Tragende 1201:Red Army 1036:backobst 201:and the 161:) was a 57:Location 3629:Germany 3603:Portals 3285:Subcamp 3207:Vaivara 3054:Hinzert 2884:Haaretz 1326:), 1959 1148:Siemens 1097:Króliki 977:Gestapo 967:15.0%, 965:Soviets 963:15.1%, 959:19.9%, 957:Germans 955:24.9%, 439:Haarlem 358:(SOE): 341:Bavaria 267:leader 195:Belgium 187:Austria 183:Germany 116:Inmates 65:Germany 3377:Yellow 3372:Purple 3352:Badges 3321:Topics 3307:Revier 3247:(DEST) 3219:Warsaw 3008:Dachau 2821: 2747: 2731: 2712: 2694: 2673: 2659: 2634: 2609: 2595: 2531: 2469: 2432: 2271: 2245: 2066: 1929: 1893: 1875:694486 1873: 1807: 1677: 1235:Allies 1101:Lapins 989:unit " 973:Romani 971:7.3%, 969:French 919:winkel 557:Guards 529:Dachau 521:Kurima 410:, and 317:Lidice 305:Romani 300:1944. 277:Saxony 191:France 175:Poland 167:Berlin 132:Killed 3659:Media 3357:Black 3118:Gusen 3078:Kauen 2863:entry 2529:S2CID 1736:Slate 1547:Notes 1437:Paris 1345:Pietà 1257:] 1118:were 1019:Gulag 953:Poles 691:] 656:] 635:] 313:Czech 3522:Jews 3500:Kapo 3367:Pink 3350:and 3116:and 2819:ISBN 2745:ISBN 2729:ISBN 2710:ISBN 2692:ISBN 2671:ISBN 2657:ISBN 2632:ISBN 2607:ISBN 2593:ISBN 2467:ISBN 2430:ISBN 2402:2015 2379:2014 2335:2015 2307:2015 2269:ISBN 2243:ISBN 2064:ISBN 1967:2021 1940:2015 1927:ISBN 1891:ISBN 1871:OCLC 1805:ISBN 1763:2015 1675:ISSN 1300:and 1248:and 991:Mury 961:Jews 751:and 543:and 465:and 426:and 378:nun 370:and 309:Jews 185:and 2519:doi 1530:by 1435:in 877:by 545:V-2 541:V-1 339:to 307:or 275:in 3674:: 3589:KL 2727:. 2690:. 2686:. 2605:, 2563:. 2527:. 2515:22 2513:. 2509:. 2495:^ 2370:. 2351:; 2337:. 2315:^ 2297:. 2219:. 2169:. 2145:. 2121:. 2104:, 2086:. 2041:. 1975:^ 1957:. 1862:, 1829:p. 1827:, 1780:. 1753:. 1734:. 1704:, 1693:^ 1673:. 1669:. 1620:. 1570:^ 1555:^ 1539:, 1439:. 1386:, 1369:SS 1308:. 1255:fr 1099:, 1095:, 740:, 736:, 732:, 689:de 654:fr 637:, 633:de 523:, 489:. 430:. 402:, 382:, 366:, 362:, 343:. 264:SS 222:SS 217:. 63:, 3645:: 3605:: 3362:P 2945:e 2938:t 2931:v 2827:. 2753:. 2735:. 2716:. 2700:. 2640:. 2617:. 2573:. 2549:. 2535:. 2521:: 2489:. 2475:. 2438:. 2404:. 2381:. 2309:. 2251:. 2205:. 2179:. 2155:. 2131:. 2072:. 2045:. 2026:. 1969:. 1942:. 1867:. 1813:. 1786:. 1765:. 1738:. 1687:. 1630:. 1352:( 1334:( 1322:( 900:) 894:( 889:) 885:( 871:. 672:. 645:. 152:( 111:1 20:)

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